1.
Mayfair
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Mayfair is an affluent area in the West End of London towards the east edge of Hyde Park, in the City of Westminster, between Oxford Street, Regent Street, Piccadilly and Park Lane. It is one of the most expensive districts in London and the world, the area around Mayfair was originally part of the manor of Eia and remained largely rural in nature until the early 18th century. It became well known for the annual May Fair that took place from 1686 to 1764 in what is now Shepherd Market, the fair attracted an unpleasant, downmarket element and gradually became a public nuisance. The Grosvenor family, later to become the Dukes of Westminster, acquired land through marriage, the work included three major squares – Hanover Square, Berkeley Square and Grosvenor Square, all of which were surrounded by luxury homes, and the church of St George Hanover Square. By the end of the 18th century, most of Mayfair was built on with prestigious housing to suit the upper class, unlike some nearby areas of London, it has never lost its affluent status. There remains a substantial quantity of luxury property, upmarket shops and restaurants. Mayfairs prestigious status has been commemorated by being the most expensive property square on the London Monopoly board. The Mayfair area is in the London Borough of Westminster and mainly consists of the estate of Grosvenor, along with the estates of Albemarle, Berkeley, Burlington. It is bordered on the west by Park Lane, north by Oxford Street, east by Regent Street, beyond the bounding roads, to the north is Marylebone, to the east, Soho and to the southwest, Knightsbridge and Belgravia. Mayfair is surrounded by parkland, both Hyde Park and Green Park run along its boundary, the 8-acre Grosvenor Square is roughly in the centre of Mayfair, and is the centrepiece of the area, containing numerous expensive and desirable properties. There has been speculation that the Romans settled in the area before establishing Londinium, the proposal has been disputed owing to lack of archaeological evidence. This area was known as the manor of Eia in the Domesday Book and it was subsequently given to the Abbey of Westminster, who owned it until 1536 when it was taken over by Henry VIII. Mayfair was mainly open fields until development started in the Shepherd Market area around 1686-8 to accommodate the May Fair that had moved from Haymarket in St Jamess because of overcrowding. There were some buildings before 1686 – a cottage in Stanhope Row, dating from 1618, a 17th century English Civil War fortification was established in what is now Mount Street in Mayfair, and known as Olivers Mount by the 18th century. The May Fair was held every year at Great Brookfield from 1 –14 May and it was established during the reign of Edward I, where the area beyond St. James was open fields. The fair was recorded as Saint Jamess fayer by Westminster in 1560 and it was postponed briefly in 1603 because of plague, but otherwise continued throughout the 17th century. In 1686, the moved to what is now Mayfair. By the 18th, it had attracted various showmen, jugglers and fencers, popular attractions included bare-knuckle fighting, semolina eating contests and womens foot racing
2.
Folkestone
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Folkestone /ˈfoʊkstən/ is a port town on the English Channel, in Kent, south-east England. The town lies on the edge of the North Downs at a valley between two cliffs. It was an important harbour and shipping port for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, there has been a settlement in this location since the Mesolithic era. A nunnery was founded by Eanswith, daughter of Æthelberht of Kent in the 7th century, the harbours use has diminished since the opening of the nearby Channel Tunnel and stopping of local ferry services, but still remains in active use. The area of Folkestone has been occupied since at least the Mesolithic era, in 2010, worked flints were discovered below the remains of the Folkestone Roman Villa. The East Cliff area was excavated in 1924 and most recently from 2010 -2011, on the East Cliff, an extensive Iron Age oppidum existed, which produced quern-stones on an almost industrial scale. These querns, or stones used for grinding cereals into flour, were traded for continental exports such as pottery, a modest Roman style villa was constructed over the Iron Age settlement sometime during the first century AD, followed by a more luxurious one in about 200 AD. The villa was abandoned sometime during the third or fourth century for unknown reasons, in 597 AD, monks led by St Augustine arrived at Ebbsfleet on the Isle of Thanet, on a mission from Pope Gregory to re-Christianise Britain. He was greeted by the Anglo Saxon pagan King of Kent, Ethelbert and his Christian Queen, Augustine was granted land in Canterbury where he built his church and outside the walls founded the monastery of St Peter & St Paul - now known as St Augustines. Ethelbert was succeeded as Anglo-Saxon king of Kent by his son Eadbald, in 630 AD, Eanswythe founded a nunnery on the site of her fathers castle near Folkestone by the present parish Church of St Mary & St Eanswythe. Eanswythe died c 640 AD and was made a saint. Her remains were moved into the chancel of the current church in the 12th century and they became the focus of prayer and pilgrimage such that Eanswythe was quickly adopted as the towns patron. The community grew and developed into a monastery until it was dissolved by Henry VIII and they were rediscovered in June 1885 when workmen, carrying out alterations to the high altar, found a battered lead casket immured in a niche in the north wall of the chancel. Examination by archaeologists at the time and again in 1981 confirmed that the casket was of Anglo-Saxon origin and these relics are still housed in the church close to where they were discovered in the north wall of the chancel flanked by a pair of small brass candlesticks. St Eanswythe is celebrated on 12 September each year - the date on which her relics were moved to the present chancel and she also appears on the towns seal with William Harvey, the Folkestone-born, 17th-century physician who discovered the circulation of the blood. A Norman knight held a Barony of Folkestone, which led to its entry as a part of the Cinque Ports in the thirteenth century, at the start of the Tudor period it had become a town in its own right. Wars with France meant that defences had to be built here, at the beginning of the 1800s a harbour was developed, but it was the coming of the railways in 1843 that would have the bigger impact. Until the 19th century Folkestone remained a fishing community with a seafront that was continually battered by storms
3.
Kent
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Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south west, the county also shares borders with Essex via the Dartford Crossing and the French department of Pas-de-Calais through the Channel Tunnel. France can be clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover. Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county, because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens, Kent is known as The Garden of England. The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place, behind North Yorkshire, Devon. Haulage, logistics, and tourism are industries, major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials, printing. Coal mining has played its part in Kents industrial heritage. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its transport connections to the capital. Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the North Downs and The High Weald, the area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era, There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning rim or border and this describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC, the extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730, the early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital, in 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity, the Diocese of Canterbury became Britains first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Englands centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral, in the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning undefeated. This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, the Kent peoples continued resistance against the Normans led to Kents designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of Williams half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales
4.
Order of the Garter
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The Most Noble Order of the Garter, founded in 1348, is the highest order of chivalry and the third most prestigious honour in England and the United Kingdom. It is dedicated to the image and arms of Saint George and it is awarded at the Sovereigns pleasure as a personal gift on recipients from the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. Membership of the Order is limited to the Sovereign, the Prince of Wales, the order also includes supernumerary knights and ladies. New appointments to the Order of the Garter are always announced on St Georges Day, the orders emblem is a garter with the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense in gold lettering. Members of the wear it on ceremonial occasions. King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter around the time of his claim to the French throne, the list includes Sir Sanchet DAbrichecourt, who died on 20 October 1345. Other dates from 1344 to 1351 have also been proposed, the Kings wardrobe account shows Garter habits first issued in the autumn of 1348. Also, its original statutes required that member of the Order already be a knight. The earliest written mention of the Order is found in Tirant lo Blanch and it was first published in 1490. This book devotes a chapter to the description of the origin of the Order of the Garter, at the time of its foundation, the Order consisted of King Edward III, together with 25 Founder Knights, listed in ascending order of stall number in St.1431. Various legends account for the origin of the Order, the most popular legend involves the Countess of Salisbury, whose garter is said to have slipped from her leg while she was dancing at a court ball at Calais. When the surrounding courtiers sniggered, the king picked it up and returned it to her, exclaiming, Honi soit qui mal y pense, King Edward supposedly recalled the event in the 14th century when he founded the Order. This story is recounted in a letter to the Annual Register in 1774, The motto in fact refers to Edwards claim to the French throne, the use of the garter as an emblem may have derived from straps used to fasten armour. Medieval scholars have pointed to a connection between the Order of the Garter and the Middle English poem, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, in Gawain, a girdle, very similar in its erotic undertones to the garter, plays a prominent role. A rough version of the Orders motto also appears in the text and it translates from Old French as Accursed be a cowardly and covetous heart. While the author of that poem remains disputed, there seems to be a connection between two of the top candidates and the Order of the Garter. Scholar J. P. Oakden has suggested that it is related to John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, and, more importantly. Another competing theory is that the work was written for Enguerrand de Coucy, the Sire de Coucy was married to King Edward IIIs daughter, Isabella, and was given admittance to the Order of the Garter on their wedding day
5.
