1.
Ethnobiology
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Ethnobiology is the scientific study of the way living things are treated or used by different human cultures. It studies the relationships between people, biota, and environments, from the distant past to the immediate present. Naturalists have been interested in biological knowledge since the time Europeans started colonising the world. Entered into Europe during this period, such as the potato, tomato, pumpkin, maize, during the 19th century, Charles Darwin, the father of evolutionary theory, on his Voyage of the Beagle took interest in the local biological knowledge of peoples he encountered. Ethnobiology itself, as a practice, only emerged during the 20th century as part of the records then being made about other peoples. As a practice, it was nearly always ancillary to other pursuits when documenting others languages, folklore, ethno-biology as the descriptive biological knowledge of primitive peoples. In Sillitoes words, By the mid-20th century, utilitarian-focussed studies started to give way to more cognitively framed ones, notably studies that centred on elucidating classificatory schemes. Porteres and others work in economic biology, the Society of Ethnobiology advises on its web page, Ethnobiology is a rapidly growing field of research, gaining professional, student, and public interest. Ethnobiologists investigate what lifeforms are used for what purposes, the techniques of use, the reasons for these choices. Different societies divide the world up in different ways. Ethnobiologists attempt to record the words used in cultures for living things. They also try to understand the structure or hierarchy of the classification system Ethnobiology. Proceedings of the First International Congress of Ethnobiology, cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity. London, United Nations Environmental Programme & Intermediate Technology Publications, & VON REIS, S Ethnobotany, evolution of a discipline Chapman & Hall. SILLITOE, Paul Ethnobiology and applied anthropology, rapprochement of the academic with the practical, special Edition of the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute S119-S142 STEVENSON, M. C. Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report, TUXILL, J & NABHAN, G. P People, plants and protected area. WARREN, D. M, SLIKKERVEER, L, & BROKENSHA, the cultural dimension of development, indigenous knowledge systems. ZERNER, C People, plants and justice, the politics of nature conservation, will provide a unique opportunity to further its goal of protecting our natural heritage
2.
Anthropology
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Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
3.
Ethnology
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Ethnology is the branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationship between them. The term ethnologia is credited to Adam Franz Kollár who used and defined it in his Historiae ivrisqve pvblici Regni Vngariae amoenitates published in Vienna in 1783, the distinction between the three terms is increasingly blurry. Ethnology has been considered a field since the late 18th century especially in Europe and is sometimes conceived of as any comparative study of human groups. The 15th-century exploration of America by European explorers had an important role in formulating new notions of the Occidental, such as and this term was used in conjunction with savages, which was either seen as a brutal barbarian, or alternatively, as noble savage. Thus, civilization was opposed in a dualist manner to barbary, lévi-Strauss often referred to Montaignes essay on cannibalism as an early example of ethnology. Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a method, at discovering universal invariants in human society. However, the claims of such cultural universalism have been criticized by various 19th and 20th century social thinkers, including Marx, Nietzsche, Foucault, Derrida, Althusser, list of scholars of ethnology Forster, Johann Georg Adam. Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty’s Sloop, Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772,3,4, the Elementary Structures of Kinship, Structural Anthropology Mauss, Marcel. Originally published as Essai sur le don, forme et raison de léchange dans les sociétés archaïques in 1925, this classic text on gift economy appears in the English edition as The Gift, The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies. Akwe-Shavante society, The Politics of Ethnicity, Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States, problemi generali delletnologia europea, La Ricerca Folklorica, No. Webpage History of German Anthropology/Ethnology 1945/49-1990 Languages describes the languages and ethnic groups found worldwide, national Museum of Ethnology - Osaka, Japan Texts on Wikisource, Rhyn, G. A. F. Van
4.
Medicine
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Medicine is the science and practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The word medicine is derived from Latin medicus, meaning a physician, Medicine encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Medicine has existed for thousands of years, during most of which it was an art frequently having connections to the religious and philosophical beliefs of local culture. For example, a man would apply herbs and say prayers for healing, or an ancient philosopher. In recent centuries, since the advent of modern science, most medicine has become a combination of art, while stitching technique for sutures is an art learned through practice, the knowledge of what happens at the cellular and molecular level in the tissues being stitched arises through science. Prescientific forms of medicine are now known as medicine and folk medicine. They remain commonly used with or instead of medicine and are thus called alternative medicine. For example, evidence on the effectiveness of acupuncture is variable and inconsistent for any condition, in contrast, treatments outside the bounds of safety and efficacy are termed quackery. Medical availability and clinical practice varies across the world due to differences in culture. In modern clinical practice, physicians personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, the doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patients medical history and medical record, followed by a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices are typically used, after examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests, take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided, during the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Follow-ups may be shorter but follow the general procedure. The diagnosis and treatment may take only a few minutes or a few weeks depending upon the complexity of the issue, the components of the medical interview and encounter are, Chief complaint, the reason for the current medical visit. They are in the patients own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one, also called chief concern or presenting complaint. History of present illness, the order of events of symptoms. Distinguishable from history of illness, often called past medical history
5.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
6.
