1.
The Bronx
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The Bronx is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City, within the U. S. state of New York. Since 1914, the Bronx has had the boundaries as Bronx County, a county of New York. The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a section in the west, closer to Manhattan. East and west street addresses are divided by Jerome Avenue—the continuation of Manhattans Fifth Avenue, the West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914, about a quarter of the Bronxs area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery, Van Cortlandt Park, Pelham Bay Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Bronx Zoo in the boroughs north and center. These open spaces are situated primarily on land reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north. The name Bronx originated with Jonas Bronck, who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639, the native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of both Latin music and hip hop. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today, the Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape, while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck. It was divided by the Aquahung River, the origin of Jonas Bronck is contested. Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the now known as the Bronx and built a farm named Emmanus close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem. He eventually accumulated 500 acres between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which known as Broncks River or the Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Broncks Land, the American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Broncks son or his younger brother. More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas nephew or cousin, the Bronx is referred to with the definite article as The Bronx, both legally and colloquially. The region was named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the Annexed District of The Bronx created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County
2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
3.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
4.
Harvard College
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Harvard College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Harvard University. Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is the oldest institution of learning in the United States. The school came into existence in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony—though without a single building, in 1638, the college became home for North Americas first known printing press, carried by the ship John of London. Three years later, the college was renamed in honor of deceased Charlestown minister John Harvard who had bequeathed to the school his entire library, Harvards first instructor was schoolmaster Nathaniel Eaton, in 1639, he also became its first instructor to be dismissed, for overstrict discipline. The schools first students were graduated in 1642, in 1665, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag … did graduate from Harvard, the first Indian to do so in the colonial period. The colleges of Englands Oxford and Cambridge Universities are communities within the university, each an association of scholars sharing room. The Indian College was active from 1640 to no later than 1693, the body known as The President and Fellows of Harvard College retains its traditional name despite having governance of the entire University. Radcliffe College originally paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for women students, since the 1970s, Harvard has been responsible for undergraduate governance matters for women, women were still formally admitted to and graduated from Radcliffe until a final merger in 1999. About 2,000 students are admitted each year, representing between five and ten percent of those applying, of those admitted, approximately three-quarters choose to attend and these figures make Harvard perhaps the most selective and sought-after college in the world. Midway through the year, most undergraduates join one of fifty standard fields of concentration. Joint concentrations and special concentrations are also possible, a smaller number receive the Scientiarum Baccalaureus. There are also special programs, such as a five-year program leading to both a Harvard undergraduate degree and a Master of Arts from the New England Conservatory of Music. In 2012, dozens of students were disciplined for cheating on an exam in one course. The university instituted a code beginning in the fall of 2015. The total annual cost of attendance, including tuition and room and board, under financial aid guidelines adopted in 2012, families with incomes below $65,000 no longer pay anything for their children to attend, including room and board. Families with incomes between $65,000 to $150,000 pay no more than 10% of their annual income, grants total 88% of Harvards aid for undergraduate students, with aid also provided by loans and work-study. Each house is presided over by a senior-faculty Faculty Dean, while its Allston Burr Resident Dean supervises undergraduates day-to-day academic, many tutors reside in the House, as do the Faculty Dean and Resident Dean. The way in which students come to live in particular Houses has changed greatly over time, under the original draft system, Masters negotiated privately over the assignment of rising sophomores considered most—or least—promising
5.
Margaret H. Marshall
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Margaret Hilary Marshall was the 24th chief justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and the first woman to hold that position. She was chief justice from 1999 to 2010, on July 21,2010, she announced her retirement. She is currently a Senior Fellow of the Yale Corporation, Senior Counsel at Choate Hall & Stewart, the death penalty was imposed in vastly disproportionate numbers. Many of the offenses were applicable to black South Africans only, in June 1966, as NUSASs vice president, she welcomed U. S. Senator Robert Kennedy to South Africa, in place of Union President Ian Robertson, Marshall emigrated to the United States to escape political persecution. She earned a degree in education from Harvard in 1969. She acquired United States citizenship in 1978, in 1984, she married then-New York Times columnist Anthony Lewis. From 1976 to 1989, she was an associate and a partner in practice at the Boston law firm of Csaplar & Bok. From 1989 to 1992, she was a partner in the Boston law firm of Choate, also from 1991 to 1992, she was president of the Boston Bar Association, the oldest bar association in the United States. From 1992-1996, she was counsel to Harvard University. Marshall was appointed to be a justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in 1996 by Republican Governor William F. Weld. She was named as justice in September 1999 by Republican Governor Paul Cellucci. She is the woman to serve on the Supreme Judicial Court, the oldest appellate court in the Western Hemisphere. In the course of her term, she more than 200 opinions. Marshall wrote the decision in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health that declared that the Massachusetts constitution does not permit the state to deny citizens the right to same-sex marriage. On July 21,2010, Marshall announced her decision to retire from the court, Marshall said her decision was prompted by a desire to spend more time with her husband Anthony Lewis, who was suffering from Parkinsons disease. Marshall serves as the fellow of the Yale Corporation, the governing body of Yale University. She is the first woman to hold the position, and previously served a term as a Corporation fellow from 2004 to 2010
6.
Public intellectual
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Socially, intellectuals constitute the intelligentsia, a status class organised either by ideology, or by nationality. Man of Letters The English term Man of Letters derives from the French term belletrist, the term Man of Letters distinguished the literate man from the illiterate man, in a time when literacy was a rare form of cultural capital. In late 19th century, the term became common usage to denote the defenders of the falsely accused artillery officer Alfred Dreyfus. Likewise, in Tsarist Russia, there arose the intelligentsia, who were the class of white-collar workers. As such, politically radical thinkers already had participated in the French Revolution, Robert Darnton said that they were not societal outsiders, but respectable, domesticated, moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities being synonymous with intellectualism. Habermas Structural Transformation of Public Sphere made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private, such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of imperial examination, and also were skilled calligraphers, and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that, Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one and it was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea, the intellectuals were the literati, who knew how to read and write, socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie, composed of scholar-bureaucrats who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. The Italian Communist theoretician Antonio Gramsci developed Karl Marx’s conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere and that, because all knowledge is existentially-based, the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests. That intellectuals occur in social class and throughout the right wing, the centre. That, as a class, the intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the ruling class of their society. Therefore, the leadership of intellectuals is required for effecting and realizing social change, because, in the formal codification of Leninism, the Hungarian Marxist philosopher, György Lukács identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers, the How. and the Why. of the social, economic, and political status quo—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. The term public intellectual describes the intellectual participating in the discourse of society. In Representations of the Intellectual, Edward Saïd said that the … true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society. An intellectual usually is associated with an ideology or with a philosophy and that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights, and ideas, and should be heard as social critics of politics and power. In journalism, the term usually connotes a university academic of the humanities—especially a philosopher—who addresses important social and political matters of the day
7.
Pulitzer Prize
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The Pulitzer Prize /ˈpʊlᵻtsər/ is an award for achievements in newspaper, magazine and online journalism, literature, and musical composition in the United States. It was established in 1917 by provisions in the will of American Joseph Pulitzer who had made his fortune as a newspaper publisher, Prizes are awarded yearly in twenty-one categories. In twenty of the categories, each receives a certificate. The winner in the service category of the journalism competition is awarded a gold medal. The Pulitzer Prize does not automatically consider all applicable works in the media, entries must fit in at least one of the specific prize categories, and cannot simply gain entrance for being literary or musical. Works can also only be entered in a maximum of two categories, regardless of their properties, each year,102 jurors are selected by the Pulitzer Prize Board to serve on 20 separate juries for the 21 award categories, one jury makes recommendations for both photography awards. For each award category, a jury makes three nominations, the board selects the winner by majority vote from the nominations or bypasses the nominations and selects a different entry following a 75% majority vote. The board can also vote to issue no award, the board and journalism jurors are not paid for their work, however, the jurors in letters, music, and drama receive a $2,000 honorarium for the year, and each chair receives $2,500. Anyone whose work has been submitted is called an entrant, the jury selects a group of nominated finalists and announces them, together with the winner for each category. However, some journalists who were submitted, but not nominated as finalists. For example, Bill Dedman of msnbc, Dedman wrote, To call that submission a Pulitzer nomination is like saying that Adam Sandler is an Oscar nominee if Columbia Pictures enters Thats My Boy in the Academy Awards. Many readers realize that the Oscars dont work that way—the studios dont pick the nominees and its just a way of slipping Academy Awards into a bio. The Pulitzers also dont work that way, but fewer people know that, newspaper publisher Joseph Pulitzer gave money in his will to Columbia University to launch a journalism school and establish the Prize. It allocated $250,000 to the prize and scholarships and he specified four awards in journalism, four in letters and drama, one in education, and four traveling scholarships. After his death, the first Pulitzer Prizes were awarded June 4,1917, many people have won more than one Pulitzer Prize. Nelson Harding is the person to have won a Prize in two consecutive years, the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning in 1927 and 1928. Four prizes Robert Frost, Poetry Eugene ONeill, Drama Robert E, in rare instances, contributors to the entry are singled out in the citation in a manner analogous to individual winners. Journalism awards may be awarded to individuals or newspapers or newspaper staffs, infrequently, Awards are made in categories relating to journalism, arts, letters and fiction
8.