Reform movement
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A reform movement is the kind of social movement that aims to make gradual change, or change in certain aspects of society, rather than rapid or fundamental changes. A reform movement is distinguished from more radical movements such as revolutionary movements. Reformists ideas are often grounded in liberalism, although they may be rooted in socialist or religious concepts, some rely on personal transformation, others rely on small collectives, such as Mahatma Gandhis spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as a mode of social change. Reactionary movements, which can arise against any of these, attempt to put back the way they were before any successes the new reform movement enjoyed. The Radical movement campaigned for reform, a reform of the Poor Laws, free trade, educational reform, postal reform, prison reform. Originally this movement sought to replace the political power of the aristocracy with a more democratic system empowering urban areas. Following the Enlightenments ideas, the Reformers looked to the Scientific Revolution, applied to public life, this approach yielded several successful campaigns for changes in social policy. Eventually, in 1859, this movement led to the formation of the Liberal Party. Soon, the gentry, prosperous business men, and high-ranking officials created the Conservative Party to counter the rising strength of liberalism in Parliament. Having achieved the Reform Act of 1832, the Radical alliance was broken until the Liberal-Labour alliance of the Edwardian period, the Chartist movement sought universal suffrage. A historian of the Chartist movement observed that The Chartist movement was essentially a movement with a purely political programme. A period of bad trade and high food prices set in, the London Working Mens Association, under the guidance of Francis Place, found itself in the midst of a great unrest. In the northern textile districts the Chartists, led by Feargus OConnor and this was basically a hunger revolt, springing from unemployment and despair. In Birmingham, the older Birmingham Political Union sprang to life under the leadership of Thomas Attwood, the Chartist movement demanded basic economic reforms, higher wages and better conditions of work, and a repeal of the obnoxious Poor Law Act. The idea of male suffrage, an initial goal of the Chartist movement, was to include all males as voters regardless of their social standing. This later evolved into a campaign for universal suffrage, many consider Mary Wollstonecrafts Vindication of the Rights of Woman to be the source of the reformers long-running campaign for feminist inclusion and the origin of the Womens Suffrage movement. Harriet Taylor was a significant influence on John Stuart Mills work and ideas, mill cites Taylors influence in his final revision of On Liberty, which was published shortly after her death, and she appears to be obliquely referenced in Mills The Subjection of Women. A militant campaign to include women in the electorate originated in Victorian times, emmeline Pankhursts husband, Richard Pankhurst, was a supporter of the womens suffrage movement, and had been the author of the Married Womens Property Acts of 1870 and 1882
6.
George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough
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George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough, KG, PC, FRS, styled Marquess of Blandford until 1758, was a British courtier, nobleman, and politician from the Spencer family. He served as Lord Chamberlain between 1762 and 1763 and as Lord Privy Seal between 1763 and 1765 and he was the brother of Lord Charles Spencer, Lady Diana Spencer and Lady Elizabeth Spencer. He was educated at Eton College, according to George III, who mentioned it to Fanny Burney, the Duke suffered from severe red-green colourblindness. As he was unable to tell scarlet from green, Fanny therefore remarked that this was unlucky for someone in possession of so sumptuous a home as Blenheim Palace. Marlborough entered the Coldstream Guards in 1755 as an Ensign, becoming a Captain with the 20th Regiment of Foot the following year, after inheriting the dukedom in 1758, Marlborough took his seat in the House of Lords in 1760, becoming Lord-Lieutenant of Oxfordshire in that same year. The following year, he bore the sceptre with the cross at the coronation of George III. In 1762, he was made Lord Chamberlain as well as a Privy Counsellor, and after a year resigned this appointment to become Lord Privy Seal, an amateur astronomer, he built a private observatory at his residence, Blenheim Palace. He kept up a scientific correspondence with Hans Count von Brühl. The Duke was made a Knight of the Garter in 1768, Lady Elizabeth Spencer, married her cousin John Spencer and had issue. George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough Lady Charlotte Spencer, married Rev. Edward Nares and had issue, Lord Henry John Spencer Lady Anne Spencer, married Cropley Ashley-Cooper, 6th Earl of Shaftesbury and had issue. Lady Amelia Spencer, married Henry Pytches Boyce, Lord Francis Almeric Spencer, created Baron Churchill in 1815. The Duchess of Marlborough died at Blenheim Palace in November 1811, the Duke of Marlborough died at Blenheim Palace in January 1817, aged 78, and was buried there. The Collected Correspondence of Baron Franz von Zach, Volume 3,2008
7.
Harrow School
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Harrow School /ˈhæroʊ/ is an independent boarding school for boys in Harrow, London, England. There is some evidence that there has been a school on the site since 1243, Harrow is one of the original nine public schools that were regulated by the Public Schools Act 1868. For the academic year 2016/17, Harrow charges boarders up to £12,450 per term, being the fourth most expensive boarding school in the Headmasters, the school has an enrolment of 805 boys spread across twelve boarding houses, all of whom board full-time. It remains one of four all-boys, full-boarding schools in Britain, harrows uniform includes straw hats, morning suits, top hats and canes. The school in its current form was founded in February 1572 under a Royal Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I to John Lyon, a wealthy local farmer. In the original charter, six governors were named, including two members of the Gerard family of Flambards, and two members of the Page family of Wembley and Sudbury Court. It was only after the death of Lyons wife in 1608 that the construction of the first school building began and it was completed in 1615 and remains to this day, however it is now much larger. Lyon died in 1592, leaving his assets to two causes, the lesser was the School, and by far the greater beneficiary was the maintenance of a road to London,10 miles away. The school owned and maintained road for many years following Lyons death. At first the subject taught was Latin, and the only sport was archery. Both subjects were compulsory, archery was dropped in 1771, although most boys were taught for free, their tuition paid for by Lyons endowment, there were a number of fee-paying foreigners. It was their presence that amplified the need for boarding facilities, by 1701 for every local there were two foreign pupils, these generated funds for the School as fees increased. It is now known as The John Lyon School and is a prominent independent school and it maintains close links with Harrow. The majority of the boarding houses were constructed in Victorian times. The 20th century saw the innovation of a dining hall. Presently there are about 800 boys boarding at Harrow, according to a 2009 article, the school has expanded overseas, opening additional schools in Beijing, China, Shanghai, China, Bangkok, Thailand, and New Territories, Hong Kong. Boys at Harrow have two uniforms, the photograph was placed on the front cover of the News Chronicle the next morning under the tagline Every picture tells a story. The picture was reproduced in other national publications and became
8.
Christ Church, Oxford
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Christ Church is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. The college is associated with Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, which serves as the college chapel and it is the second wealthiest Oxford college by financial endowment with an endowment of £436m as of 2015. Christ Church has produced thirteen British prime ministers, more than any other Oxbridge college, the college was the setting for parts of Evelyn Waughs Brideshead Revisited, as well as a small part of Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland. More recently it has used in the filming of the movies of J. K. Rowlings Harry Potter series. Distinctive features of the architecture have been used as models by a number of other academic institutions, including the National University of Ireland, Galway. The University of Chicago and Cornell University both have reproductions of Christ Churchs dining hall, christChurch Cathedral in New Zealand, after which the City of Christchurch is named, is itself named after Christ Church, Oxford. Stained glass windows in the cathedral and other buildings are by the Pre-Raphaelite William Morris group with designs by Edward Burne-Jones, Christ Church is also partly responsible for the creation of University College Reading, which later gained its own Royal Charter and became the University of Reading. The first female undergraduates matriculated at Christ Church in 1980 and he planned the establishment on a magnificent scale, but fell from grace in 1529, with the buildings only three-quarters complete, as they were to remain for 140 years. In 1531 the college was suppressed, but it was refounded in 1532 as King Henry VIIIs College by Henry VIII. Since the time of Queen Elizabeth I the college has also associated with Westminster School. The dean remains to this day an ex member of the schools governing body. Major additions have made to the buildings through the centuries. To this day the bell in the tower, Great Tom, is rung 101 times at 9 pm at the former Oxford time every night, in former times this was done at midnight, signalling the close of all college gates throughout Oxford. Since it took 20 minutes to ring the 101, Christ Church gates, unlike those of other colleges, when the ringing was moved back to 9,00 pm, Christ Church gates still remained open until 12.20,20 minutes later than any other college. Although the clock itself now shows GMT/BST, Christ Church still follows Oxford time in the timings of services in the cathedral, King Charles I made the Deanery his palace and held his Parliament in the Great Hall during the English Civil War. In the evening of 29 May 1645, during the siege of Oxford. During the Commonwealth, John Owen attained considerable eminence, the Visitor of Christ Church is the reigning British sovereign, and the Bishop of Oxford is unique among English bishops in not being the Visitor of his own cathedral. The head of the college is the Dean of Christ Church, There are a senior and a junior censor the former of whom is responsible for academic matters, the latter for undergraduate discipline
9.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
10.