Veterinary medicine
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Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease, disorder and injury in non-human animals. The scope of medicine is wide, covering all animal species. Veterinary medicine is practiced, both with and without professional supervision. Professional care is most often led by a physician. This can be augmented by other paraprofessionals with specific specialisms such as animal physiotherapy or dentistry, Veterinary science helps human health through the monitoring and control of zoonotic disease, food safety, and indirectly through human applications from basic medical research. They also help to maintain food supply through livestock health monitoring and treatment, Veterinary scientists often collaborate with epidemiologists, and other health or natural scientists depending on type of work. Ethically, veterinarians are obliged to look after animal welfare. The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun and Vedic literature in ancient India offer one of the first written records of veterinary medicine, first Buddhist Emperor of India edicts of Asoka reads, Everywhere King Piyadasi made two kinds of medicine available, medicine for people and medicine for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought, the first attempts to organize and regulate the practice of treating animals tended to focus on horses because of their economic significance. In the Middle Ages from around 475 CE, farriers combined their work in horseshoeing with the general task of horse doctoring. This ultimately led to the establishment of the Worshipful Company of Farriers in 1674, meanwhile, Carlo Ruinis book Anatomia del Cavallo, was published in 1598. It was the first comprehensive treatise on the anatomy of a non-human species, the first veterinary college was founded in Lyon, France in 1762 by Claude Bourgelat. According to Lupton, after observing the devastation being caused by cattle plague to the French herds, the Odiham Agricultural Society was founded in 1783 in England to promote agriculture and industry, and played an important role in the foundation of the veterinary profession in Britain. A founding member, Thomas Burgess, began to take up the cause of animal welfare and campaign for the more humane treatment of sick animals. A1785 Society meeting resolved to promote the study of Farriery upon rational scientific principles. ”The physician James Clark wrote a treatise entitled Prevention of Disease in which he argued for the professionalization of the trade. The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons was established by charter in 1844. Veterinary science came of age in the late 19th century, with contributions from Sir John McFadyean. In the United States, the first schools were established in the early 19th century in Boston, New York, in 1879, Iowa Agricultural College became the first land grant college to establish a school of veterinary medicine
7.
Zoology
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The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
8.
Pauleen Bennett
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Pauleen Charmayne Bennett is an Australian scientist researching anthrozoology at La Trobe University in Victoria, Australia. Pauleen Charmayne Bennett was born in Ivanhoe, Victoria on 13 October 1963 and she grew up on her familys poultry farm near the Mornington Peninsula, on the south-east outskirts of suburban Melbourne. Her review of the issues surrounding cosmetic tail docking of dogs, Bennett has a strong commitment to knowledge transfer and has been instrumental in the development of several courses. She also led development of the Graduate Certificate in Animal Welfare offered by the Animal Welfare Science Centre, Bennett is currently an Associate Professor and Director of Regional Operations at La Trobe University in Bendigo, Victoria. Bennett lives in regional Victoria outside of Bendigo with her partner, Ron Wheeler, and their collection of dogs, horses, goats and one cat
9.
Interaction
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Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of an effect is essential in the concept of interaction. A closely related term is interconnectivity, which deals with the interactions of interactions within systems, interaction has different tailored meanings in various sciences. In physics, an interaction or fundamental force is a process by which elementary particles interact with each other. An interaction is described as a physical field, and is mediated by the exchange of gauge bosons between particles. For example, the interaction of charged particles takes place through the mediation of electromagnetic fields, an interaction is fundamental when it cannot be described in terms of other interactions. There are four fundamental interactions in Nature, The electromagnetic, strong, weak. The weak and electromagnetic interactions are unified in electroweak theory, which is unified with the force in the standard model. Interactions between atoms and molecules, In molecular biology, the knowledge on gene/protein interaction among themselves, in medicine, most medications can be safely used with other medicines, but particular combinations of medicines need to be monitored for interactions, often by the pharmacist. Interactions between medications fall generally into one of two categories, pharmacodynamic, Involving the actions of the two interacting drugs. Pharmacokinetic, Involving the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of one or both of the interacting drugs upon the other, in terms of efficacy, there can be three types of interactions between medications, additive, synergistic, and antagonistic. Additive interaction means the effect of two chemicals is equal to the sum of the effect of the two chemicals taken separately and this is usually due to the two chemicals acting on the body via same or similar mechanism. Examples are aspirin and motrin, alcohol and depressant, tranquilizer and painkiller, synergistic interaction means that the effect of two chemicals taken together is greater than the sum of their separate effect at the same doses. An example is pesticide and fertilizer, the effect is devastating. Antagonistic interaction means that the effect of two chemicals is actually less than the sum of the effect of the two drugs taken independently of each other and this is because the second chemical increases the excretion of the first, or even directly blocks its toxic actions. Antagonism forms the basis for antidotes of poisonings, further characterizations is enhancement interaction and nonadditive interaction. Biosemioticists investigate sign-mediated interactions within and between organisms that underlie syntactic, pragmatic and semantic rules, the word epistasis is also used for genetic interaction in some contexts. In sociology, social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of actions between individuals who modify their actions and reactions due to the actions by their interaction partner
10.