New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
9.
Felix Frankfurter
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Felix Frankfurter was a jurist, who served as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Frankfurter was born in Vienna and immigrated to New York at the age of 12 and he graduated from Harvard Law School and was active politically, helping to found the American Civil Liberties Union. He was a friend and adviser of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Frankfurter served on the Supreme Court for 23 years, and was a noted advocate of judicial restraint in the judgments of the Court. Frankfurter was born into a Jewish family on November 15,1882, in Vienna, Austria and he was the third of six children of Leopold Frankfurter, a merchant, and Emma Frankfurter. His uncle, Solomon Frankfurter, was head librarian at the Vienna University Library, Frankfurters forebears had been rabbis for generations. In 1894, when he was twelve, his family immigrated to New York City, settling on the Lower East Side,25, where he excelled at his studies and enjoyed playing chess and shooting craps on the street. He spent many hours reading at The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art and attending political lectures, usually on subjects such as trade unionism, socialism and communism. After graduating in 1902 from City College of New York, where he was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa and he applied successfully to Harvard Law School, where he excelled academically and socially. He became lifelong friends with Walter Lippmann and Horace Kallen, became an editor of the Harvard Law Review, Frankfurters legal career began when he joined the New York law firm of Hornblower, Byrne, Miller & Potter in 1906. In the same year, he was hired as the assistant to Henry Stimson, during this period, Frankfurter read Herbert Crolys book The Promise of American Life, and became a supporter of the New Nationalism and of Theodore Roosevelt. In 1911, President William Howard Taft appointed Stimson as his Secretary of War, Frankfurter worked directly for Stimson as his assistant and confidant. His government position restricted his ability to voice his Progressive views. In 1912 Frankfurter supported the Bull Moose campaign to return Roosevelt to the presidency and he became increasingly disillusioned with the established parties, and described himself as politically homeless. Frankfurters work in Washington had impressed the faculty at Harvard Law School and he taught mainly administrative law and occasionally criminal law. With fellow professor James M. Landis, he advocated judicial restraint in dealing with government misdeeds and he also served as counsel for the National Consumers League, arguing for Progressive causes such as minimum wage and restricted work hours. He was involved in the years of The New Republic magazine after its founding by Herbert Croly. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Frankfurter took a leave from Harvard to serve as special assistant to the Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. He was appointed Judge Advocate General, supervising military courts-martial for the War Department and he was commissioned a major in the Officers Reserve Corps but was not called to active duty
10.
Nicholas Lemann
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He has been a staff writer at The New Yorker since 1999. Nicholas Lemann was born, raised, and educated in a Jewish family in New Orleans and he began his journalism career as a 17-year-old writer for an alternative weekly newspaper there, the Vieux Carre Courier. He graduated magna cum laude from Harvard College in 1976, where he concentrated in American history and he was president of The Harvard Crimson. On September 1,2003, he became dean of the Graduate School of Journalism at Columbia University and he stepped down as dean in 2013, following two five-year terms. He has written widely for such publications as The New York Times, The New York Review of Books, The New Republic, frontline, the Discovery Channel, and the BBC, and lectured at many universities. He was named a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in April 2010. His first wife was Dominique Alice Browning, who became an editor in chief of House & Garden until 2007. The big test, the history of the American meritocracy. New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, none of the Above Review, by Andrew Sullivan, The New York Times, October 24,1999. ISBN 978-0-374-24855-0 A Less Perfect Union Review by Sean Willentz, in the New York Times, September 10,2006 First chapter of book, june-July 1986 on the black underclass and gang culture in Chicago. June 1996 on Asian Americans as the new Jews, when the earth moved, what happened to the environmental movement. 1992 PEN/Martha Albrand Award for First Nonfiction for The Promised Land Audio Interview with Sam Tanenhaus, Lemann and Steve Shepard discuss future of journalism. Appearances on C-SPAN Booknotes interview with Lemann on The Promised Land, May 5,1991
11.
Columbia University School of Journalism
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The Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism is one of the professional graduate schools of Columbia University. Located in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of New York City, it is the journalism school in the Ivy League and one of the oldest in the United States. The school was founded by Joseph Pulitzer in 1912, and offers Master of Science, in addition to graduate degree programs, the Journalism School houses the Pulitzer Prizes and directly administers several prizes, including the Alfred I. duPont–Columbia University Award. It also co-sponsors the National Magazine Awards and publishes the Columbia Journalism Review, the Journalism School was founded with a bequest from Joseph Pulitzer. In 1892, Pulitzer offered Columbia Universitys president, Seth Low, the university initially turned down the money. Lows successor, Nicholas Murray Butler was more receptive to the plan and it took the university many years to act on Pulitzers $2 million gift and pitch for a journalism school. Classes began on September 30,1912, with a student body of about 100 undergraduate and graduate students from 21 countries, the building was still under construction at the time. In 1935 Dean Carl Ackerman led the transition to become the first graduate school of journalism in the United States. Classes of 60 students dug up stories in New York City during the day and drafted articles in a single, students choose from one of four specializations, newspaper, magazine, broadcast, or new media. Some students interested in reporting are part of Stabile Center for Investigative Journalism. The M. S. program is offered on a part-time basis. The school also offers dual-degree programs with Sciences Po in Paris, the nine-month master of arts program is for experienced journalists interested in focusing on a particular subject area, politics, science, business, or the arts. M. A. students work closely with Journalism School professors as well as professors from other departments at Columbia. The Ph. D. program draws upon the resources of Columbia University in an approach to the study of communications. The Journalism School administers many professional awards, a tradition that Joseph Pulitzer began when he established the school, until then, the boards decisions were ratified by the Universitys trustees. Prior to its divestiture in 1950, the board was charged with administrative oversight of the School of Journalism. Since 1976, the incumbent dean of the Journalism School has served as an ex member of the board. Professor Emeritus of Professional Practice in Magazine Journalism Charles Ornstein, adjunct associate professor Michael Schudson, professor Choire Sicha, Pulitzers School, Columbia Universitys School of Journalism, 1903-2003
12.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
13.
92nd Street Y
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92nd Street Y is a multifaceted cultural institution and community center located on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City, USA, at the corner of East 92nd Street and Lexington Avenue. Its full name is 92nd Street Young Mens and Young Womens Hebrew Association and it is not part of the YMCA. The organization serves about 300,000 people annually in its New York facilities, in recent years, 92Y has expanded its digital programming to include live webcasts of events and a free digital archive at 92YOnDemand. org that includes both stage events and web-only content. In 2012, 92Y founded #GivingTuesday, which established the Tuesday after Thanksgiving as a day to celebrate, the initiative was inspired by the core Jewish value of Tikkun Olam and reflects the institution’s mission of reimagining community and giving back. 92Y is also one of the partners of the annual Social Good Summit, a conference that attracts NGO, tech and business leaders and entrepreneurs. Its poetry center is called the Unterberg Poetry Center and has been led by prominent writers including American poet Karl Kirchwey who was director for thirteen years until 2000, in March 2013 it was announced that the 92YTribeca location would be closing that summer. Notable individuals who have resided at 92nd Street Y include Joseph Gurwin, official website 92nd Street Y on NYC ARTS
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Judaism
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Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
15.