Bleak House
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Bleak House is one of Charles Dickenss major novels, first published as a serial between March 1852 and September 1853. The novel has characters and several sub-plots, and the story is told partly by the novels heroine, Esther Summerson. At the centre of Bleak House is the legal case, Jarndyce and Jarndyce. Though the legal profession criticised Dickenss satire as exaggerated, this novel helped support a reform movement. There is some debate among scholars as to when Bleak House is set, the English legal historian Sir William Holdsworth sets the action in 1827, however, reference to preparation for the building of a railway in Chapter LV suggests the 1830s. Sir Leicester Dedlock and his wife Lady Honoria live on his estate at Chesney Wold, unknown to Sir Leicester, Lady Dedlock had a lover, Captain Hawdon, before she married – and had a daughter by him. Lady Dedlock believes her daughter is dead, the daughter, Esther, is in fact alive, and being raised by Miss Barbary, Lady Dedlocks sister. Esther does not know Miss Barbary is her aunt, after Miss Barbary dies, John Jarndyce becomes Esthers guardian and assigns the Chancery lawyer Conversation Kenge to take charge of her future. After attending school for six years, Esther moves in with him at Bleak House, Jarndyce simultaneously assumes custody of two other wards, Richard Carstone and Ada Clare. They are beneficiaries in one of the wills at issue in Jarndyce and Jarndyce, their guardian is a beneficiary under another will, and the two wills conflict. Richard and Ada soon fall in love, but though Mr Jarndyce does not oppose the match, Richard first tries a career in medicine, and Esther meets Allan Woodcourt, a physician, at the house of Richards tutor. When Richard mentions the prospect of gaining from the resolution of Jarndyce and Jarndyce, meanwhile, Lady Dedlock is also a beneficiary under one of the wills. Early in the book, while listening to the reading of an affidavit by the solicitor, Mr Tulkinghorn. The sight affects her so much she almost faints, which Tulkinghorn notices and investigates and he traces the copyist, a pauper known only as Nemo, in London. Lady Dedlock is also investigating, disguised as her maid, Mademoiselle Hortense and she pays Jo to take her to Nemos grave. Meanwhile, Tulkinghorn is concerned Lady Dedlocks secret could threaten the interests of Sir Leicester and he also enlists Inspector Bucket to run Jo out of town, so that there are no loose ends that might connect Nemo to the Dedlocks. Esther sees Lady Dedlock at church and talks with her later at Chesney Wold – though neither woman recognises their connection, later, Lady Dedlock does discover that Esther is her child. However Esther has become sick after nursing the homeless boy Jo, Lady Dedlock waits until she has recovered before telling her the truth
11.
Tories (British political party)
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The first Tories emerged in 1678 in England, when they opposed the Whig-supported Exclusion Bill which set out to disinherit the heir presumptive James, Duke of York. This party ceased to exist as a political entity in the early 1760s. A few decades later, a new Tory party would rise to establish a hold on government between 1783 and 1830, with William Pitt the Younger followed by Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool. When the Whigs subsequently regained control, the Representation of the People Act 1832 removed the rotten boroughs, in the following general election, the Tory ranks were reduced to 180 MPs. Under the leadership of Robert Peel, the Tamworth Manifesto was issued, however, Peel lost many of his supporters by repealing the Corn Laws, causing the party to break apart. One faction, led by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli, survived to become the modern Conservative Party and this action resulted from this parliament not allowing him to levy taxes without yielding to its terms. In the beginning of the Long Parliament, the Kings supporters were few in number, the increasing radicalism of the Parliamentary majority, however, estranged many reformers even in the Parliament itself and drove them to make common cause with the King. By the end of the 1640s, the radical Parliamentary programme had become clear, reduction of the King to a powerless figurehead, and replacement of Anglican episcopacy with a form of Presbyterianism. This prospective form of settlement was prevented by a coup détat which shifted power from Parliament itself to the Parliamentary New Model Army, the Army had King Charles I executed and for the next eleven years the British kingdoms operated under military dictatorship. Charles II also restored episcopacy in the Church of England and these acts did not reflect the Kings personal views and demonstrated the existence of a Royalist ideology beyond mere subservience to the Court. These interests would soon coalesce as the Whigs, as a political term, Tory entered English politics during the Exclusion Bill crisis of 1678–81. The Whigs were those who supported the exclusion of James, the Duke of York from the succession to thrones of Scotland and England & Ireland, and the Tories were those who opposed the Exclusion Bill. The Whigs tried to link the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Duke of Ormonde, with the foremost Irish Tory, Redmond OHanlon, in a supposed plot to murder Titus Oates. The Whig Bishop of Meath, Henry Jones, offered OHanlon a pardon and a bribe if he would testify to Parliament that Ormonde was plotting a French invasion. In December 1680, the government seized these letters and the plan collapsed. they call me names, Jesuit, Papish, Tory. I hear further since that this is the distinction they make instead of Cavalier and Roundhead, now they are called Torys, the rebellion of Monmouth, the candidate of the radical Whigs to succeed Charles II, was easily crushed and Monmouth himself executed. In the long run, however, Tory principles were to be severely compromised, James II, however, during his reign fought for a broadly tolerant religious settlement under which his co-religionists could prosper—a position anathema to conservative Anglicans. James attempts to use the church to promote policies that undermined the churchs own unique status in the state
12.
Rotten and pocket boroughs
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The same terms were used for similar boroughs represented in the 18th-century Parliament of Ireland. Old Sarum in Wiltshire was the most notorious pocket borough and it was a possession of the Pitt family from the mid-17th century until 1802, and one of its Members of Parliament was Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder. In 1802 the Pitt family sold it for £60,000, even though the land, a parliamentary borough was a town which was incorporated under a royal charter, giving it the right to send two elected burgesses as Members of Parliament to the House of Commons. As voting was by show of hands at a polling station at a single time. Often only one candidate would be nominated, so that the election was uncontested, many of these ancient boroughs elected two MPs. By the time of the 1831 general election, out of 406 elected members,152 were chosen by fewer than 100 voters each, the Ballot Act 1872 introduced the secret ballot, which greatly hindered patrons from controlling elections by preventing them from knowing how an elector had voted. At the same time, the practice of paying or entertaining voters was outlawed, the word rotten had the connotation of corruption as well as long-term decline. In such boroughs most or all of the few electors could not vote as they pleased, due to the lack of a secret ballot and their dependency on the owner of the borough. Only rarely were the views or personal character of a taken into consideration. Some had once been important places or had played a role in Englands history. Despite this dramatic loss of population, the borough of Old Sarum retained its right to elect two MPs. Commonly also they sold them for money or other favours, the peers who controlled such boroughs had an influence in Parliament as they themselves held seats in the House of Lords. This patronage was based on property rights which could be inherited and passed on to heirs, or else sold, one seat was controlled from the mid-17th century to 1832 by the Treby family of Plympton House. Bramber in West Sussex had 35 houses and 20 voters Callington in Cornwall had 225 houses and 42 voters and it was a pocket borough of the Rolle family of Heanton Satchville and Stevenstone in Devon. Trim in County Meath Before being awarded a peerage, Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, as there was no secret ballot until 1872, the landowner could evict electors who did not vote for the man he wanted. A common expression referring to such a situation was that Mr A had been elected on Lord Bs interest, some rich individuals controlled several boroughs, for example, the Duke of Newcastle is said to have had seven boroughs in his pocket. The representative of a borough was often the man who owned the land. Pocket boroughs were seen by their 19th-century owners as a method of ensuring the representation of the landed interest in the House of Commons
13.
George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough
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George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough FSA, styled Marquess of Blandford until 1817, was a British nobleman, politician, peer, and collector of antiquities and books. Spencer-Churchill was the eldest son of George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough, francis Spencer, 1st Baron Churchill, was his younger brother. He was later given the degree of Doctor of Laws from the University on 20 June 1792. Lord Blandford represented Oxfordshire in parliament as a Whig between 1790 and 1796 and Tregony as a Tory between 1802 and 1806, from 1804 to 1806 he served under William Pitt the Younger as a Lord of the Treasury. The latter year he was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration in his fathers barony of Spencer of Wormleighton, during this time, he lived in Berkshire, at Remenham and Hurst. From 1798, he resided at Whiteknights Park at Earley, near Reading and he was invested as a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries on 8 December 1803. Although the Marquess was born and baptised with the name of George Spencer, soon after succeeding to the Dukedom of Marlborough and this illustrious name did not, however, save him from his mounting debts and his estates were seized and his collections sold. He retired to Blenheim Palace where he lived the remainder of his life off a small annuity granted to the first Duke by Queen Anne, the present Duke is overloaded with debt, is very little better than a common swindler and lets everything about Blenheim. People may shoot and fish at so much per hour and it has required all the authority of a Court of Chancery to prevent his cutting down all the trees in the park. Marlborough married Lady Susan Stewart, daughter of John Stewart, 7th Earl of Galloway and they had four children, George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough Lord Charles Spencer-Churchill, married Ethelred Catherine Benett and had issue. Reverend Lord George Henry Spencer-Churchill, married Elizabeth Martha Nares, died and buried in Macao 2 June 1840, whilst as Captain of HBM Ship Druid. Winston Churchill was the dukes great-great-grandson and his eldest son George, Marquess of Blandford, succeeded in the title. The Duchess of Marlborough died at Park Lane, Mayfair, London, in April 1841, aged 73
14.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
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His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 put him in the top rank of Britains military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and he was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons and he was a colonel by 1796, and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, following Napoleons exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the army which defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellesleys battle record is exemplary, he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, after ending his active military career, Wellington returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as part of the Tory party, from 1828 to 1830 and he oversaw the passage of the Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the figures in the House of Lords until his retirement. As such, he belonged to the Protestant Ascendancy and his biographers mostly follow the contemporary newspaper evidence in saying that he was born 1 May 1769, the day that he was baptised. He was most likely born at his parents townhouse,24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, but his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. He spent most of his childhood at his familys two homes, the first a house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle,3 miles north of Summerhill on the Trim Road in County Meath. In 1781, Arthurs father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his fathers earldom and he went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whytes Academy when in Dublin, and Browns School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton, where he studied from 1781 to 1784, moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of funds due to his fathers death, forced the young Wellesley. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew concerned at his idleness, stating. A year later, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement
15.