Captivity (animal)
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Animals that live under human care are in captivity. Captivity can be used as a term to describe the keeping of either domesticated animals or wild animals. This may include, for example, farms, private homes, zoos, keeping animals in human captivity and under human care can thus be distinguished between three primary categories according to the particular motives, objectives and conditions. The domestication of animals is the oldest documented instance of keeping animals in captivity and this process eventually resulted in habituation of wild animal species to survive in the company of, or by the labor of, human beings. Domesticated species are those whose behaviour, life cycle, or physiology has been altered as a result of their breeding and living conditions under human control for multiple generations. Probably the earliest known animal was the dog, likely as early as 15000 BC among hunter-gatherers in several locations. Throughout history not only domestic animals as pets and livestock were kept in captivity and under human care, also, in past times, primarily the wealthy, aristocrats and kings collected wild animals for various reasons. Contrary to domestication, the ferociousness and natural behaviour of the animals were preserved and exhibited. Todays zoos claim other reasons for keeping animals under human care, conservation, education, captive animals, especially those not domesticated, sometimes develop abnormal behaviours. One type of behaviour is stereotypical behaviors, i. e. repetitive. Examples of stereotypical behaviours include pacing, self-injury, route tracing and these behaviors are associated with stress and lack of stimulation. Many who keep animals in captivity attempt to prevent or decrease stereotypical behavior by introducing stimuli, a type of abnormal behavior shown in captive animals is self-injurious behavior. Self-injurious behavior indicates any activity that involves biting, scratching, hitting, hair plucking, although its reported incidence is low, self-injurious behavior is observed across a range of primate species, especially when they experience social isolation in infancy. Self-bite involves biting one’s own body—typically the arms, legs, shoulders, threat bite involves biting one’s own body—typically the hand, wrist, or forearm—while staring at the observer, conspecific, or mirror in a threatening manner. Self-hit involves striking oneself on any part of the body, eye poking is a behavior that presses the knuckle or finger into the orbital space above the eye socket. Hair plucking is a jerking motion applied to one’s own hair with hands or teeth, the proximal causes of self-injurious behavior have been widely studied in captive primates, either social or nonsocial factors can trigger this type of behavior. Social isolation, particularly disruptions of early mother-rearing experiences, is an important risk factor, nonsocial factors include the presence of a small cut, a wound or irritant, cold weather, human contact, and frequent zoo visitors. On top of self inflicted harm, some animals exhibit harm towards others and this can be exhibited in various forma, such as Orca whales, which never have killed a human in the wild, killing two of its own trainers
11.
Domestication of animals
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The domestication of animals is the mutual relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction. Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domesticated species different from their wild ancestors, there is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. Domestication should not be confused with taming, the dog was the first to be domesticated, and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. Unlike other domestic species which were selected for production-related traits. One study has concluded that human selection for domestic traits likely counteracted the effect of gene flow from wild boars into pigs. The same process may apply to other domesticated animals. This definition recognizes both the biological and the components of the domestication process and the effects on both humans and the domesticated animals and plants. All past definitions of domestication have included a relationship between humans with plants and animals, but their differences lay in who was considered as the partner in the relationship. This new definition recognizes a mutualistic relationship in both partners gain benefits. Domestication has vastly enhanced the reproductive output of crop plants, livestock, domestication syndrome is a term often used to describe the suite of phenotypic traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors. Domestication should not be confused with taming, human selection included tameness, but without a suitable evolutionary response then domestication was not achieved. Domestic animals need not be tame in the sense, such as the Spanish fighting bull. Wild animals can be tame, such as a hand-raised cheetah, a domestic animals breeding is controlled by humans and its tameness and tolerance of humans is genetically determined. However, an animal bred in captivity is not necessarily domesticated. Tigers, gorillas, and polar bears breed readily in captivity but are not domesticated, Asian elephants are wild animals that with taming manifest outward signs of domestication, yet their breeding is not human controlled and thus they are not true domesticates. Because the evolution of animals is ongoing, the process of domestication has a beginning. Domestication is a fluid and nonlinear process that may start, stop, reverse, however, there are universal features held in common by all domesticated animals. This implies that not all animals can be domesticated, e. g. a wild member of the horse family, carnivores feed on flesh, which would require the domesticators to raise additional animals to feed the carnivores and therefore increase the consumption of plants further
12.
Domestic animal
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This includes species which are semi-domesticated, undomesticated but captive-bred on a commercial scale, or commonly wild-caught, at least occasionally captive-bred, and tameable. A number of factors determine how quickly any changes may occur in a species, however, domestication is a gradual process, i. e. there is no precise moment in the history of a given species when it can be considered to have become fully domesticated. Archaeozoology has identified three classes of animal domesticates, commensals, adapted to a niche, prey animals sought for food. To sort the tables chronologically by date of domestication, refresh your browser window, as clicking the Date column heading will mix AD, due to the somewhat unclear outlines of what, precisely, constitutes domestication, there are some species that may or may not be fully domesticated. There are also species that are used or kept as pets by humans. Most animals on this table are at least somewhat altered from wild animals by their extensive interactions with humans. Many could not be released into the wild, or are in some way dependent on humans
13.