Horace Mann School
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Horace Mann School is an independent college preparatory school in the Bronx, founded in 1887. Horace Mann is a member of the Ivy Preparatory School League, the Upper, Middle, and Lower Divisions are located in Riverdale, a neighborhood of the Bronx, while the Nursery School is located in Manhattan. The John Dorr Nature Laboratory, a 275 acres campus in Washington Depot, Connecticut, serves as the schools outdoor, tuition for the 2014–15 school year is $43,300 from nursery through twelfth grade, making it the second most expensive private school in New York City. Horace Manns motto is Magna est veritas et prævalet, a Latin phrase meaning Great is the truth, the phrase comes from the King James version of the Old Testament, whose contemporary translation is Magna est veritas et prævalebit, or will prevail. The school was founded in 1887 by Nicholas Murray Butler as an experimental and developmental unit of Teachers College at Columbia University. Its first location was 9 University Place in Manhattans Greenwich Village, the school moved in 1901 to 120th Street in Morningside Heights. Horace Mann became independent of the Columbia University and Teachers College, the Teachers College therefore created the Lincoln School, located on 110th Street, across the street from Central Park, to continue its experiments in teaching. The Horace Mann School for Girls remained at Teachers College, and then merged with the Lincoln School in 1940, the New York School for Nursery Years became the Horace Mann School for Nursery Years in 1968, and was co-ed. At that point, only the school was mixed. In 1975, the Horace Mann School returned to its roots as a learning environment. The Class of 1976 is Horace Mann Schools last all-male class, in 1999, the sixth grade moved from the Horace Mann-Barnard campus to the main 246th Street campus and formed a distinct Middle Division along with the seventh and eighth grades. This should not be confused with the school also named Horace Mann in Gary. The Dorr facility was renovated and is currently LEED-certified by the U. S. Green Building Council. Current tuition for students in the Lower Division through the Upper Division is approximately $40,000 a year, financial aid at the school is solely based on need. For the 2012–2013 academic year,16. 4% of the students received more than $8.3 million in aid, each division of the school has its own Division Head. The Middle and Upper Divisions have separate student government bodies, the entire school is overseen by a Head of School. The ninth and current Head is Thomas M. Kelly, who served as Superintendent of Schools in Valhalla. The current Horace Mann Nursery Division Head is Marcia Levy, who replaced Patricia Zuroski when she was appointed to the position of Director of Diversity Initiatives, the current Lower Division Head is Dina Neuwirth, replacing Wendy Steinthal, who departed in June 2016
16.
Roy Cohn
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Roy Marcus Cohn was an American attorney. He was also known for being a U. S. Department of Justice prosecutor at the trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Born to an observant Jewish family in The Bronx, New York City, Cohn was the child of Dora. Cohn, who was influential in Democratic Party politics and his great-uncle was Joshua Lionel Cowen, the founder and longtime owner of the Lionel Corporation, a manufacturer of toy trains. He lived in his parents home until his mothers death, after which he lived in New York, the District of Columbia, and Greenwich, Connecticut. After attending Horace Mann School and the Fieldston School, and completing studies at Columbia College in 1946, although he was registered as a Democrat, Cohn supported most of the Republican presidents of his time and Republicans in major offices across New York. As an Assistant US Attorney in Saypols Manhattan office, Cohn helped to secure convictions in a number of well-publicized trials of accused Soviet operatives. One of the first involved the prosecution of William Remington, a former Commerce Department employee who had accused of espionage by KGB defector Elizabeth Bentley. Cohn also prosecuted 11 members of the American Communist Party Politburo for preaching the violent overthrow of the United States government, Cohn played a prominent role in the 1951 espionage trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Cohns direct examination of Ethels brother, David Greenglass, produced testimony that was central to the Rosenbergs conviction, Greenglass testified that he had given the Rosenbergs classified documents from the Manhattan Project that had been stolen by Klaus Fuchs. Greenglass would later claim that he lied at the trial in order to protect himself and his wife, Ruth, Cohn always took great pride in the Rosenberg verdict and claimed to have played an even greater part than his public role. He said in his autobiography that his own influence had led to both Chief Prosecutor Saypol and Judge Irving Kaufman being appointed to the case and he further said that Kaufman imposed the death penalty, based on his personal recommendation. If the ex parte discussions between a prosecutor and a judge outside the courtroom actually took place, they were improper. In 2008, a co-conspirator in the case, Morton Sobell, the Rosenberg trial brought the 24-year-old Cohn to the attention of Federal Bureau of Investigation director J. Edgar Hoover, who recommended him to Joseph McCarthy. McCarthy hired Cohn as his counsel, choosing him over Robert Kennedy. Cohn assisted McCarthys work for the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Cohn was given free rein in pursuit of many investigations, with McCarthy joining in only for the more publicized sessions. Cohn would play a role in assisting McCarthys crusade against Communism. Cohn invited his friend G. David Schine, an anti-Communist propagandist, when Schine was drafted into the US Army in 1953, Cohn made repeated and extensive efforts to procure special treatment for Schine
17.
Harvard Crimson
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The Harvard Crimson are the athletic teams of Harvard University. The schools teams compete in NCAA Division I, as of 2013, there were 42 Division I intercollegiate varsity sports teams for women and men at Harvard, more than at any other NCAA Division I college in the country. Like the other Ivy League universities, Harvard does not offer athletic scholarships, the school has won national championships in mens football, golf, mens ice hockey, womens lacrosse, mens soccer, coed sailing, womens sailing, fencing, womens rowing, and mens individual wrestling. Harvards baseball program began competing in the 1865 season and it has appeared in four College World Series. It plays at Joseph J. ODonnell Field and is coached by Bill Decker. Harvard Crimson mens basketball program represents intercollegiate mens basketball at Harvard University, the team currently competes in the Ivy League in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and play home games at the Lavietes Pavilion in Boston, Massachusetts. The teams last appearance in the NCAA Division I Mens Basketball Tournament was in 2014, the Crimson are currently coached by Tommy Amaker. Harvard Crimson womens basketball program represents intercollegiate mens basketball at Harvard University, the team currently competes in the Ivy League in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and play home games at the Lavietes Pavilion in Boston, Massachusetts. The teams last appearance in the NCAA Division I Mens Basketball Tournament was in 2007, representing Harvard Crimson, Benjamin Ungar won Gold in the 2006 Individual Mens Épée event at the NCAA Fencing Championship, and was named Harvard Athlete of The Year. See, Harvard Crimson football and Harvard Stadium The football team has competed since 1873 and they have won ten national championships when the school competed in what is now known as the FBS. They are perhaps best known for their rivalry with Yale, known as The Game, sixteen former players have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. Harvards athletic rivalry with Yale is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax each fall in their annual football meeting, which dates back to 1875. While Harvards football team is no one of the countrys best as it often was a century ago during footballs early days. In 1903, Harvard Stadium introduced a new era into football with the first-ever permanent reinforced concrete stadium of its kind in the country, the stadiums structure actually played a role in the evolution of the college game. Seeking to reduce the number of deaths and serious injuries in the sport. But the state-of-the-art Harvard Stadium was too narrow to accommodate a playing surface. So, other steps had to be taken, Camp would instead support revolutionary new rules for the 1906 season. These included legalizing the forward pass, perhaps the most significant rule change in the sports history, in both 1919 and 1920, headed by All-American brothers Arnold Horween and Ralph Horween, Harvard was undefeated
18.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
19.
Washington Daily News
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The Washington Daily News was an afternoon tabloid-style newspaper serving the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area. In this case, the tabloid is merely a reference to the paper format. The Washington Daily News was owned by the E. W. Scripps Company, the newspaper was born on November 8,1921, and competed with four established local daily newspapers, the Washington Post, the Washington Times, the Washington Herald, and the Washington Star. The newspapers masthead had The News printed in large, bold letters, on July 12,1972, certain assets of The Washington Daily News were purchased by and merged with the competing Washington Star. The newspaper was renamed the Washington Star News. By the late 1970s the word News completely disappeared from the title, during the 1960s and early 1970s, their offices were located across the street from DCFD Engine Company 16, which was the odd side of the 1000 block of 13th St. NW. The Washington Daily News was the newspaper for Ernie Pyle. People who gained recognition while working at the Daily News include Judy Mann, others who gained recognition from the News included Bill Beall who won a Pulitzer for a photo of trust between a child and a police officer, and Samuel A. The paper was the newspaper of the D. C-majority African American population in Washington at a time when this market for newspapers was secondary
20.
Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting
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This Pulitzer Prize has been awarded since 1942 for a distinguished example of reporting on national affairs. In its first six years, it was called the Pulitzer Prize for Telegraphic Reporting - National,1942, Louis Stark of The New York Times for his distinguished reporting of important labor stories during the year. 1943, No award given 1944, Dewey L. Fleming of The Baltimore Sun For his distinguished reporting during the year 1943,1945, James Reston of The New York Times for his news dispatches and interpretive articles on the Dumbarton Oaks security conference. 1947, Edward T. Folliard of The Washington Post for his series of articles published during 1946 on the Columbians, Inc. 1948, Nat S. Finney, Minneapolis Tribune, for his stories on the plan of the Truman administration to impose secrecy about the affairs of federal civilian agencies in peacetime. 1949, C. P. Trussel, New York Times,1950, Edwin O. Guthman, The Seattle Times, for his series on the clearing of Communist charges of Professor Melvin Rader, who had been accused of attending a secret Communist school. Mr. Lewis received the support of his newspaper in championing an American citizen, without adequate funds or resources for his defense. 1956, Charles L. Bartlett, Chattanooga Times, for his original disclosures that led to the resignation of Harold E. Talbott as Secretary of the Air Force. 1958, Clark Mollenhoff, Des Moines Register and Tribune, for his persistent inquiry into labor racketeering,1960, Vance Trimble, Scripps-Howard Newspaper Alliance, for a series of articles exposing the extent of nepotism in the Congress of the United States. 1961, Edward R. Cony, Wall Street Journal, for his analysis of a transaction which drew the attention of the public to the problems of business ethics. 1962, Nathan G. Caldwell and Gene S.1964, Merriman Smith, United Press International,1965, Louis M. Kohlmeier Jr. Wall Street Journal, for his enterprise in reporting the growth of the fortune of President Lyndon B. Johnson and his family. 1966, Haynes Johnson, Washington Evening Star, for his coverage of the civil rights conflict centered about Selma, Ala. 1967, Stanley Penn and Monroe Karmin, The Wall Street Journal,1968, Howard James, Christian Science Monitor, for his series of articles, Crisis in the Courts. 1969, Robert Cahn, Christian Science Monitor, for his inquiry into the future of our national parks and the methods that may help to preserve them. 1970, William J. Eaton, Chicago Daily News, for disclosures about the background of Judge Clement F. Haynesworth Jr. in connection with his nomination for the United States Supreme Court. 1971, Lucinda Franks and Thomas Powers, United Press International, for their documentary on the life and death of 28-year-old revolutionary Diana Oughton,1972, Jack Anderson, syndicated columnist, for his reporting of American policy decision-making during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971. 1974, Jack White, Providence Journal and Evening Bulletin, for his initiative in exclusively disclosing President Nixons Federal income tax payments in 1970 and 1971. 1974, James R. Polk, Washington Star-News, for his disclosure of alleged irregularities in the financing of the campaign to re-elect President Nixon in 1972,1975, Donald L. Barlett and James B
21.
United States Department of Justice
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The department was formed in 1870 during the Ulysses S. Grant administration. In its early years, the DOJ vigorously prosecuted Ku Klux Klan members, the Department of Justice administers several federal law enforcement agencies including the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Drug Enforcement Administration. The department has responsibility to investigate instances of fraud, to represent the United States in legal matters such as in the Supreme Court. The department also has responsibilities to review actions of law enforcement conduct by the Violent Crime Control. The Department is headed by the United States Attorney General, who is nominated by the President, the current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions. The U. S. Attorney General was initially a one-person and it was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789, but this grew with the bureaucracy. At one time the Attorney General gave legal advice to the U. S. Congress as well as the President, until March 3,1853, the salary of the Attorney General was set by statute at less than the amount paid to other Cabinet members. Early Attorneys General supplemented their salary by engaging in private practice of law. Following unsuccessful efforts to put the Attorney Generals Office on a footing, in 1869. On February 19,1868, Lawrence introduced a bill in Congress to create the Department of Justice, President Ulysses S. Grant then signed the bill into law on June 22,1870. The Department of Justice officially began operations on July 1,1870, just prior to the Civil War, in February 1861, the Confederate States of America established a Department of Justice. Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as Americas first Solicitor General, both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s. In the first few years of Grants first term in there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice. The result was a decrease in violence in the South. Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was better or stronger then Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists. Akermans successor, George H. Williams, in December 1871, the law did create a new office, that of Solicitor General, to supervise and conduct government litigation in the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1884, control of federal prisons was transferred to the new department, new facilities were built, including the penitentiary at Leavenworth in 1895, and a facility for women located in West Virginia, at Alderson was established in 1924. The U. S. Department of Justice building was completed in 1935 from a design by Milton Bennett Medary, upon Medarys death in 1929, the other partners of his Philadelphia firm Zantzinger, Borie and Medary took over the project
22.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
23.
Harvard Law School
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools
24.
Baker v. Carr
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The defendants unsuccessfully argued that redistricting of legislative districts is a political question, and hence not a question that may be resolved by federal courts. Reynolds v. Plaintiff Charles Baker was a Republican who lived in Shelby County, Tennessee, Bakers complaint was that Tennessee had not redistricted since 1901, in response to the 1900 census. By the time of Bakers lawsuit, the population had shifted such that his district in Shelby County had about ten times as many residents as some of the rural districts, the votes of rural citizens were overrepresented compared to those of urban citizens. Bakers argument was that this discrepancy was causing him to fail to receive the protection of the laws required by the Fourteenth Amendment. Defendant Joe Carr was sued in his position as Secretary of State for Tennessee, frankfurter believed that relief for legislative malapportionment had to be won through the political process. The decision of Baker v. Carr was one of the most wrenching in the Courts history, the case had to be put over for reargument because in conference no clear majority emerged for either side of the case. Associate Justice Charles Evans Whittaker was so torn over the case that he eventually had to himself for health reasons. The arduous decisional process in Baker is often blamed for Whittakers subsequent health problems, the opinion was finally handed down in March 1962, nearly a year after it was initially argued. Brennan reformulated the political doctrine, identifying six factors to help in determining which questions were political in nature. Justice Tom C. Clark switched his vote at the last minute to a concurrence on the substance of Bakers claims, instead the Supreme Court remanded the case to the District Court. The large majority in this case can in many ways be attributed to Justice Brennan, Brennan also talked down Justices Black and Douglas from their usual absolutist positions to achieve a compromise. He wrote, Appellants invoke the right to vote and to have their votes counted, but they are permitted to vote and their votes are counted. They go to the polls, they cast their ballots, they send their representatives to the state councils and their complaint is simply that the representatives are not sufficiently numerous or powerful. Having declared redistricting issues justiciable in Baker, the laid out a new test for evaluating such claims. This affected numerous state legislatures that had not redistricted congressional districts for decades and this principle was formally enunciated in Reynolds v. Sims. The Court decided that in states with bicameral legislatures, as had Alabama and this voided the provision of the Alabama Constitution which had provided for two state senators from each county and similar provisions elsewhere. One person, one vote was first applied as a standard for Congressional districts, State legislatures were supposed to redistrict according to changes in population but many had not for decades. This re-apportionment increased the power of urban areas with greater population
25.
Gay Talese
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Gay Talese is an American writer. As a journalist for The New York Times and Esquire magazine in the 1960s, Taleses most famous articles are about Joe DiMaggio and Frank Sinatra. Talese is a writer at the Master of Professional Writing Program at the University of Southern California each spring. Gay Talese was born into a Catholic Italian-American family in Ocean City, New Jersey and his father, Joseph Talese, was a tailor who had emigrated to the United States in 1922 from Maida, a town in the region of Calabria in southern Italy. His mother, the former Catherine DePaolo, was a buyer for a Brooklyn department store, Talese recounted his early years in his book Unto the Sons. Talese graduated from Ocean City High School in 1949, Talese has been married to another writer, Nan Talese, for over 50 years. Talese remains active in the Italian American community, including the National Italian American Foundation, Talese has been an outspoken advocate for more Italian Americans to pursue careers in writing and editing. Taleses entry into writing was entirely happenstance, and the consequence of the then high school sophomores attempt to gain more playing time on the baseball team. After only seven sports articles, Talese was given his own column for the weekly Ocean City Sentinel-Ledger, by the time Talese left for college in September 1949, he had written some 311 stories and columns for the Sentinel-Ledger. He relates in A Writers Life, I learned, to listen with patience and care, and never to interrupt even when people were having great difficulty in explaining themselves, for during such halting and imprecise moments. People are very revealing—what they hesitate to talk about can tell much about them, Talese was accepted to the University of Alabama, where his selection of a major was, as he described it, a moot choice. I chose journalism as my college major because that is what I knew, he recalls, at the University, Gay Talese became a brother of Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity. It was here that Talese would begin to employ literary devices more well known in fiction, such as establishing the scene with minute details, t-shirted Bobby Marlow was just leaving the Sunday morning bull session and dapper Bill Kilroy had just purchased the morning newspapers. This was before Lillian Ross did the same in Picture or Truman Capote used the technique in The Muses are Heard, more importantly, Talese included among his subjects both the losers and the unnoticed. He was more interested in those who did not attain the glory of winning, after graduating in June 1953, Talese moved to New York City, yet could only find work as a copyboy. The job was, however, at the esteemed New York Times, Talese was eventually able to get an article published in the Times, albeit unsigned. In Times Square Anniversary, Talese interviewed the man, Herbert Kesner, Broadcast Editor, Talese followed this with an article in the February 21,1954 edition, concerning the chairs used on the boardwalk of Atlantic City. Yet, his journalism career would have to be put on hold – Talese was drafted into the United States Army in 1954
26.