George Canning
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The son of an actress and a failed businessman and lawyer, Canning was supported financially by his uncle Stratford, allowing him to attend Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford. Canning entered politics in 1793 and rose rapidly and he was Paymaster of the Forces and Treasurer of the Navy under William Pitt the Younger. Canning was Foreign Secretary under the Duke of Portland, who was ill, Canning was the dominant figure in the cabinet and directed the seizure of the Danish fleet in 1807 to assure Britains naval supremacy over Napoleon. In 1809, he was wounded in a duel with his foe Lord Castlereagh and was thereafter passed over as a successor to the Duke of Portland in favour of Spencer Perceval. He remained out of office until after Perceval was assassinated in 1812. The King disliked Canning and there were efforts to frustrate his foreign policies, Canning, however, successfully built wide public support for his policies. His policies ensured a major trading advantage to British merchants and supported the Americans Monroe Doctrine, Canning was the arch-enemy of the Concert of Europe system set up by the conservative powers at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Hayes says that in terms of foreign affairs, His most important achievements was the destruction of the system of the neo-Holy Alliance which, if unchallenged and they both declined to serve under Canning and the Tories split between Peel and Wellingtons Ultra-Tories and the Canningites. Canning then invited several Whigs to join his cabinet, however, his health collapsed and he died in office in August 1827, after just 119 days in office, the shortest tenure of any British Prime Minister. Canning was born into an Anglo-Irish family at his parents home in Queen Anne Street, Marylebone, Canning described himself as an Irishman born in London. His father, George Canning, Sr. George Sr. eventually abandoned the family and died in poverty on 11 April 1771, his sons first birthday, Cannings mother, Mary Anne Costello, took work as a stage actress, a profession not considered respectable at the time. Indeed, when in 1827 it looked as if Canning would become Prime Minister, Lord Grey remarked that the son of an actress is, ipso facto, disqualified from becoming Prime Minister. Because Canning showed unusual intelligence and promise at an age, family friends persuaded his uncle, London merchant Stratford Canning. George Canning grew up with his cousins at the home of his uncle, who provided him with an income, Stratford Cannings financial support allowed the young Canning to study at Hyde Abbey School, Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford. Canning came out top of the school at Eton and left at the age of seventeen and his time at Eton has been described as a triumph almost without parallel. He proved a brilliant classicist, came top of the school, Canning struck up friendships with the future Lord Liverpool as well as with Granville Leveson-Gower and John Hookham Frere. In 1789 he won a prize for his Latin poem The Pilgrimage to Mecca which he recited in Oxford Theatre, Canning began practising law after receiving his BA from Oxford in the summer of 1791, but he wished to enter politics. Stratford Canning was a Whig and would introduce his nephew in the 1780s to prominent Whigs such as Charles James Fox, Edmund Burke, George Cannings friendship with Sheridan would last for the remainder of Sheridans life
16.
Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool
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Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, KG, PC, FRS was an English politician and both the youngest and longest-serving Prime Minister since 1806. As Prime Minister, Liverpool called for repressive measures at domestic level to maintain order after the riots of 1819 and he dealt smoothly with the Prince Regent when King George III was incapacitated. He also steered the country through the period of radicalism and unrest that followed the Napoleonic Wars and he favoured commercial and manufacturing interests as well as the landed interest. He sought a compromise of the issue of Catholic emancipation. The revival of the economy strengthened his political position, by the 1820s he was the leader of a reform faction of Liberal Tories who lowered the tariff, abolished the death penalty for many offences, and reformed the criminal law. By the time of his death in office, however, the Tory Party was ripping itself apart. Jenkinson was baptised on 29 June 1770 at St. Margarets, Westminster, the son of George IIIs close adviser Charles Jenkinson, later the first Earl of Liverpool, and his first wife, Amelia Watts. Jenkinsons 19-year-old mother, who was the daughter of a senior East India Company official William Watts, Jenkinson was educated at Charterhouse School and Christ Church, Oxford. In the summer of 1789, Jenkinson spent four months in Paris to perfect his French and he returned to Oxford for three months to complete his terms of residence and in May 1790 was created master of arts. This tour took in the Netherlands and Italy, whereby he was old enough to take his seat in Parliament. It is not clear exactly when he entered the Commons, but as his twenty-first birthday was not reached until almost the end of the 1791 session, with the help of his fathers influence and his political talent, he rose relatively fast in the Tory government. In February 1792, he gave the reply to Samuel Whitbreads critical motion on the governments Russian policy and he delivered several other speeches during the session, including one against the abolition of the slave trade, which reflected his fathers strong opposition to William Wilberforces campaign. He served as a member of the Board of Control for India from 1793 to 1796, in the defence movement that followed the outbreak of hostilities with France, Jenkinson, was one of the first of the ministers of the government to enlist in the militia. In 1794 he became a Colonel in the Cinque Ports Fencibles, in 1796 his regiment was sent to Scotland and he was quartered for a time in Dumfries. It was reported that His lordship was blamed for remaining at Haddington and he was appointed a Colonel of militia in 1810. His parliamentary attendance also suffered from his reaction when his father opposed his projected marriage with Lady Louisa Hervey. After Pitt and the King had intervened on his behalf, the wedding took place at Wimbledon on 25 March 1795. In May 1796, when his father was created Earl of Liverpool, he took the title of Lord Hawkesbury
17.
History of psychiatric institutions
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The rise of the lunatic asylum and its gradual transformation into, and eventual replacement by, the modern psychiatric hospital, explains the rise of organized, institutional psychiatry. This growth coincided with the development of alienism, now known as psychiatry, in the Islamic world, the Bimaristans were described by European travelers, who wrote about their wonder at the care and kindness shown to lunatics. In 872, Ahmad ibn Tulun built a hospital in Cairo that provided care to the insane, in Europe during the medieval era, the small subsection of the population of the mad who were housed in institutional settings were held in a variety of settings. Porter gives examples of such locales where some of the insane were cared for, a few towns had towers where madmen were kept. Dave Sheppards Development of Mental Health Law and Practice begins in 1285 with a case that linked the instigation of the devil with being frantic and mad. In Spain, other institutions for the insane were established after the Christian Reconquista, facilities included hospitals in Valencia, Zaragoza, Seville, Barcelona. In London, England, The Priory of Saint Mary of Bethlehem, at the start of the fifteenth century, it housed six insane men. The level of specialist institutional provision for the care and control of the insane remained extremely limited at the turn of the 18th century, madness was seen principally as a domestic problem, with families and parish authorities in Europe and England central to regimens of care. In the late 17th century, this began to change. Inmates who were deemed dangerous or disturbing were chained, but Bethlem was an open building. Its inhabitants could roam around its confines and possibly throughout the neighborhood in which the hospital was situated. In 1676, Bethlem expanded into newly built premises at Moorfields with a capacity for 100 inmates, A second public institution was opened in 1713. It was a facility which generally housed between twenty and thirty inmates. In 1728 at Guys Hospital, London, wards were established for chronic lunatics, a similar expansion took place in the British American colonies. The Pennsylvania Hospital was founded in Philadelphia in 1751 as a result of work begun in 1709 by the Religious Society of Friends, a portion of this hospital was set apart for the mentally ill, and the first patients were admitted in 1752. Virginia is recognized as the first state to establish an institution for the mentally ill, references to such institutions are limited for the seventeenth-century but it is evident that by the start of the eighteenth-century, the so-called trade in lunacy was well established. Daniel Defoe, an ardent critic of private madhouses, estimated in 1724 that there were fifteen then operating in the London area, Defoe may have exaggerated but exact figures for private metropolitan madhouses are available only from 1774, when licensing legislation was introduced, sixteen institutions were recorded. At least two of these, Hoxton House and Woods Close, Clerkenwell, had been in operation since the seventeenth century, by 1807, the number had increased to seventeen
18.
Bethnal Green
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Bethnal Green is a district mostly in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets and partly in the London Borough of Hackney. Located 3.3 miles northeast of Charing Cross, it was historically a hamlet in the ancient parish of Stepney, the parish became the Metropolitan Borough of Bethnal Green in 1900 and the population peaked in 1901, entering a period of steady decline which lasted until 1981. Some 173 people were killed at an incident at Bethnal Green tube station in 1943. Bethnal Green has formed part of Greater London since 1965, the place-name Blithehale or Blythenhale, the earliest form of Bethnal Green, is derived from the Anglo-Saxon healh and blithe, or from a personal name Blitha. Nearby Cambridge Heath, is unconnected with Cambridge and may derive from an Anglo-Saxon personal name. The area was marshland and forest which, as Bishopswood. Over time, the name became Bethan Hall Green, which, a Tudor ballad, the Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green, tells the story of an ostensibly poor man who gave a surprisingly generous dowry for his daughters wedding. The tale furnishes the parish of Bethnal Greens coat of arms, the Blind Beggar public house in Whitechapel is reputed to be the site of his begging. Boxing has an association with Bethnal Green. Daniel Mendoza, who was champion of England from 1792 to 1795 though born in Aldgate, since then numerous boxers have been associated with the area, and the local leisure centre, York Hall, remains notable for presentation of boxing bouts. He was a capable pastoral visitor and established a parochial school, after examining the text of the sermon, the Bishop of London condemned it as containing erroneous and dangerous notions. As a result, the bishop sent Woodard to be a curate in Clapton, the Green and Poors Land is the area of open land now occupied by Bethnal Green Library, the V&A Museum of Childhood and St Johns Church, designed by John Soane. In Stows Survey of London the hamlet was called Blethenal Green and it was one of the hamlets included in the Manor of Stepney and Hackney. From that date, the trust has administered the land and its books are kept in the London Metropolitan Archives. Bethnal House, or Kirbys Castle, was the house on the Green. One of its owners was Sir Hugh Platt, author of books on gardening, under its next owner it was visited by Samuel Pepys. In 1727 it was leased to Matthew Wright and for almost two centuries it was an asylum and its two most distinguished inmates were Alexander Cruden, compiler of the Concordance to the Bible, and the poet Christopher Smart. Cruden recorded his experience in The London Citizen Grievously Injured and Smarts stay there is recorded by his daughter, records of the asylum are kept in the annual reports of the Commissioner in Lunacy
19.