Zoo
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A zoo is a facility in which animals are confined within enclosures, displayed to the public, and in which they may also breed. The term zoological garden refers to zoology, the study of animals, the abbreviation zoo was first used of the London Zoological Gardens, which was opened for scientific study in 1828 and to the public in 1857. The number of animal collections open to the public around the world now exceeds to 1,000. In the United States of America alone, zoos are visited by over 180 million people annually, London Zoo, which opened in 1826, first called itself a menagerie or zoological forest, which is short for Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society of London. The term zoological park was used for more facilities in Washington, D. C. and the Bronx in New York. Relatively new terms for zoos coined in the late 20th century are conservation park or biopark, adopting a new name is a strategy used by some zoo professionals to distance their institutions from the stereotypical and nowadays criticized zoo concept of the 19th century. The term biopark was first coined and developed by the National Zoo in Washington D. C. in the late 1980s, in 1993, the New York Zoological Society changed its name to the Wildlife Conservation Society and rebranded the zoos under its jurisdiction as wildlife conservation parks. The predecessor of the garden is the menagerie, which has a long history from the ancient world to modern times. The oldest known collection was revealed during excavations at Hierakonpolis, Egypt in 2009. The exotic animals included hippopotami, hartebeest, elephants, baboons, King Ashur-bel-kala of the Middle Assyrian Empire created zoological and botanical gardens in the 11th century BCE. In the 2nd century BCE, the Chinese Empress Tanki had a house of deer built, other well-known collectors of animals included King Solomon of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah, queen Semiramis and King Ashurbanipal of Assyria, and King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia. By the 4th century BCE, zoos existed in most of the Greek city states, the Roman emperors kept private collections of animals for study or for use in the arena, the latter faring notoriously poorly. The 19th-century historian W. E. H. Lecky wrote of the Roman games, first held in 366 BCE, At one time, a bear, four hundred bears were killed in a single day under Caligula. Under Nero, four hundred tigers fought with bulls and elephants, in a single day, at the dedication of the Colosseum by Titus, five thousand animals perished. Lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, giraffes, bulls, stags, even crocodiles, henry I of England kept a collection of animals at his palace in Woodstock, which reportedly included lions, leopards, and camels. The most prominent collection in medieval England was in the Tower of London and it was opened to the public during the reign of Elizabeth I in the 16th century. During the 18th century, the price of admission was three half-pence, or the supply of a cat or dog for feeding to the lions, the animals were moved to the London Zoo when it opened. The oldest zoo in the still in existence is the Tiergarten Schönbrunn in Vienna
14.
Domestication
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Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors. There is a difference between domestic and wild populations. The dog was the first domesticated vertebrate, and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. Among birds, the domestic species today is the chicken, important for meat and eggs, though economically valuable poultry include the turkey, guineafowl. Birds are also kept as cagebirds, from songbirds to parrots. The longest established invertebrate domesticates are the bee and the silkworm. Terrestrial snails are raised for food, while species from several phyla are kept for research, the domestication of plants began at least 12,000 years ago with cereals in the Middle East, and the bottle gourd in Asia. Agriculture developed in at least 11 different centres around the world, domesticating different crops, Domestication means belonging to the house. Animals domesticated for home companionship are usually called pets, while those domesticated for food or work are called livestock or farm animals and this definition recognizes both the biological and the cultural components of the domestication process and the impacts on both humans and the domesticated animals and plants. All past definitions of domestication have included a relationship between humans with plants and animals, but their differences lay in who was considered as the partner in the relationship. This new definition recognizes a mutualistic relationship in both partners gain benefits. Domestication has vastly enhanced the reproductive output of crop plants, livestock, Domestication syndrome is the suite of phenotypic traits arising during domestication that distinguish crops from their wild ancestors. The domestication of animals is the relationship between animals with the humans who have influence on their care and reproduction. Charles Darwin recognized the small number of traits that made domestic species different from their wild ancestors, there is a genetic difference between domestic and wild populations. Domestication should not be confused with taming, the beginnings of animal domestication involved a protracted coevolutionary process with multiple stages along different pathways. The dog was the first domesticant, and was established across Eurasia before the end of the Late Pleistocene era, well before cultivation and before the domestication of other animals. Humans did not intend to domesticate animals from, or at least they did not envision a domesticated animal resulting from, in both of these cases, humans became entangled with these species as the relationship between them, and the human role in their survival and reproduction, intensified. Although the directed pathway proceeded from capture to taming, the two pathways are not as goal-oriented and archaeological records suggest that they take place over much longer time frames
15.