Robert Kennedy
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Robert Francis Bobby Kennedy, commonly known by his initials RFK, was an American politician from Massachusetts. He served as the United States junior senator from New York from January 1965 until his assassination in June 1968. He was previously the 64th U. S. Attorney General from January 1961 to September 1964, serving under his older brother President John F. Kennedy and his successor, Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and is seen as an icon of modern American liberalism. After serving in the United States Naval Reserve as a Seaman Apprentice from 1944 to 1946, Kennedy graduated from Harvard University, prior to entering public office, he worked as a correspondent for The Boston Post and as an assistant counsel to the Senate committee chaired by Joe McCarthy. Kennedy was the manager for his brother John in the 1960 presidential election. He was appointed Attorney General after the election and served as the closest adviser to the president from 1961 to 1963. His tenure is best known for its advocacy for the Civil Rights Movement, the fight against organized crime and the Mafia, after his brothers assassination, he remained in office in the Johnson administration for a few months. He left to run for the United States Senate in New York in 1964, in 1968, Kennedy was a leading candidate for the Democratic nomination for the presidency, he appealed especially to poor, African-American, Hispanic, Catholic and young voters. Robert F. Kennedy was born on November 20,1925, in Brookline, Massachusetts and his older brothers were Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. and John F. Jack Kennedy, who was elected the 35th President of the United States in 1960. His younger brother was longtime United States Senator Edward M. Ted Kennedy, all four of his grandparents were children of Irish immigrants. His father was a businessman and a leading Irish Catholic figure in the Democratic Party. After he stepped down as ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1940, Joe Sr. focused his attention on his oldest son, Joseph Jr. expecting that he would enter politics and be elected president. He also urged the children to examine and discuss current events in order to propel them to public service. After Joseph Jr. was killed during World War II, the senior Kennedys hopes fell on his son, John. Joseph Sr. had the money and connections to play a role in the familys political ambitions. Kennedys older brother John was often bedridden by illness and, as a result, although he made little effort to get to know his younger brother during his childhood, John would take him for walks and regale him with the stories of heroes and adventures he had read. One of their favorite authors was John Buchan, who wrote The Thirty-Nine Steps, John sometimes referred to Robert as Black Robert due to his prudishness and disposition. He described his position in the hierarchy by saying, When you come from that far down
27.
Gideon v. Wainwright
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Gideon v. Wainwright,372 U. S.335, is a landmark case in United States Supreme Court history. In it, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that states are required under the Sixth Amendment to the U. S, constitution to provide counsel in criminal cases to represent defendants who are unable to afford to pay their own attorneys. Between midnight and 8,00 a. m. on June 3,1961, an unknown person broke a door, smashed a cigarette machine and a record player, and stole money from a cash register. Later that day, a reported that he had seen Clarence Earl Gideon in the poolroom at around 5,30 that morning, leaving with a wine bottle. Based on this alone, the police arrested Gideon and charged him with breaking and entering with intent to commit petty larceny. Under the laws of the State of Florida, the time the court can appoint counsel to represent a defendant is when that person is charged with a capital offense. I am sorry, but I will have to deny your request to appoint counsel to defend you in this case, GIDEON, The United States Supreme Court says I am entitled to be represented by counsel. The Florida court declined to appoint counsel for Gideon, as a result, he was forced to act as his own counsel and conduct his own defense in court, emphasizing his innocence in the case. At the conclusion of the trial the jury returned a guilty verdict, the court sentenced Gideon to serve five years in the state prison. G. Cochran later retired and was replaced with Louie L. Wainwright before the case was heard by the Supreme Court. Gideon argued in his appeal that he had been denied counsel and, therefore, his Sixth Amendment rights, the Supreme Court assigned Gideon a prominent Washington, D. C. attorney, future Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas of the law firm Arnold, Fortas & Porter. Opposing, Bruce Jacob, who later became Dean of the Mercer University School of Law and Dean of Stetson University College of Law, argued the case for the State of Florida. Fortas was assisted by longtime Arnold, Fortas & Porter partner Abe Krash and famed legal scholar John Hart Ely, the Supreme Courts decision was announced on March 18,1963, and delivered by Justice Hugo Black. The decision was announced as unanimous in favor of Gideon, three concurring opinions were written by Justices Clark, Douglas and Harlan. The Supreme Court decision specifically cited its previous ruling in Powell v. Alabama, whether or not the decision in Powell v. Alabama applied to non-capital cases had sparked heated debate. The Supreme Court remanded the case to the Supreme Court of Florida for further action not inconsistent with this decision. In the subsequent cases of Massiah v. United States,377 U. S.201 and Miranda v. Arizona 384 U. S.436, about 2000 individuals that had been convicted were freed in Florida alone as a result of the Gideon decision. The decision did not directly result in Gideon being freed, instead, Gideon chose W. Fred Turner to be his lawyer in his second trial
28.
Hallmark Hall of Fame
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Hallmark Hall of Fame is an anthology program on American television, sponsored by Hallmark Cards, a Kansas City-based greeting card company. The longest-running primetime series in the history of television, it has a long run, beginning in 1951. From 1954 onward, all of its productions have been broadcast in color and it holds a place in television history as one of the first video productions to telecast in color, a rarity in the 1950s. The series has received eighty Emmy Awards, twenty-four Christopher Awards, eleven Peabody Awards, nine Golden Globes, once a common practice in American television, it is the last remaining television program where the title includes the name of its sponsor. Unlike other long-running TV series still on the air, it differs in that it only occasionally. The Hallmark Playhouse changed to more serious literature from all genres and it was the first time a major corporation developed a television project specifically as a means of promoting its products to the viewing public. The program was such a success that it was restaged by Hallmark several times during a period of fifteen years, amahl was also staged by other NBC television anthologies. Early productions included some of the works of Shakespeare, Hamlet, Richard II, The Taming of the Shrew, Macbeth, Twelfth Night. Biographical subjects were very eclectic, ranging from Florence Nightingale to Father Flanagan to Joan of Arc, in a few cases, the actors repeated their original Broadway roles. Two different productions of Hamlet have been broadcast on the Hallmark Hall of Fame, one featuring Maurice Evans, neither one was more than two hours long. Evans and actress Judith Anderson performed their famous stage Macbeth on the Hallmark Hall of Fame on two occasions, each time with a different supporting cast. It may have set a record for the most-nominated Shakespeare production to ever be televised and it was left to National Educational Television and Public Broadcasting Service to be the pioneers in presenting nearly complete Shakespeare productions on American television. As a result of Foote, Cone, and Belding Advertising executive, a Tale of Two Cities was the first Hallmark production to run three hours. The late 1980s featured productions such as Foxfire, My Name is Bill W. Sarah, Plain and Tall, to Dance With the White Dog, The Piano Lesson, and What the Deaf Man Heard. One installment, Promise, featuring James Garner and James Woods, won five Emmys, through the 1980s and 1990s, Hallmark Hall of Fame movies often had twice the budget of other network movies. Hallmark movies also ran approximately 10–15 minutes longer because Hallmark Cards fully sponsored the movies and had commercial breaks. Unlike most network movies of the period, Hallmark always filmed on location, for nearly three decades the series was broadcast by NBC, but the network cancelled it in late 1978 due to declining ratings. Since then, the series has been televised by CBS from 1979 to 1989, then on ABC from 1989 to 1995, then CBS again from 1995 until 2011, when that network cancelled the series due to low ratings
29.