George Frederic Watts
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George Frederic Watts OM RA was an English Victorian painter and sculptor associated with the Symbolist movement. He said I paint ideas, not things, Watts became famous in his lifetime for his allegorical works, such as Hope and Love and Life. These paintings were intended to form part of an epic symbolic cycle called the House of Life, Watts was born in Marylebone, London on the birthday of George Frederic Handel, to the second wife of a poor piano-maker. The former put him off conventional religion for life, while the latter was an influence on his art. He first exhibited at the Academy in 1837 and he also began his portraiture career, receiving patronage from his close contemporary Alexander Constantine Ionides, who later came to be a close friend. He came to the eye with a drawing entitled Caractacus. Watts won a first prize in the competition, which was intended to promote narrative paintings on patriotic subjects, also while in Italy Watts began producing landscapes and was inspired by Michelangelos Sistine Chapel and Giottos Scrovegni Chapel. Leaving Florence in April 1847 for what was intended to be a return to London. In consequence most of his works are conventional oil paintings. In his studio he met Henry Thoby Prinsep and his wife Sara, Watts thus joined the Prinsep circle of bohemians, including Saras seven sisters, and Julia Margaret Cameron. One of only two pupils Watts ever accepted was Henrys son Valentine Cameron Prinsep, the other was John Roddam Spencer Stanhope – both remained friends, but neither became a major artist. He also took a trip back to Italy in 1853 and with Charles Thomas Newton to excavate Halicarnassus in 1856–57, via Constantinople. In the 1860s, Watts work shows the influence of Rossetti, often emphasising sensuous pleasure, when she eloped with another man after less than a year of marriage, Watts was obliged to divorce her. These works formed part of a version of the House of Life, influenced by the ideas of Max Müller. Watts hoped to trace the evolving mythologies of the races in a synthesis of spiritual ideas with modern science. To maintain his friendship with the Prinsep family as their children began leaving home, he built The Briary for them near Freshwater, in 1877, his decree nisi from Ellen Terry finally came through, and the Grosvenor Gallery was opened by his friend Coutts Lindsay. This was to prove his ideal venue for the ten years. In 1886, at the age of 69, Watts remarried, to Mary Fraser Tytler, in 1891 he bought land near Compton, south of Guildford, in Surrey
20.
Squatting position
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The rump or croup, in the external morphology of an animal, is the portion of the posterior dorsum that is posterior to the loins and anterior to the tail. Anatomically, the rump corresponds to the sacrum, the tailhead or dock is the beginning of the tail, where the tail joins the rump. It is known also as the base or root of the tail, in some mammals the tail may be said to consist of the tailbone and the skirt. In birds, similarly, the tail consists of tailbone and tailfan, some animals are subjected to docking, the amputation of the tailbone at or near the dock. These include dogs, cats, sheep, pigs, and horses, humans have a remnant tail, the coccyx, and the human equivalent of docking is coccygectomy. Usage varies from animal to animal, birds and cattle are said to have a rump and tailhead. Dogs are said to have a rump and dock, horses are said to have a croup, thigh or haunch, buttock, and dock. In bird anatomy, the rump is the body immediately above the tail, the color of plumage on the rump is a characteristic widely used by ornithologists to distinguish between related species, and sometimes also between males and females of the same species. Similarly, the silhouette of the tailfan is a widely used for purposes of identification. Some birds have a food reservoir pouch in the esophagus that is known as a croup, in some breeds it is traditional for tails to be cut off at the dock. Below the croup is the thigh or haunch, behind the thigh is the buttock. Applied to horses, the dock has two additional uses. Its meaning may be extended to either the entire tail minus the skirt or the tailhead only, in other equidae, it encompasses most of the tailbone, as most of that portion of the tail does not have long hairs. A lack of long hairs can be natural, as in zebras, donkeys, and the Przewalski horse, or artificial, the result of pulling, trimming, or shaving part of the skirt. A sponge used to wash the skin on the underside of the dock and other regions under the tail
21.
Factory Acts
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The Factory Acts were a series of UK labour law Acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom to regulate the conditions of industrial employment. The regulation of working hours was extended to women by an Act of 1844. An Act in 1847 met a long- standing demand by the millworkers for a ten-hour day, the Factory Acts also sought to ameliorate the conditions under which mill-children worked with requirements on ventilation, sanitation, and guarding of machinery. The range of Factory Legislation has, in fact, in one country or another, no class of manual-working wage-earners, no item in the wage-contract, no age, no sex, no trade or occupation, is now beyond its scope. This part, at any rate, of Robert Owens social philosophy has commended itself to the judgment of the civilised world. Of all the nineteenth century inventions in social organisation, Factory Legislation is the most widely diffused and he also commented on the gradual way this transformation had been achieved The merely empirical suggestions of Dr. This century of experiment in Factory Legislation affords an example of English practical empiricism. We began with no theory of social justice or the rights of man. We seem always to have been incapable even of taking a view of the subject we were legislating upon. Each successive statute aimed at remedying a single ascertained evil and that this purely empirical method of dealing with industrial evils made progress slow is scarcely an objection to it. With the nineteenth century House of Commons no other method would have secured any progress at all, although the Act included some hygiene requirements for all textile mills, it was largely concerned with the employment of apprentices, it left the employment of free children unregulated. It allowed local magistrates to enforce compliance with its requirements, as the first attempt to improve the lot of factory children, it is often seen as paving the way for future Factory Acts. Under the Act, regulations and rules came into force on 2 December 1802 and applied to all textile mills, the buildings must have sufficient windows and openings for ventilation, and should be cleaned at least twice yearly with quicklime and water, this included ceilings and walls. Each apprentice was to be two sets of clothing, suitable linen, stockings, hats, and shoes, and a new set each year thereafter. Apprentices could not work during the night, and their working hours could not exceed 12 hours a day, a grace period was provided to allow factories time to adjust, but all night-time working by apprentices was to be discontinued by June 1804. All apprentices were to be educated in reading, writing and arithmetic for the first four years of their apprenticeship, the Act specified that this should be done every working day within usual working hours but did not state how much time should be set aside for it. Educational classes should be held in a part of the mill or factory designed for the purpose and they should be prepared for confirmation in the Church of England between the ages of 14 and 18 and must be examined by a clergyman at least once a year. Male and female apprentices were to sleep separately and not more than two per bed, the visitors had the power to impose fines for non-compliance and the authority to visit at any time of the day to inspect the premises
22.
William Dodd (writer)
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William Dodd was a man who came to notice when he described his work and growing disability as a child worker. He was employed and sacked by Lord Ashley after writing about child workers in the textile industry and he wrote one more book on a related subject that was written and published in America. Dodd was born in 1804 in Kendal and by the age of five he was at work, Dodd said that he came from a family that was well remunerated but that he had fallen down the class structure when he started work. Dodd came to notice in 1840 when he published with the support of the social reformer Lord Ashley a book described his own. He described how they all worked in a factory and sometimes they would work for 18 hours per day. Dodd was able to write the book as he had learnt to write at evening classes whilst working in Kendal and it was his job at that time to check the ages of young children who were employed at Isaac and William Wilsons textile mill. His first use of his literacy was to become a clerk at the same mill, in 1837 Dodd briefly started his own school where he passed on his skills in the three Rs, od reading writing and arithmetic. School teaching was meant to suit his increasing disability but he lost the rooms that he was renting, Dodds disability meant that he said that he was unable to find a wife and he resolved to abandon the idea of marriage and he moved to London. In London he worked as a clerk and whilst doing a number of jobs he had his arm amputated and he decided to write his autobiography. The text of A Narrative of the Experience and Sufferings of William Dodd a Factory Cripple was sent to Lord Ashley, who was known for his interest in child labour. Ashley was a member of parliament and he had campaigned for children to be restricted to a ten-hour day. His motion was defeated but it led to the 1833 Factory Act which created an age of nine for working in a textile factory. Ashley employed Dodd and he wrote The Factory System, Illustrated to describe the conditions of working children in textile manufacture which was published in 1842 and these books and Dodd were attacked by John Bright in a parliamentary committee on the Factories Bill on 15 March 1844. Bright said that he had evidence that the books describing Dodds mistreatment were in fact created by Dodds ingratitude as a disgruntled employee. Moreover, he had evidence that Dodd had reported that Lord Ashley was only using him because he was an example of a cripple damaged by work in the textile industry. Ashley sacked Dodd who emigrated to America where he wrote The Laboring Classes of England which was published in Boston in 1847 and it is not known where Dodd lived or died after this date
23.