Speciesism
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Speciesism involves the assignment of different values, rights, or special consideration to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership. Their claim is that species membership has no moral significance, the term is not used consistently, but broadly embraces two ideas. It usually refers to human speciesism, the exclusion of all animals from the rights, freedoms. Activities such as these, that were standard human behaviors across the millennia, the term speciesism, and the argument that it is simply a prejudice, first appeared in 1970 in a privately printed pamphlet written by British psychologist Richard D. Ryder. Ryder was a member of a group of intellectuals in Oxford, England, one of the groups activities was distributing pamphlets about areas of concern, the pamphlet titled Speciesism was written to protest against animal experimentation. Ryder argued in the pamphlet that ince Darwin, scientists have agreed that there is no essential difference between humans and other animals, biologically-speaking. Why then do we make an almost total distinction morally, if all organisms are on one physical continuum, then we should also be on the same moral continuum. Ryder wrote, In as much as race and species are vague terms used in the classification of living creatures according, largely, to physical appearance. Discrimination on grounds of race, although most universally condoned two centuries ago, is now widely condemned, similarly, it may come to pass that enlightened minds may one day abhor speciesism as much as they now detest racism. The illogicality in both forms of prejudice is of an identical sort, the time has come to act upon this logic. Those who claim that speciesism is unfair to non-human species have often argued their case by invoking mammals, the term was popularized by the Australian philosopher Peter Singer in his book Animal Liberation. Singer had known Ryder from his own time as a philosophy student at Oxford. He credited Ryder with having coined the term and used it in the title of his books fifth chapter, sexists violate the principle of equality by favouring the interests of their own sex. Similarly, speciesists allow the interests of their own species to override the interests of members of other species. The pattern is identical in each case, Singer argued that, although there may be differences between humans and nonhumans, they share the capacity to suffer, and we must give equal consideration to that suffering. Any position that allows similar cases to be treated in a dissimilar fashion fails to qualify as a moral theory. The term caught on, Singer wrote that it was an awkward word and it became an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985, defined as discrimination against or exploitation of animal species by human beings, based on an assumption of mankinds superiority. Paola Cavalieri writes that the current humanist paradigm is that human beings are members of the moral community
16.
Cruelty to animals
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Cruelty to animals sometimes encompasses inflicting harm or suffering for personal amusement, as in zoosadism. Laws concerning animal cruelty are designed to prevent the needless cruelty, divergent approaches to such laws occur in different jurisdictions throughout the world. For example, some laws govern methods of killing animals for food, clothing, or other products, Cruelty to animals is not necessarily the same thing as disrespect towards animals. In broad terms, there are three approaches to the issue of cruelty to animals. Utilitarian advocates argue from the position of costs and benefits and vary in their conclusions as to the treatment of animals. Some utilitarians argue for an approach which is closer to the animal welfare position. Animal rights theorists criticize these positions, arguing that the unnecessary and humane are subject to widely differing interpretations. They say that the way to ensure protection for animals is to end their status as property. Certain thinkers, however, still viewed cruelty against animals as an injustice, renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vincis regard for animal welfare, for example, is well-documented. He was particularly troubled by the sight of birds in captivity, da Vinci also expressed anger within his notebooks with the fact that humans use their strength and power to raise animals for slaughter. René Descartes contrarily believed that non-humans are automata, complex machines with no soul, mind, in Cartesian dualism, consciousness was unique to human among all other animals and linked to physical matter by divine grace. However, close analysis shows that many features such as complex sign usage, tool use. Charles Darwin, by presenting the theory of evolution, revolutionized the way that humans viewed their relationship with other species, Darwin believed that not only did human beings have a direct kinship with other animals, but the latter had social, mental and moral lives too. Later, in The Descent of Man, he wrote, There is no difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties. Some philosophers and intellectuals, such as Peter Singer and Tom Regan, have argued that animals ability to feel pain as humans does make their well-being worthy of equal consideration, There are many precursors of this train of thought. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, famously wrote in his An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, The question is not, can they reason nor can they talk. These arguments have prompted some to suggest that animals well-being should enter a social welfare function directly, in one survey of United States homeowners, 68% of respondents said they actually consider the price of meat a more important issue. Animal cruelty can be broken down into two categories, active and passive
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Personhood
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Personhood is the status of being a person. Defining personhood is a topic in philosophy and law and is closely tied with legal and political concepts of citizenship, equality. According to law, only a person or legal personality has rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities. Processes through which personhood is recognized socially and legally vary cross-culturally, anthropologist Beth Conklin has shown how personhood is tied to social relations among the Wari people of Rondônia, Brazil. Bruce Knaufts studies of the Gebusi people of Papua New Guinea depict a context in which individuals become persons incrementally, goodale has also examined the construction of personhood in Papua New Guinea. Capacities or attributes common to definitions of personhood can include human nature, agency, self-awareness, a notion of the past and future, in philosophy, the word person may refer to various concepts. According to Charles Taylor, the problem with the naturalist view is that it solely on a performance criterion to determine what is an agent. Thus, other things that exhibit similarly complex adaptive behaviour could not be distinguished from persons, instead, Taylor proposes a significance-based view of personhood, What is crucial about agents is that things matter to them. We thus cannot simply identify agents by a performance criterion, nor assimilate animals to machines, there are matters of significance for human beings which are peculiarly human, and have no analogue with animals. Others, such as American Philosopher Francis J. Beckwith, argue that personhood is not linked to function at all, what is crucial morally is the being of a person, not his or her functioning. …A human person who lacks the ability to think rationally is still a person because of her nature. Consequently, it makes sense to speak of a human being’s lack if, Philosopher J. P. Harry G. Frankfurt writes that, What philosophers have lately come to accept as analysis of the concept of a person is not actually analysis of that concept at all. They are capable of wanting to be different, in their preferences and purposes, many animals appear to have the capacity for what I shall call first-order desires or desires of the first order, which are simply desires to do or not to do one thing or another. No animal other than man, however, appears to have the capacity for reflective self-evaluation that is manifested in the formation of second-order desires, the criteria for being a person. Are designed to capture those attributes which are the subject of our most humane concern with ourselves, as it turns out, this erasure. Other philosophers have defined persons in different ways, Boethius gives the definition of person as an individual substance of a rational nature. Mary Midgley defines a “person” as being a conscious, thinking being, while many of Whites criteria are somewhat anthropocentric, some animals such as dolphins would still be considered persons. Some animal rights groups have also championed recognition for animals as persons, all four concepts require full articulation for any one of them to be fully intelligible
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National Institutes of Health
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The National Institutes of Health is a biomedical research facility primarily located in Bethesda, Maryland. An agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, it is the agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical. The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers that conduct research in different disciplines of biomedical science, NIHs roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U. S. Navy. By 1870, a network of hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York, in the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this changed its name to Public Health Services. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities, in 1930, the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, in 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health. In the 1960s prominent virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital, when three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, this experiment gained considerable media attention. The NIH was a source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation. }Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research involving human experimentation with review boards. In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased funding in order to increase research. An advisory committee was formed to further development of the NIH. The funding of NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress and this contention was seen most dramatically during the 1980s, when President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. But it was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, by the 1990s, the focus of the NIH committee had shifted to DNA research, and the Human Genome Project was launched. In 2009, President Obama reinstated federally funded research, revoking the ban imposed by President Bush in 2001
19.