New York Times v. Sullivan
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New York Times Co. v. Sullivan,376 U. S. It is one of the key decisions supporting the freedom of the press, because of the extremely high burden of proof on the plaintiff, and the difficulty of proving the defendants knowledge and intentions, such claims by public figures rarely prevail. In the advertisement, the Committee solicited funds to defend Martin Luther King, the advertisement described actions against civil rights protesters, some of them inaccurately, some of which involved the police force of Montgomery, Alabama. Referring to the Alabama State Police, the advertisement stated, They have arrested seven times, however, at that point he had been arrested four times. Although African-American students staged a demonstration on the State Capitol steps, they sang the National Anthem and not My Country, although the Montgomery Public Safety commissioner, L. B. Sullivan, was not named in the advertisement, the criticism of actions by the police was considered defamatory to Sullivan as well. The Times did not publish a retraction in response to the demand, instead its lawyers wrote a letter stating, among other things, that we. Sullivan did not respond but instead filed a suit a few days later. He also sued four African American ministers mentioned in the ad, specifically Ralph Abernathy, S. S. Seay, Sr. Fred Shuttlesworth, Sullivan won $500,000 in an Alabama court judgment. The Times did subsequently publish a retraction of the advertisement upon the demand of Governor John Patterson of Alabama, improper actions and omissions as Governor of Alabama and ex officio chairman of the State Board of Education of Alabama. However, the Secretary also testified he did not think any of the language in there referred to Mr. Sullivan. Constitutional law scholar Herbert Wechsler successfully argued this case before the United States Supreme Court. Louis M. Loeb, a partner at the firm of Lord Day & Lord who served as counsel to the Times from 1948 to 1967, was among the authors of the Times brief. The courts ruling held that news publications could not be sued for libel by public figures unless the plaintiffs were able to establish actual malice in the reporting of a news story. The case, which had brought against the Times by Sullivan, allowed newspapers to report on the widespread chaos. Loeb later called the libel cases he argued for The New York Times the heaviest responsibility I’ve ever had since I began practicing law, the Court ruled for The Times, 9–0. The decision further held that even with the safeguards, the evidence presented in this case was insufficient to support a judgment for Sullivan. In sum the court ruled that the First Amendment protects the publication of all statements, even false ones, the Court held that a public official suing for defamation must prove that the statement in question was made with actual malice
30.
September 11 attacks
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The September 11 attacks were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States on the morning of Tuesday, September 11,2001. The attacks killed 2,996 people, injured over 6,000 others, two of the planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, were crashed into the North and South towers, respectively, of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. A third plane, American Airlines Flight 77, was crashed into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia and it was the deadliest incident for firefighters and law enforcement officers in the history of the United States, with 343 and 72 killed respectively. Suspicion for the attack fell on al-Qaeda. The United States responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation and expanded the powers of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to prevent terrorist attacks. Although al-Qaedas leader, Osama bin Laden, initially denied any involvement, al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U. S. support of Israel, the presence of U. S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and sanctions against Iraq as motives. Having evaded capture for almost a decade, bin Laden was located and killed by SEAL Team Six of the U. S. Navy in May 2011. S. many closings, evacuations, and cancellations followed, out of respect or fear of further attacks. Cleanup of the World Trade Center site was completed in May 2002, on November 18,2006, construction of One World Trade Center began at the World Trade Center site. The building was opened on November 3,2014. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden traveled to Afghanistan and helped organize Arab mujahideen to resist the Soviets. Under the guidance of Ayman al-Zawahiri, bin Laden became more radical, in 1996, bin Laden issued his first fatwā, calling for American soldiers to leave Saudi Arabia. Bin Laden used Islamic texts to exhort Muslims to attack Americans until the stated grievances are reversed, Muslim legal scholars have throughout Islamic history unanimously agreed that the jihad is an individual duty if the enemy destroys the Muslim countries, according to bin Laden. Bin Laden, who orchestrated the attacks, initially denied but later admitted involvement, in November 2001, U. S. forces recovered a videotape from a destroyed house in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. In the video, bin Laden is seen talking to Khaled al-Harbi, on December 27,2001, a second bin Laden video was released. In the video, he said, It has become clear that the West in general and it is the hatred of crusaders. Terrorism against America deserves to be praised because it was a response to injustice, aimed at forcing America to stop its support for Israel, the transcript refers several times to the United States specifically targeting Muslims. He said that the attacks were carried out because, we are free, and want to regain freedom for our nation. As you undermine our security we undermine yours, Bin Laden said he had personally directed his followers to attack the World Trade Center and the Pentagon
31.
Henry Kissinger
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Henry Alfred Kissinger is an American diplomat and political scientist. Born in Germany, Kissinger was a Jewish refugee who fled the Nazi regime with his family in 1938 and he became National Security Advisor and later concurrently United States Secretary of State in the administrations of presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. For his actions negotiating a ceasefire in Vietnam, Kissinger received the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize under controversial circumstances, Kissinger later sought, unsuccessfully, to return the prize after the ceasefire failed. After his term, his advice has been sought by world leaders including subsequent U. S. presidents, a proponent of Realpolitik, Kissinger played a prominent role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. Kissinger has also associated with such controversial policies as CIA involvement in Chile and U. S. support for Pakistan. He is the founder and chairman of Kissinger Associates, a consulting firm. Kissinger has been an author of books on diplomatic history. General opinion of Henry Kissinger is strongly divided, several scholars have ranked him as the most effective U. S. Secretary of State since 1965, while some journalists, activists, and human rights lawyers have condemned him as a war criminal. Kissinger was born Heinz Alfred Kissinger in Fürth, Bavaria, Germany, in 1923 during the Weimar Republic and his father, Louis Kissinger, was a schoolteacher. His mother, Paula Kissinger, from Leutershausen, was a homemaker, Kissinger has a younger brother, Walter Kissinger. The surname Kissinger was adopted in 1817 by his great-great-grandfather Meyer Löb, as a youth, Heinz enjoyed playing soccer, and played for the youth wing of his favorite club, SpVgg Fürth, which was one of the nations best clubs at the time. In 1938, fleeing Nazi persecution, his family moved to London, England, Kissinger spent his high school years in the Washington Heights section of upper Manhattan as part of the German Jewish immigrant community that resided there at the time. Although Kissinger assimilated quickly into American culture, he never lost his pronounced Frankish accent, following his first year at George Washington High School, he began attending school at night and worked in a shaving brush factory during the day. Following high school, Kissinger enrolled in the City College of New York and he excelled academically as a part-time student, continuing to work while enrolled. His studies were interrupted in early 1943, when he was drafted into the U. S. Army, Kissinger underwent basic training at Camp Croft in Spartanburg, South Carolina. On June 19,1943, while stationed in South Carolina, at the age of 20 years, the army sent him to study engineering at Lafayette College, Pennsylvania, but the program was cancelled, and Kissinger was reassigned to the 84th Infantry Division. Kissinger saw combat with the division, and volunteered for hazardous intelligence duties during the Battle of the Bulge, within eight days he had established a civilian administration. Kissinger was then reassigned to the Counter Intelligence Corps, with the rank of sergeant and he was given charge of a team in Hanover assigned to tracking down Gestapo officers and other saboteurs, for which he was awarded the Bronze Star
32.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
33.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
34.
University of Arizona
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The University of Arizona is a public research university in Tucson, Arizona, United States. Founded in 1885, the UA was the first university in the Arizona Territory, the university operates two medical schools and is affiliated with the regions only academic medical centers. The university is home to the James E. Rogers College of Law and numerous other nationally ranked graduate. During the 2015-2016 academic year, there was an enrollment of 43,088 students. The University of Arizona is governed by the Arizona Board of Regents, the University of Arizona is one of the elected members of the Association of American Universities and is the only representative from the state of Arizona to this group. Known as the Arizona Wildcats, the teams are members of the Pac-12 Conference of the NCAA. UA athletes have won titles in several sports, most notably mens basketball, baseball. The official colors of the university and its teams are UA Red. After the passage of the Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1862, the push for a university in Arizona grew, the University of Arizona was approved by the Arizona Territorys Thieving Thirteenth Legislature in 1885, which also selected the city of Tucson to receive the appropriation to build the university. Tucson had hoped to receive the appropriation for the mental hospital. Tucson was largely disappointed with receiving what was viewed as an inferior prize. Construction of Old Main, the first building on campus, began on October 27,1887, and classes met for the first time in 1891 with 32 students in Old Main, which is still in use today. Because there were no schools in Arizona Territory, the university maintained separate preparatory classes for the first 23 years of operation. The University of Arizona offers 334 fields of study leading to bachelors, masters, doctoral, academic departments and programs are organized into colleges and schools. Currently, grades are given on a strict 4-point scale with A worth 4, B worth 3, C worth 2, D worth 1 and E worth zero points. In 2004, there were discussions with students and faculty that may lead the UA towards eventual usage of the grading system in future years. As of December 2015, the university uses the 4-points scale. The Center for World University Rankings in 2015 ranked Arizona 68th in the world, the 2015–16 Times Higher Education World University Rankings rated University of Arizona 163rd in the world and the 2016/17 QS World University Rankings ranked it 233rd
35.