John Bright
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John Bright, Quaker, was a British Radical and Liberal statesman, one of the greatest orators of his generation and a promoter of free trade policies. He is most famous for battling the Corn Laws, the Corn Laws were repealed in 1846. Bright also worked with Cobden in another free trade initiative, the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty of 1860 and this campaign was conducted in collaboration with French economist Michel Chevalier, and succeeded despite Parliaments endemic mistrust of the French. Bright sat in the House of Commons from 1843 to 1889, promoting trade, electoral reform. He was almost a lone voice in opposing the Crimean War and he was a spokesman for the middle class, and strongly opposed to the privileges of the landed aristocracy. In terms of Ireland, he sought to end the privileges of Anglicans, disestablished the Church of Ireland. He coined the phrase Mother of Parliaments, Bright was born at Greenbank, Rochdale, in Lancashire, England – one of the early centres of the Industrial Revolution. His father, Jacob Bright, was a much-respected Quaker, who had started a mill at Rochdale in 1809. Jacobs father, Abraham, was a Wiltshire yeoman, who, early in the 18th century, moved to Coventry, Jacob Bright was educated at the Ackworth School of the Society of Friends, and apprenticed to a fustian manufacturer at New Mills, Derbyshire. John Bright was his son by his wife, Martha Wood. Educated at Ackworth School, she was a woman of great strength of character, There were eleven children of this marriage, of whom John was the eldest surviving son. His younger brother was Jacob Bright, an MP and mayor and his sisters included Priscilla Bright and Margaret Bright Lucas. John was a child, and was sent as a day pupil to a boarding school near his home. A year at the Ackworth School, two years at Bootham School, York, and a year and a half at Newton, near Clitheroe, completed his education. He learned, he said, but little Latin and Greek, but acquired a great love of English literature, which his mother fostered. In his sixteenth year, he entered his fathers mill, in Rochdale, Jacob Bright was a leader of the opposition to a local church-rate. Rochdale was also prominent in the movement for reform, by which the town successfully claimed to have a member allotted to it under the Reform Bill. John Bright took part in both campaigns and he was an ardent Nonconformist, proud to number among his ancestors John Gratton, a friend of George Fox, and one of the persecuted and imprisoned preachers of the Religious Society of Friends
24.
Robert Peel
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Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet, FRS, PC, a British statesman and member of the Conservative Party, served twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and twice as Home Secretary. He is regarded as the father of modern British policing and as one of the founders of the modern Conservative Party and he entered the House of Commons in 1809 under the tutelage of his father and of Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington. Peel was widely seen as a star in the Conservative Party and served in various junior ministerial offices, becoming Chief Secretary for Ireland. He cut tariffs to stimulate trade, to replace the lost revenue he pushed through a 3% income tax and he played a central role in making free trade a reality and set up a modern banking system. In 1830 the Whigs finally returned to power and Peel became a member of the Opposition for the first time, Peel then issued the Tamworth Manifesto, laying down the principles upon which the modern British Conservative Party is based. His first ministry was a minority government, dependent on Whig support, after only four months, his government collapsed and he served as Leader of the Opposition during the second government of the Viscount Melbourne. Peel declined to head another minority government in May 1839, prompting a political crisis and he finally became Prime Minister again after the 1841 general election. His second government ruled for five years - its major legislation included the Mines and Collieries Act 1842, the Income Tax Act 1842, the Factories Act 1844, Peels government was weakened by anti-Irish and anti-Catholic sentiment following the controversial Maynooth Grant of 1845. After the outbreak of the Great Irish Potato Famine, his decision to join with Whigs, Peel remained an influential backbench MP and leader of the Peelite faction until his death in 1850. Peel often started from a traditional Tory position in opposition to a measure, then reversed his stance, Peel, a Conservative, achieved repeal with the support of the Whigs in Parliament, overcoming the opposition of most of his own party. Many critics accordingly saw him as a traitor to the Tory cause, or as a Liberal wolf in sheeps clothing, taylor says, Peel was in the first rank of 19th century statesman. He carried Catholic Emancipation, he repealed the Corn Laws, he created the modern Conservative Party on the ruins of the old Toryism. Peel was born at Chamber Hall, Bury, Lancashire, to the industrialist and parliamentarian Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet and his father was one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution. Peel was educated briefly at Bury Grammar School, at Hipperholme Grammar School, then at Harrow School and finally Christ Church, Oxford and he was a law student at Lincolns Inn in 1809 before entering Parliament. Peel saw part-time military service as a Captain in the Manchester Regiment of Militia in 1808, Peel entered politics in 1809 at the age of 21, as MP for the Irish rotten borough of Cashel, Tipperary. With a scant 24 electors on the rolls, he was elected unopposed and his sponsor for the election was the Chief Secretary for Ireland, Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, with whom Peels political career would be entwined for the next 25 years. Peel made his speech at the start of the 1810 session. His speech was a sensation, famously described by the Speaker, Charles Abbot, as chief secretary in Dublin in 1813, he proposed the setting up of a specialist police force, later called peelers
25.
Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet
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Sir James Robert George Graham, 2nd Baronet GCB PC was a British statesman. He was descended from a family famous in the history of the English border. He was the eldest son of Sir James Graham, 1st Baronet, by Lady Catherine, in 1819, he married Fanny Callander, youngest daughter of Sir James Campbell of Craigforth and Ardkinglas Castle. Sir James was created LL. D. at Cambridge in 1835, was Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow,1840 and he was First Lord of the Admiralty from 1830 to 1834 when he resigned on account of the government pressing for a reform of the Irish Church. He became Secretary of the Home Department from September 1841 to July 1846 and he was a member of the Council of the Duchy of Lancaster, and Deputy Lieutenant for county of Hertfordshire. Graham Land in Antarctica is named after him, Graham was born at Naworth, Cumberland, the son of Sir James Graham, 1st Baronet, by his wife Lady Catherine, daughter of John Stewart, 7th Earl of Galloway. He was taught at a school at Dalston in Cumberland, kept by the Rev. Walter Fletcher, before attending Westminster School and Christ Church. When Montgomerie became ill the responsibility for the fell on Graham. When Lord William Bentinck returned to the Embassy he agreed that Graham should retain the post, during this time he conducted the negotiations which led to the separation of Joachim Murat from Napoleon. When the war ended he returned to England, back in London he became friends with Wilfrid Lawson, who was to become a politician, a baronet, Grahams brother-in-law and father of another more famous radical. Back in London, Graham immersed himself in political affairs, although his father was a staunch Tory he made his headquarters in Brooks’s Club where he made many Whig contacts. On 10 June 1818 he announced that he would contest the mercantile borough of Hull, after three days of open voting and official scrutiny, Graham entered parliament as the junior member by a mere four votes. However, he had gained the seat at great personal expense, in January 1820, George IV succeeded thus forcing a dissolution of parliament. At Westminster, Graham maintained his campaign for economy, generally opposing the Government’s proposed increase in the Royal Family’s Civil List, however his parliamentary career, although undistinguished, now became brief, when charged with bribing the electorate, he resigned rather than contest an expensive suit. Graham returned to Cumberland and began a programme of improving the estate at Netherby. He began with a gesture, wiping out the arrears of his tenants debts. He argued that liberal economics rather than protection would best serve the interests of the landowners, high duties on foreign corn had failed to help British agriculture and should be cut to a level where they simply balanced the landowner’s taxes and rates. His general conclusions were in favour of trade and free banking
26.
John Fielden
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John Fielden was a British industrialist and Radical Member of Parliament for Oldham. He entered Parliament to support William Cobbett, whose election as fellow-MP for Oldham he helped to bring about, whigs and the more orthodox Whig-Radicals therefore thought the name of one of the machines used in his cotton-spinning business the self-acting mule a highly appropriate soubriquet. Having started work in his fathers mill when little more than ten, he was a firm. He also urged repeal of the New Poor Law and pressed for action to be taken to alleviate the ‘ distress of the country’, despairing that the concerns of the poor would never be given adequate attention by a ‘Ten-Pound Parliament’, he became a ’moral force’ Chartist. In 1847 he introduced and piloted through the Commons the Ten Hours Act, John Fielden was the third son of Joshua Fielden a Quaker who about the time of Johns birth set up as a cotton spinner in Todmorden. Joshua started cotton spinning in a way, but by his exertions. According to William Cobbett in 1832 they were involved in spinning weaving and printing and employing over 2500 persons, Cobbett also stressed that the brothers were famed for their goodness to every creature who is in their employ. In 1846, the firm was said to be processing 200,000 pounds of cotton per week, thought then to be the largest weekly consumption of cotton of any firm in the world. A correspondent for the Morning Post reported that within 2 miles of Todmorden there were mills, eight of them operated by Fielden Brothers. This firm have worked their mills less time than that sanctioned by the Legislature. Whenever a man meets with an accident they give him half wages during his illness and they also change to less laborious and more healthy employment those who have become incapacitated for great exertion. In 1811, he married Ann Grindrod of Rochdale, and bought and converted the Coach and they had 7 children, Jane, Samuel, Mary, Ann, John, Joshua and Ellen. Alice died in 1831, John remarried Elizabeth Dearden of Halifax in 1834, she survived him, Fielden was a deeply religious man but always nonconformist in his affiliations. Born into a Quaker family, by the age of seventeen he was a teacher in a Methodist Sunday School, when the Methodist Unitarians seceded from the Methodists, John went with them. A Unitarian Chapel was built in Bank Street, Todmorden c 1823, in 1828, John bought the Chapel, paid off its debts and supported its running costs throughout his life. He taught in the Sunday School for many years, eventually becoming its Superintendent and he founded several other Sunday Schools. He is buried in the burial ground of the chapel. Although their father had been a Tory, John and his brothers were Radicals, the brothers supported in principle, and in practice both Parliamentary Reform, and factory reform John was involved in Reform Bill agitation in Manchester
27.