Ethology
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Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour throughout history, Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to some other disciplines such as neuroanatomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology. Ethologists are typically interested in a process rather than in a particular animal group. Ethology is a growing field. New fields, such as neuroethology, have developed, understanding ethology or animal behaviour can be important in animal training. Considering the natural behaviours of different species or breeds enables the trainer to select the individuals best suited to perform the required task and it also enables the trainer to encourage the performance of naturally occurring behaviours and also the discontinuance of undesirable behaviours. The term ethology derives from the Greek language, ἦθος, ethos meaning character and -λογία, the term was first popularized by American myrmecologist William Morton Wheeler in 1902. An earlier, slightly different sense of the term was proposed by John Stuart Mill in his 1843 System of Logic. He recommended the development of a new science, ethology, the purpose of which would be explanation of individual and national differences in character and this use of the word was never adopted. Comparative psychology also studies animal behaviour, but, as opposed to ethology, is construed as a sub-topic of psychology rather than as one of biology. The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do result in different perspectives, in addition, for most of the twentieth century, comparative psychology developed most strongly in North America, while ethology was stronger in Europe. From a practical standpoint, early comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few species, ethologists were more interested in understanding behaviour across a wide range of species to facilitate principled comparisons across taxonomic groups. Ethologists have made more use of such cross-species comparisons than comparative psychologists have. See also, Great Chain of Being Until the 19th century, jean-Baptiste Lamarck was the first biologist to describe a complex theory of evolution. The second statement is that living organism, humans included. When Charles Darwin went to the Galapagos Islands, he was aware of Lamarcks theories and was influenced by them. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book The Expression of the Emotions in Man, other early ethologists, such as Charles O. Their beginning for studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an ethogram and this provided an objective, cumulative data-base of behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and supplement
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Animal rights
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They maintain that animals should no longer be viewed as property or used as food, clothing, research subjects, entertainment, or beasts of burden. Advocates approach the issue from a variety of perspectives, the abolitionist view is that animals have moral rights, which the pursuit of incremental reform may undermine by encouraging human beings to feel comfortable with using them. Gary Franciones abolitionist position promotes ethical veganism and he argues that animal rights groups that pursue welfare concerns, such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, risk making the public feel comfortable about its use of animals. He calls such groups the new welfarists, PETA argues that Franciones criticism does little to help alleviate the suffering of individual animals and also trivializes the efforts of workers in the field who handle cruelty cases. It also creates divisiveness within the animal liberation movement instead of focusing on shared goals, sentiocentrism is the theory that sentient individuals are the subject of moral concern and therefore are deserving of rights. Protectionists seek incremental reform in how animals are treated, with a view to ending animal use entirely and this position is represented by the philosopher Peter Singer. Multiple cultural traditions around the world—such as Animism, Taoism, Hinduism, Buddhism, the animals most often considered in arguments for personhood are bonobos and chimpanzees. S. Congress with the enactment of the Animal Enterprise Protection Act, Aristotle argued that animals lacked reason, and placed humans at the top of the natural world, yet the respect for animals in ancient Greece was very high. Some animals were considered divine e. g. dolphins, the 21st-century debates about animals can be traced back to the ancient world, and the idea of a divine hierarchy. Dominion need not entail property rights, but it has been interpreted, by some, contemporary philosopher Bernard Rollin writes that dominion does not entail or allow abuse any more than does dominion a parent enjoys over a child. Rollin further states that the Biblical Sabbath requirement promulgated in the Ten Commandments required that animals be granted a day of rest along with humans, correlatively, the Bible forbids plowing with an ox and an ass together. According to the tradition, this prohibition stems from the hardship that an ass would suffer by being compelled to keep up with an ox. Similarly, one finds the prohibition against muzzling an ox when it treads out the grain and these ancient regulations, virtually forgotten, bespeak of an eloquent awareness of the status of animals as ends in themselves, a point also corroborated by Norm Phelps. The philosopher and mathematician, Pythagoras, urged respect for animals, believing that human and nonhuman souls were reincarnated from human to animal, and vice versa. Against this, Aristotle, student to the philosopher Plato, argued that animals had no interests of their own. Theophrastus, one of Aristotles pupils, argued that also had reasoning. Plutarch in his Life of Cato the Elder comments that while law and justice are strictly to men only, beneficence. This is intended as a correction and advance over the merely utilitarian treatment of animals, according to Richard D. Ryder, the first known animal protection legislation in Europe was passed in Ireland in 1635