University of California
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The University of California is a public university system in the U. S. state of California. The University of California was founded in 1868 and operated temporarily in Oakland until opening its first campus in Berkeley in 1873 and its tenth and newest campus in Merced opened in fall 2005. Nine campuses enroll both undergraduate and graduate students, one campus, UC San Francisco, enrolls only graduate and professional students in the medical and health sciences. In addition, the UC Hastings College of Law, located in San Francisco, is affiliated with UC. The University of Californias campuses have large numbers of distinguished faculty in almost every academic discipline, as of 2016, UC faculty and researchers have won 62 Nobel Prizes. UC campuses are perennially ranked highly by various publications, internationally, UC Berkeley, UCLA, and UC San Diego are respectively ranked 3rd, 12th, and 14th worldwide by Academic Ranking of World Universities. In 1849, the state of California ratified its first constitution, taking advantage of the Morrill Land-Grant Acts, the California Legislature established an Agricultural, Mining, and Mechanical Arts College in 1866. However, it existed only on paper, as a placeholder to secure federal land-grant funds, meanwhile, Congregational minister Henry Durant, an alumnus of Yale, had established the private Contra Costa Academy, on June 20,1853, in Oakland, California. The initial site was bounded by Twelfth and Fourteenth Streets and Harrison, the Colleges trustees, educators, and supporters believed in the importance of a liberal arts education, but ran into a lack of interest in liberal arts colleges on the American frontier. In November 1857, the Colleges trustees began to acquire parcels of land facing the Golden Gate in what is now Berkeley for a future planned campus outside of Oakland. But first, they needed to secure the Colleges water rights by buying a farm to the east. In 1864, they organized the College Homestead Association, which borrowed $35,000 to purchase the land, the Association subdivided the latter parcel and started selling lots with the hope it could raise enough money to repay its lenders and also create a new college town. But sales of new homesteads fell short, at the College of Californias 1867 commencement exercises, where Low was present, Benjamin Silliman, Jr. criticized Californians for creating a state polytechnic school instead of a real university. That same day, Low reportedly first suggested a merger of the already-functional College of California with the state college. The University of Californias second president, Daniel Coit Gilman, opened its new campus in Berkeley in September 1873, earlier that year, Toland Medical College in San Francisco had agreed to become the Universitys Medical Department, it later evolved into UCSF. In 1878, the University established Hastings College of the Law in San Francisco as its first law school, the California Constitution was amended to designate Hastings as the Law Department of the University of California in consideration of a $100,000 gift from Serranus Clinton Hastings. Hastings is the only UC campus not governed by the Regents of the University of California, in August 1882, the California State Normal School opened a second school in Los Angeles to train teachers for the growing population of Southern California. In 1927, it became the University of California at Los Angeles, during the 20th century, UC acquired additional satellite locations which, like Los Angeles, were all subordinate to administrators at the Berkeley campus
36.
University of Illinois
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The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, also known as U of I, University of Illinois, UIUC, or simply Illinois, is a public research-intensive university in the U. S. state of Illinois. Founded in 1867 as a land-grant institution in the cities of Champaign and Urbana, it is the flagship campus of the University of Illinois system. In fiscal year 2015, total research expedentures at Illinois totaled $640 million, the campus library system possesses the second-largest university library in the United States after Harvard University. The university also hosts the National Center for Supercomputing Applications and is home to the fastest supercomputer on a university campus, the university comprises 17 colleges that offer more than 150 programs of study. Additionally, the university operates an extension that offers programs to more than 1.5 million registrants per year around the state of Illinois. The university holds 647 buildings on 4,552 acres and its operating budget in 2016 was over $2 billion. Even though Illinois is a university, only about 12% of the budget comes from the state. Between several cities, Urbana was selected in 1867 as the site for the new school, the University opened for classes on March 2,1868, and had two faculty members and 77 students. Gregory is largely credited with establishing the University as it is today, Gregorys grave is on the Urbana campus, between Altgeld Hall and the Henry Administration Building. His headstone reads, If you seek his monument, look about you, the Library, which opened with the school in 1868, started with 1,039 volumes. Subsequently, President Edmund J. James, in a speech to the Board of Trustees in 1912 and it is now one of the worlds largest public academic collections. In 1870, the Mumford House was constructed as a farmhouse for the schools experimental farm. The Mumford House remains the oldest structure on campus, the original University Hall was the fourth building built, it stood where the Illini Union stands today. During the Presidency of Edmund J. James, James is credited for building the foundation of the large Chinese international student population on campus, on June 11,1929, the Alma Mater statue was unveiled. The Alma Mater was established by donations by the Alumni Fund, the University replaced the original university hall with Gregory Hall and the Illini Union. After World War II, the university experienced rapid growth, the enrollment doubled and the academic standing improved. This period was marked by large growth in the Graduate College and increased federal support of scientific. During the 1950s and ’60s the university experienced the turmoil common on many American campuses, among these were the water fights of the fifties and sixties
37.
University of Oregon
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The University of Oregon is a public flagship research university in Eugene, Oregon. Founded in 1876, the institutions 295-acre campus is along the Willamette River, since July 2014, UO has been governed by the Board of Trustees of the University of Oregon. The university has a Carnegie Classification of highest research activity and has 21 research centers, UO was admitted to the Association of American Universities in 1969. UO offers 316 undergraduate and graduate programs in a wide range of disciplines. Additionally, the Graduate School oversees the universitys graduate and certificate programs, UO student-athletes compete as the Ducks and are part of the Pac-12 Conference in the National Collegiate Athletic Association. With eighteen varsity teams, the Oregon Ducks are best known for their team and track. The Oregon State Legislature established the university on October 12,1872, the residents of Eugene struggled to help finance the institution, holding numerous fundraising events such as strawberry festivals, church socials, and produce sales. They raised $27,500, enough to buy eighteen acres of land at a cost of $2,500, the doors officially opened in 1876 with the name of Oregon State University and Deady Hall as its sole building. The first year of enrollment contained 155 students taught by five faculty members, the first graduating class was in 1878, graduating five students. In 1881, the university was closed, it was $8,000 in debt before Henry Villard donated $7,000 to help pay for the debt. In 1913, and again in 1932, there were proposals to merge the university with what is now Oregon State University, during Prince Lucien Campbells tenure as president from 1902 to 1925, the university experienced tremendous growth. The budget, enrollment, facilities, and faculty members all grew several times its amount prior to his presidency, however, the University of Oregon lost its School of Engineering to Oregon Agricultural College, now known as Oregon State University. The Zorn-MacPherson Bill in 1932 proposed the University of Oregon and Oregon State College merge, the bill lost in a landslide vote of over 6 to 1. The University of Oregon Medical School was founded in 1887 in Portland, however, in 1974 it became an independent institution known as Oregon Health Sciences University. In 1969, the UO was admitted into the Association of American Universities, with contributions exceeding $100 million from benefactors such as Phil Knight and Lorry I. Lokey, the goal was exceeded by over $253 million. The University occupies over 80 buildings and these projects, among others, were commissioned in part to support current student enrollment as well as possible future increases. Effective July 1,2014, the University of Oregon became an independent public body governed by the Board of Trustees of the University of Oregon
38.
Elijah P. Lovejoy
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Elijah Parish Lovejoy was an American Presbyterian minister, journalist, newspaper editor and abolitionist. He was murdered by a mob in Alton, Illinois, during their attack on Godfrey and Gillmans warehouse to destroy his press. He attended Waterville College in his state of Maine. From 1824 until his 1826 graduation, while still an undergraduate, he served as headmaster of Colby’s associated high school. He traveled west and in 1827 settled in St. Louis and he worked as an editor of an anti-Jacksonian newspaper, the St. Louis Observer and ran a school. Five years later, he studied at the Princeton Theological Seminary in New Jersey, returning to St. Louis, he set up a church and resumed work as editor of the Observer. His editorials criticized slavery and other church denominations, in May 1836, after anti-abolitionist opponents in St. Louis destroyed his printing press for the third time, Lovejoy left the city and moved across the river to Alton in the free state of Illinois. In 1837 he started the Alton Observer, also an abolitionist paper, on November 7,1837, a pro-slavery mob attacked the warehouse where Lovejoy had his fourth printing press. Lovejoy and his supporters exchanged gunfire with the mob, which shot him. He died on the spot and was hailed as a martyr by abolitionists across the country. After his death, his brother Owen Lovejoy entered politics and became the leader of the Illinois abolitionists, Lovejoy was born at his grandfathers frontier farmhouse near Albion, Maine, as the first of the nine children of Elizabeth Lovejoy and Daniel Lovejoy. Lovejoys father was a Congregational preacher and farmer and his mother, Daniel Lovejoy named his son Elijah Parish in honor of his close friend and mentor, Elijah Parish, a minister who was also involved in politics. Due to his own lack of an education, he encouraged his sons—Daniel, Joseph Cammett, Owen, John, as a result, Elijah was taught to read the Bible and other theological texts at an early age. After completing his studies in public schools, Lovejoy attended the Academy at Monmouth. After becoming proficient enough in Latin and mathematics, he enrolled at Waterville College in Waterville, Maine and he excelled in his studies, and upon faculty recommendation, he became a teacher in the colleges preparatory division. Lovejoy received financial support from minister Benjamin Tappan to continue his attendance at Waterville College and his cousin Nathan A. Farwell later served as a U. S. In September 1826, Lovejoy graduated from Waterville College with first-class honors at the top of his class, during the winter and spring, he taught at China Academy. Dissatisfied with daily teaching, Lovejoy thought about moving to the South or Western United States and his former teachers at Waterville College advised him that he would best serve God in the West
39.