Coal mining
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Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its content, and, since the 1880s, has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore, in the United Kingdom and South Africa a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine a pit, the above-ground structures the pit head. In Australia, colliery generally refers to a coal mine. In the United States colliery has been used to describe a coal mine operation, Coal mining has had many developments over the recent years, from the early days of men tunnelling, digging and manually extracting the coal on carts, to large open cut and long wall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks, small-scale mining of surface deposits dates back thousands of years. For example, in Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting most of the major coalfields by the late 2nd century AD. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century and later spread to continental Europe, international trade expanded rapidly when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and steamships. Until the late nineteenth century coal was mined using a pick and shovel. Coal-cutting machines were introduced in the 1880s, by 1912, surface mining was conducted with steam shovels designed for coal mining. The most economical method of extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams. Coal mining processes are differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground, many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two methods of mining. Coal that occurs at depths of 180 to 300 ft are usually deep mined, for example, some western U. S. coal that occur at depths in excess of 200 ft are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam 60–90 feet. Coals occurring below 300 ft are usually deep mined, However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to 1000–1500 feet below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany. When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open cut mining methods, open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, the overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured, the coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used
28.
Albert, Prince Consort
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Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha was the husband of Queen Victoria. He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europes ruling monarchs, at the age of 20, he married his first cousin, Queen Victoria, they had nine children. He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851, the Queen came to depend more and more on his support and guidance. Albert died at the young age of 42, plunging the Queen into deep mourning for the rest of her life. Upon Queen Victorias death in 1901, their eldest son succeeded as Edward VII, Albert was born at Schloss Rosenau, near Coburg, Germany, the second son of Ernest III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and his first wife, Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. Alberts future wife, Victoria, was earlier in the same year with the assistance of the same midwife. Albert was baptised into the Lutheran Evangelical Church on 19 September 1819 in the Marble Hall at Schloss Rosenau with water taken from the local river, in 1825, Alberts great-uncle, Frederick IV, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, died. His death led to a realignment of Saxon duchies the following year and Alberts father became the first reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg, Albert and his elder brother, Ernest, spent their youth in a close companionship marred by their parents turbulent marriage and eventual separation and divorce. After their mother was exiled from court in 1824, she married her lover, Alexander von Hanstein, Count of Polzig and she presumably never saw her children again, and died of cancer at the age of 30 in 1831. The brothers were educated privately at home by Christoph Florschütz and later studied in Brussels, like many other German princes, Albert attended the University of Bonn, where he studied law, political economics, philosophy and the history of art. He played music and excelled at sport, especially fencing and riding and his tutors at Bonn included the philosopher Fichte and the poet Schlegel. By 1836, the idea of marriage between Albert and his cousin, Victoria, had arisen in the mind of their ambitious uncle Leopold, at this time, Victoria was the heiress presumptive to the British throne. Her father, Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent, the son of King George III, had died when she was a baby. Her mother the Duchess of Kent, was the sister of both Alberts father—the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha—and King Leopold. Leopold arranged for his sister, Victorias mother, to invite the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander, second son of the Prince of Orange. Victoria was well aware of the matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes. Alexander, on the hand, she described as very plain. Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold to thank him for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me and he possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy
29.
Chimney sweep
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A chimney sweep is a worker who clears ash and soot from chimneys. The chimney uses the difference caused by a hot column of gas to create a draught. Chimneys may be straight or contain many changes of direction, during normal operation, a layer of creosote builds up on the inside of the chimney, restricting the flow. The creosote can also fire, setting the chimney and the building alight. The chimney must be swept to remove the soot and this was done by the master sweep. In the United Kingdom, the master sweeps took apprentices, who were boys from the workhouse or bought from their parents, they were usually parish, or orphan boys, in the German States, master sweeps belonged to trade guilds and did not use climbing boys. In Italy, Belgium, and France climbing boys were used, with the increased urban population that came with the Age of Industrialisation, the number of houses with chimneys grew apace and the occupation of chimney sweep became much sought-after. Buckingham Palace had one flue with 15 angles, with the flue narrowing to 9in by 9in, Chimney sweeping was also one of the more commonly difficult, hazardous, and low-paying occupations of the era, and consequently has been derided in verse, ballad and pantomime. The first mechanical sweeping machine was invented by George Smart in 1803 but was resisted in the UK, john Glass marketed an improved sweeping machine in 1828, he is credited with being the inventor of the modern chimney sweeps brush. In the US Northern States, whites gave up the trade, after regulation finally took hold in 1875 in the UK and the turn of the century in the US, the occupation became romanticized in popular media and literature. Boys as young as four climbed hot flues that could be as narrow as 81 square inches, work was dangerous and they could get jammed in the flue, suffocate or burn to death. As soot is carcinogenic, and as the boys slept under the sacks and were rarely washed. From 1775 onwards there was increasing concern for the welfare of the boys, and Acts of Parliament were passed to restrict, Lord Shaftesbury, the philanthropist, led the later campaign. Chimneys started to appear in Britain around 1200, when they replaced the fire burning in the middle of the one room house. At first there would be one heated room in the building, over the next four hundred years, rooms became specialized and smaller and many were heated. Sea coal started to replace wood, and it deposited a layer of creosote in the inside surface of the flue. The master sweep was unable to climb into such small spaces himself, the boys often buffed it, that is, climbed in the nude, propelling themselves by their knees and elbows which were scraped raw. They were often put up hot chimneys, and sometimes up chimneys that were alight in order to extinguish the fire, Chimneys with sharp angles posed a particular hazard
30.
Ragged school
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Ragged schools were charitable organisations dedicated to the free education of destitute children in 19th-century Britain. The schools were developed in working-class districts of the expanding industrial towns. In 1844, the Ragged Schools Union was established to combine resources throughout the country, providing education, food, clothing, lodging. The ragged school movement grew out of recognition that charitable and denominational schools were not beneficial for children in inner-city areas, working in the poorest districts, teachers initially utilised stables, lofts, and railway arches for their classes. There was an emphasis on reading, writing, arithmetic, the curriculum expanded into industrial and commercial subjects in many schools. It is estimated that about 300,000 children went through the London ragged schools alone between 1844 and 1881. There is a Ragged School Museum in the East End of London showing how a school would have looked. Several different schools claim to have pioneered truly free education for poor or ragged people, for many of the destitute children of London, going to school each day was not an option. At that time, there was no such thing as free education for everyone, from the 18th century onwards, ragged schools were few and far between. They had been started in areas where someone had been concerned enough to want to help disadvantaged children towards a better life, in the late 18th century Thomas Cranfield offered free education for poor children in London. While he was a tailor by trade, Cranfields educational background included studies at a Sunday school on Kingsland Road, in 1798, he established a free childrens day school on Kent Street near London Bridge. By the time of his death in 1838, he had established 19 free schools providing services for children and these opportunities and services were offered days, nights, and on Sundays, for the destitute children of poor families throughout London. John Pounds, a Portsmouth shoemaker, provides one of the earliest well-documented examples of the movement, when he was 12 years old, Pounds father arranged for him to be apprenticed as a shipwright. Three years later, he fell into a dry dock and was crippled for life, unable to work as a shipwright, John became a shoemaker and by 1803 had his own shop in St Mary Street, Portsmouth. In 1818, Pounds, known as the cobbler, began teaching poor children without charging fees. He actively recruited children and young people to his school and he spent time on the streets and quays of Portsmouth making contact and even bribing them to come with the offer of baked potatoes. He began teaching local children reading, writing, and arithmetic and his reputation as a teacher grew and he soon had more than 40 students attending his lessons. He also gave lessons in cooking, carpentry and shoemaking, after Pounds death, Thomas Guthrie wrote Plea for Ragged Schools and proclaimed him as the originator of this idea
31.