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Anthropomorphism
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Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, and intentions to non-human entities and is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations, emotions and natural forces like seasons. Both have ancient roots as storytelling and artistic devices, and most cultures have traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals as characters, people have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioural traits to wild as well as domestic animals. Anthropomorphism derives from its verb form anthropomorphize, itself derived from the Greek ánthrōpos and it is first attested in 1753, originally in reference to the heresy of applying a human form to the Christian God. One of the oldest known is a sculpture, the Löwenmensch figurine, Germany. It is not possible to say what these prehistoric artworks represent, in either case there is an element of anthropomorphism. This anthropomorphic art has been linked by archaeologist Steven Mithen with the emergence of more systematic hunting practices in the Upper Palaeolithic. In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism refers to the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, ancient mythologies frequently represented the divine as deities with human forms and qualities. They resemble human beings not only in appearance and personality, they exhibited many human behaviors that were used to explain phenomena, creation. The deities fell in love, married, had children, fought battles, wielded weapons and they feasted on special foods, and sometimes required sacrifices of food, beverage, and sacred objects to be made by human beings. Some anthropomorphic deities represented specific concepts, such as love, war, fertility, beauty. Anthropomorphic deities exhibited human qualities such as beauty, wisdom, and power, and sometimes human weaknesses such as greed, hatred, jealousy, Greek deities such as Zeus and Apollo often were depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits. Anthropomorphism in this case is referred to as anthropotheism, from the perspective of adherents to religions in which humans were created in the form of the divine, the phenomenon may be considered theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans. Anthropomorphism has cropped up as a Christian heresy, particularly prominently with the Audians in third century Syria, but also in fourth century Egypt and tenth century Italy. This often was based on an interpretation of Genesis 1,27, So God created man in His own image, in the image of God created He him. Some religions, scholars, and philosophers objected to anthropomorphic deities. Ethiopians say that their gods are snub–nosed and blackThracians that they are pale and he said that the greatest god resembles man neither in form nor in mind. Both Judaism and Islam reject an anthropomorphic deity, believing that God is beyond human comprehension, judaisms rejection of an anthropomorphic deity grew during the Hasmonean period, when Jewish belief incorporated some Greek philosophy. Judaisms rejection grew further after the Islamic Golden Age in the tenth century, hindus do not reject the concept of a deity in the abstract unmanifested, but note practical problems
22.
Pet
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A pet or companion animal is an animal kept primarily for a persons company, protection, or entertainment rather than as a working animal, sport animal, livestock, or laboratory animal. Popular pets are often noted for their appearances and their loyal or playful personalities. Pets provide their owners physical and emotional benefits, walking a dog can supply both the human and pet with exercise, fresh air, and social interaction. Pets can give companionship to elderly adults who do not have social interaction with other people. There is an approved class of therapy animals, mostly dogs or cats. Pet therapy utilizes trained animals and handlers to achieve physical, social, cognitive. Some scholars and animal rights organizations have raised concern over pet-keeping with regards to the autonomy, States, cities, and towns in Western nations commonly enact local ordinances to limit the number or kind of pets a person may keep personally or for business purposes. Prohibited pets may be specific to certain breeds, they may apply to general categories of animals, additional or different maintenance rules and regulations may also apply. Condominium associations and owners of properties also commonly limit or forbid tenants keeping of pets. The keeping of animals as pets can cause concerns with regard to animal rights, pets have commonly been considered private property, owned by individual persons. However, many legal protections have existed with the intention of safeguarding pets well-being, since the year 2000, a small but increasing number of jurisdictions in North America have enacted laws redefining pets owners as guardians. Intentions have been characterized as simply changing attitudes and perceptions to working toward legal personhood for pets themselves, some veterinarians and breeders have opposed these moves. The question of legal status can arise with concern to purchase or adoption, custody, divorce, estate and inheritance, injury, damage. There are approximately 86.4 million pet cats in the United States, approximately 78.2 million pet dogs in the United States, the two most popular pets in most Western countries have been cats and dogs. In the United States, a 2007–2008 survey showed that dog-owning households outnumbered those owning cats, the same was true for 2011. In 2013, pets outnumbered children four to one in the United States, for a small to medium-size dog, the total cost over a dogs lifetime is about $7,240 to $12,700. For an indoor cat, the total cost over a lifetime is about $8,620 to $11,275. People most commonly get pets for companionship, to protect a home or property, the most common reasons for not owning a pet are lack of time, lack of suitable housing, and lack of ability to care for the pet when traveling
23.