Doctor of Laws
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Doctor of Law or Doctor of Laws is a degree in law. The application of the term varies from country to country, and includes such as the Doctor of Juridical Science, Doctor juris, Doctor of Philosophy, Juris Doctor. In Argentina the Doctor of Laws or Doctor of Juridical Sciences is the highest academic qualification in the field of Jurisprudence, to obtain the doctoral degree the applicant must have previously achieved, at least the undergraduate degree of Attorney. In some of the countrys most important universities there is a title known as livre docência. However, this title is not a degree in the strict sense, because livre docência nowadays is an internal title. The doctoral degree is awarded upon the completion and the defense of a thesis prepared by the doctoral candidate under the supervision of a tutor. The thesis must be examined by a board of five professors, holders of the title of doctor or of a livre docência, two of the members of the board must be professors from another institution. In most Brazilian Law Schools, the candidates are required to earn a minimum number of credits. Unlike the rules of other countries, the Brazilian norms governing the grant of doctoral titles do not require the publication of the thesis as a precondition for the award of the degree, nevertheless, copies of the thesis must be delivered to the institutions library. Usually, doctoral thesis are published by specialized editors after the grant of the doctoral title, if one obtains a doctoral title in a foreign country, one cannot enjoy the academic privileges of the title in Brazil unless the title be first validated by a Brazilian University. Admission to doctoral courses is almost universally reserved to holders of a masters degree, there are, however, a few universities that allow direct admission to the doctoral course without previous completion of the Masters course in exceptional circumstances. Thus, in cases, a bachelor of Laws, can be admitted directly to a doctoral course. Usually, one is allowed three years time to complete a Master of Laws degree, and four years time to complete the doctoral course. On the other hand, in the cases in which a bachelor of Laws is allowed to pursue a direct doctorate. Unlike the Master of Laws dissertation, the Doctoral Thesys must contain a contribution to the field of Law under study. In Canada, there are several academic law-related doctorates, the Doctor of Laws, Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science, Doctor of Civil Law, the Doctor of Jurisprudence is the professional doctorate degree that is usually required for admissions to post-graduate studies in law. The first law degree was known until recently as the Bachelor of Laws, after the first law degree, one may pursue a second, the Masters of Laws and after that, the Doctor of Law, at some Canadian universities. Of the universities in Canada that offer earned academic doctorates in law, four offer LL. Ds, four offer Ph. Ds, the differences largely reflect the divide between Canadas two legal systems
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Colby College
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Colby College is a private liberal arts college located near Waterville, Maine, United States. Colby was founded in 1813, and is named after prominent Baptist preacher Gardner Colby, approximately 1,800 students from more than 60 countries are enrolled annually. The college offers 54 major fields of study and 30 minors, among national liberal arts colleges, Colby was ranked 12th by U. S. News & World Report, 19th by Forbes, and 21st by Washington Monthly. Located in central Maine, the 714-acre Neo-Georgian campus sits atop Mayflower Hill and overlooks downtown Waterville, the college competes in the NESCAC conference as the White Mules, and is a member of the Colby-Bates-Bowdoin Consortium, an athletic rivalry and academic exchange program. On February 27,1813, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, led by Baptists, adopted a petition to establish the Maine Literary and it was moved to Waterville, Maine and used 179 acres of land donated by citizens. In 1818, trustees assigned the institution to Rev. Jeremiah Chaplin, after Maine separated from Massachusetts in 1820, the first Maine legislature affirmed the Massachusetts charter for the institution, but made significant changes. The Maine Literary and Theological Institution was renamed Waterville College on February 5,1821, and four years later, in 1833, Rev. Rufus Babcock became Colbys second president, and students formed the nations first college-based anti-slavery society. In 1845, the colleges first Greek Society was formed, a chapter of Delta Kappa Epsilon, during the Civil War, many young men were called away from school to join the fight, from Waterville College, Richard C. Twenty-seven Waterville College students perished in the war, and more than 100 men from the town, in the years following the war, as was the case at many American colleges, Waterville College was left with few students remaining to pay the bills and a depleted endowment. The college was on the verge of closing, Trustees of the college voted to construct a library and chapel to honor the Colby men who died in the war, called the Memorial Hall, it was dedicated at the commencement of 1869. The college remained isolated from neighboring Bates College, and Bowdoin College due to location in Waterville, coupled with socio-economic. At the 1871 commencement, a Martin Milmore sculpture based on the Lion of Lucerne was added as the centerpiece of the building, in the fall of 1871, Colby University was the first all-male college in New England to accept female students. The national Sigma Kappa sorority was founded at Colby in 1874 by the colleges first five female students, however the college resegregated them in 1890. One of the buildings is named after the first woman to attend, Mary Caffrey Low, students published the first issue of The Colby Echo in 1877. On January 25,1899, Colby president Nathaniel Butler Jr.73, in 1920, Colby celebrated its centennial, marking not the date of the original charter, but the date of its charter from the new State of Maine in 1820. Franklin W. Johnson was appointed president of the college in June 1929 and that same year saw the public release of the Maine Higher Education Survey Report, which gave Colbys campus a less than desirable review. Using the report as justification, President Johnson presented a proposal to move the college to an adequate location to the Trustees on June 14,1929. The campaign to raise funds for the move was complicated by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression
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Presidential Citizens Medal
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The Presidential Citizens Medal is an award bestowed by the President of the United States. It is the second-highest civilian award in the United States, second only to the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Established by executive order on November 13,1969, by President Richard Nixon, the award is only eligible to United States citizens and may be awarded posthumously. The medal is a disc of gilt and enamel, based on the Seal of the President of the United States, the medal is suspended on a ribbon, dark blue with a light blue central stripe and white edge stripes. Hubert Dickey Ballantine and Martin Mathews were jointly awarded the 1981 Citizens Medal as founders of the Mathews-Dickey Boys Club, Awards and decorations of the United States government List of awards for volunteerism and community service Nixon, Richard. The White House - Presidential Citizens Medal Criteria The White House - President Clinton Awards the Presidential Citizens Medals Library Thing - Presidential Citizens Medal
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Bill Clinton
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William Jefferson Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Prior to the Presidency he was the 40th Governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, before that, he served as Arkansas Attorney General from 1977 to 1979. A member of the Democratic Party, Clinton was ideogically a New Democrat, Clinton is married to Hillary Clinton, who served as United States Secretary of State from 2009 to 2013 and U. S. Senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and served the Democratic nominee for President in 2016, Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham both earned degrees from Yale Law School, where they met and began dating. As Governor of Arkansas, Clinton overhauled the states education system, Clinton was elected President of the United States in 1992, defeating incumbent George H. W. Bush. At age 46, he was the third-youngest president and the first from the Baby Boomer generation, Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history and signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement. After failing to pass health care reform, the Democratic House was ousted when the Republican Party won control of the Congress in 1994. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin D. Roosevelt to be elected to a second term, Clinton passed welfare reform and the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, providing health coverage for millions of children. Clinton was acquitted by the U. S. Senate in 1999, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clintons presidency. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U. S. Clinton left office with the highest end-of-office approval rating of any U. S. President since World War II, since then, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address international causes, such as the prevention of AIDS, in 2004, Clinton published his autobiography, My Life. In 2009, Clinton was named the United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti, since leaving office, Clinton has been rated highly in public opinion polls of U. S. Presidents. Clinton was born on August 19,1946, at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas and he was the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr. a traveling salesman who had died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy. His parents had married on September 4,1943, but this later proved to be bigamous. Soon after their son was born, his mother traveled to New Orleans to study nursing, leaving her son in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States was segregated racially, in 1950, Bills mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr. who owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950, although he immediately assumed use of his stepfathers surname, it was not until Clinton turned fifteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward his stepfather. In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. Johns Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School—where he was a student leader, avid reader