Oxford Movement
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The Oxford Movement was a movement of High Church members of the Church of England which eventually developed into Anglo-Catholicism. They thought of Anglicanism as one of three branches of the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church, the movements philosophy was known as Tractarianism after its series of publications, the Tracts for the Times, published from 1833 to 1841. Tractarians were also referred to as Newmanites and Puseyites after two prominent Tractarians, John Henry Newman and Edward Bouverie Pusey. Other well-known Tractarians included John Keble, Charles Marriott, Richard Froude, Robert Wilberforce, Isaac Williams, in the nineteenth century, in an attempt to broaden its reach, the Church of England assumed a latitudinarian perspective. John Keble criticised these proposals as National Apostasy in his Assize Sermon in Oxford in 1833 and their interest in Christian origins caused some of them to reconsider the relationship of the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church. The Tractarians postulated the Branch Theory, which states that Anglicanism along with Orthodoxy, Tractarians argued for the inclusion of traditional aspects of liturgy from medieval religious practice, as they believed the church had become too plain. Newmans eventual reception into the Roman Catholic Church in 1845, followed by Henry Edward Manning in 1851, had an effect upon the movement. Apart from the Tracts for the Times, the group began a collection of translations of the Church Fathers, the collection eventually comprised 48 volumes, the last published three years after Puseys death. They were issued through Rivingtons company with the imprint of the Holyrood Press, the main editor for many of these was Charles Marriott. A number of volumes of original Greek and Latin texts was also published, One of the main contributions that resulted from Tractarianism is the hymnbook entitled Hymns Ancient and Modern which was published in 1861. The Oxford Movement was criticised for being a mere Romanising tendency, paradoxically, the Oxford Movement was also criticised for being both secretive and collusive. The Oxford Movement resulted in the establishment of Anglican religious orders and it incorporated ideas and practices related to the practice of liturgy and ceremony to incorporate more powerful emotional symbolism in the church. In particular it brought the insights of the Liturgical Movement into the life of the Church and its effects were so widespread that the Eucharist gradually became more central to worship, vestments became common, and numerous Roman Catholic practices were re-introduced into worship. This led to controversies within churches that resulted in court cases, partly because bishops refused to give livings to Tractarian priests, many of them began working in slums. From their new ministries, they developed a critique of British social policy, the more radical Catholic Crusade was a much smaller organisation than the Oxford Movement. Anglo-Catholicism – as this complex of ideas, styles and organisations became known – had a significant influence on global Anglicanism, concerns that Tractarianism was a disguised Roman Catholic movement were not unfounded, Newman believed that the Roman and Anglican churches were wholly compatible. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church in 1845 and was ordained a priest of the Church the same year. Writing on the end of Tractarianism as a movement, Newman stated, I saw indeed clearly that my place in the Movement was lost, public confidence was at an end, my occupation was gone
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Evangelical Anglicanism
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Evangelical Anglicanism or evangelical Episcopalianism is a tradition or church party within Anglicanism that shares affinity with broader Evangelicalism. Evangelical Anglicans share with other evangelicals the attributes of conversionism, activism, biblicism and crucicentrism identified by historian David Bebbington as central to evangelical identity. The emergence of evangelical churchmanship can be traced back to the First Great Awakening in America, in the 20th century, prominent figures have included John Stott and J. I. In contrast to the high church party, evangelicals emphasize experiential religion of the heart over the importance of liturgical forms. As a result, evangelicals are often described as being low church, in contrast to Anglo-Catholics, evangelical Anglicans stress the Reformed, Protestant nature of Anglicanism. Historically, evangelicals have come from both moderate Calvinist as well as Arminian backgrounds, Evangelical Anglicans have been particularly fierce critics of ritualism and sacerdotalism. With respect to baptismal regeneration, evangelicals hold baptism to be part of a process of regeneration, Evangelical Anglicans hold a Reformed view of baptism understood in light of covenant theology in which baptism seals or pledges the blessings of the New Covenant to the individual Christian. However, regeneration is not simultaneous with baptism, in the case of infant baptism, the sacrament signifies and seals to them graces which they still need to receive later by faith. Evangelicals maintain a Reformed view of Holy Communion, believing that Christ is spiritually present in the Eucharist, according to this view, known as receptionism, the body and blood of Christ are received spiritually by faith. Evangelicalism emerged from the revivals of the 18th century. While previous movements in the Church of England had revolved around issues of church order and authority, evangelicals stressed lifestyle, doctrine, Evangelicals emphasized domestic religion, especially family prayer. It was also demonstrated by political campaigns in the British Parliament, Wilberforce was a prominent figure in a network of evangelical social reformers nicknamed the Clapham Sect. Charles Simeon was the most influential leader of evangelical Anglicanism and he established the Simeon Trust, a fund that became a major source of evangelical patronage. By the time of his death, the Trust controlled the livings of 42 churches and he also helped to found the Church Missionary Society in 1799, which was meant to be an evangelical alternative to the high church Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. The society sponsored mission work in India, Africa, and Australia, in 1804, the British and Foreign Bible Society was founded to provide Bibles in different languages to accompany the missionary work. The London Society for Promotion of Christianity Amongst the Jews was created in 1809, in the 1830s, the 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, a leading evangelical, helped persuade Lord Palmerston, the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, to sponsor Jewish settlement. In 1841, Edward Bickersteth published The Restoration of the Jews to Their Own Land, the first evangelical bishop, Henry Ryder, was appointed to Gloucester in 1815 by Lord Liverpool after initial objections that he was a religious bishop. The second evangelical bishop, Charles Sumner, Bishop of Winchester, was not appointed until 1826 and his brother John later became Bishop of Chester and was elevated to Archbishop of Canterbury in 1848
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British and Foreign Bible Society
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The Society was formed on 7 March 1804 by a group of people including William Wilberforce and Thomas Charles to encourage the wider circulation and use of the Scriptures. Many young girls had walked long distances to Rev Thomas Charles to get copies of the Bible, later the story was told of one of them - a young girl called Mary Jones who walked over 20 miles to get a Bible in Bala, Gwynedd. BFBS was not the first Bible Society in the world, the first organisation in Britain to be called The Bible Society was founded in 1779 and now called the Naval, Military and Air Force Bible Society. The first BFBS translation project was the Gospel of John into Mohawk for Canada, in the British Isles BFBS reprinted Bibles in Welsh, Scots Gaelic and Manx Gaelic first produced by SPCK. The first Romani translation was the Gospel of Luke into the Caló language of Iberia, from the early days, the Society sought to be ecumenical and non-sectarian. This and another similar 1831 controversy about Unitarians holding significant Society offices resulted in a minority separating to form the Trinitarian Bible Society, the Bible Society extended its work to England, India, Europe and beyond. Protestant communities in many European countries date back to the work of nineteenth century BFBS Bible salesmen, auxiliary branches were set up all over the world, which later became Bible Societies in their own right, and today operate in co-operation as part of the United Bible Societies. The Bible Society is a non-denominational Christian network which works to translate, revise, print, during World War One Bible Society distributed more than nine million copies of Scripture, in over 80 languages, to combatants and prisoners of war on all sides of the war. Bible Society managed this despite immense challenges – supply shortages, rising costs, paper rationing, submarine blockades. Even greater than these physical difficulties was the emotional toll – former colleagues suddenly found themselves fighting on opposing sides, Bible salesmen throughout Europe were conscripted or volunteered into their respective armies. The Bible Society responded to the challenge and they printed New Testaments bound in khaki, stamped with a cross, for distribution via the Red Cross among sick and wounded soldiers, sailors and prisoners of war. On average between 6–7,000 volumes were sent out every working day for fighting men, the sick and wounded, that’s over four copies distributed each minute, day and night, for the duration of the war. Translation work never stopped – between August 1914 and November 1918, Bible Society printed Scriptures in 34 new languages and dialects and this meant on average there was one new version every seven weeks during the whole period of war. For many years the headquarters of the society was in London, in 1972 its address was 146, Queen Victoria Street, by 1972 it had published or distributed whole Bibles or parts of the Bible in 1,431 languages. At that time it was distributing 173 million copies each year, the Society is working to circulate the Scriptures across the world, in the church and through the culture. The strategy of Bible Society centres on Bible availability, accessibility and credibility - what it calls the ‘lifecycle’ of the Bible and these strategic approaches encompass all of its activity, translation, production, distribution, literacy, engagement and advocacy. It includes its Chinese Collection which is the largest collection of Chinese Scriptures anywhere in the world, since the societys move to Swindon in 1985 the library has been located in the library of the University of Cambridge. Its work is organised into two categories, domestic and international, the Society is part of an international fellowship of over 140 Bible Societies around the world, known as the United Bible Societies
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Edward Bickersteth (priest)
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Edward Bickersteth was an English evangelical clergyman. He was born in born at Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmorland, fourth son of Henry Bickersteth a surgeon, Bickersteth attended Kirby Longsdale Grammar School and practised as a solicitor at Norwich from 1812 to 1815. Within space of only 11 days in December 1815 he was ordained both as a deacon and priest, in January 1816 travelled to Africa to inspect and report on the work of the Church Missionary Society. On his return to London he was one of the secretaries of the Church Missionary Society. He was active in promoting the Evangelical Alliance of 1845, strongly opposed the Tractarian Movement, and was one of the founders of the Irish Church Missions, and Parker, Societies. Bickersteth was brother of Henry, Baron Langdale, Master of the Rolls and his wife Sarah, who Bickersteth married in 1812, was the eldest daughter of Thomas Bignold of Norwich, together they had six children. Edward Henry Bickersteth Bishop of Exeter was his son and Edward Bickersteth, founder of the Cambridge Mission to Delhi and later bishop of South Tokyo. Edward Bickersteth, was his nephew, Attribution Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Bickersteth, Revd T. R. Birks, Memoir of the Revd Edward Bickersteth, New York,1851
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