Domestication of the horse
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A number of hypotheses exist on many of the key issues regarding the domestication of the horse. Although horses appeared in Paleolithic cave art as early as 30,000 BCE, how and when horses became domesticated is disputed. The clearest evidence of use of the horse as a means of transport is from chariot burials dated c.2000 BCE. Regardless of the date of domestication, use of horses spread rapidly across Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work. The date of the domestication of the horse depends to some degree upon the definition of domestication, some zoologists define domestication as human control over breeding, which can be detected in ancient skeletal samples by changes in the size and variability of ancient horse populations. Other researchers look at evidence, including skeletal and dental evidence of working activity, weapons, art, and spiritual artifacts. There is also evidence that horses were kept as meat animals prior to being trained as working animals, attempts to date domestication by genetic study or analysis of physical remains rests on the assumption that there was a separation of the genotypes of domesticated and wild populations. Further, all modern horse populations retain the ability to revert to a state, and all feral horses are of domestic types. Regardless of the date of domestication, use of horses spread rapidly across Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work. A2005 study analyzed the mitochondrial DNA of a range of equids, from 53. A more detailed analysis of the true horses grouped them into two major clades, one of these clades, which seemed to have been restricted to North America, is now extinct. The other clade was broadly distributed from North America to central Europe and it became extinct in Beringia around 14,200 years ago, and in the rest of the Americas around 10,000 years ago. This clade survived in Eurasia, however, and it is from these horses which all domestic horses appear to have descended and these horses showed little phylogeographic structure, probably reflecting their high degree of mobility and adaptability. Therefore, the horse today is classified as Equus ferus caballus. No genetic originals of native wild horses currently exist, other than the never-domesticated Przewalskis Horse, the Przewalski has 66 chromosomes, however, as opposed to 64 among modern domesticated horses, and their Mitochondrial DNA forms a distinct cluster. The horses of the Ice Age were hunted for meat in Europe and across the Eurasian steppes, numerous kill sites exist and many cave paintings in Europe indicate what they looked like. However, more recent study indicates that there was only one wild species and this prototype may have contributed to the development of the warmblood horses of northern Europe, as well as older heavy horses such as the Ardennais. The Oriental subspecies, a taller, slim, refined and agile animal arising in Western Asia, adapted to hot and it is thought to be the progenitor of the modern Arabian horse and Akhal-Teke
24.
Human bonding
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Human bonding is the process of development of a close, interpersonal relationship. It most commonly takes place between family members or friends, but can also develop among groups, such as sporting teams, Bonding is a mutual, interactive process, and is different from simple liking. Bonding typically refers to the process of attachment that develops between romantic partners, close friends, or parents and children and this bond is characterized by emotions such as affection and trust. Any two people who spend time together may form a bond, male bonding refers to the establishment of relationships between men through shared activities that often exclude females. The term female bonding refers to the formation of personal relationships between women. In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Plato argued that love directs the bonds of human society, in his Symposium, Eryximachus, one of the narrators in the dialog, states that love goes far beyond simple attraction to human beauty. He states that it occurs throughout the animal and plant kingdoms, Love directs everything that occurs, in the realm of the gods as well as that of humans. Eryximachus reasons that when various opposing elements such as wet and dry are animated by the species of Love. But when the sort of Love that is crude and impulsive controls the seasons, he brings death, Plato concludes that the highest form of love is the greatest. That is, according to Spinoza, when a man is prey to his emotions, he is not his own master, humans in passionate relationships, according to Goethe, are analogous to reactive substances in a chemical equation. The term pair bond originated in 1940 in reference to mated pairs of birds, whilst some form of monogamy may characterize around 90% of bird species, in mammals long-term pairing is rare, at around 3%. The incidence of monogamy in primate species is low in contrast with polygyny. Similarly, whilst the naturalness of monogamy in humans is debated, limerent–Nonlimerent bond, define relationships in which one partner is limerent. Limerent–Limerent bond, define relationships in both partners are limerent. The constitution of these bonds may vary over the course of the relationship, in 1958, British developmental psychologist John Bowlby published the paper the Nature of the Childs Tie to his Mother, in which the precursory concepts of attachment theory were developed. Attachment theory has some of its origins in the observation of and experiments with animals, much of the early research on attachment in humans was done by John Bowlby and his associates. Bowlby proposed that babies have an inbuilt need from birth to make emotional attachments, i. e. bonds, Bowlby did not describe mutuality in attachment. He stated that attachment by mother was an inversion and described only behaviors of the infant
25.
Insects in culture
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The roles of insects in culture span different aspects of human life, whether analysed academically or more generally. Both academic disciplines explore the parallels, connections and influence of insects on human populations and they are rooted in anthropology and natural history, as well as entomology, the study of insects. Other cultural uses of insects, such as biomimicry, do not necessarily lie within these academic disciplines, more generally, people make a wide range of uses of insects, both practical and symbolic. One insect, the bee, provides honey, pollen, royal jelly, propolis. Medical uses of insects include maggot therapy for wound debridement, over a thousand protein families have been identified in the saliva of blood-feeding insects, these may provide useful drugs such as anticoagulants, vasodilators, antihistamines and anaesthetics. Symbolic uses include roles in art, in music, in film, in literature, in religion, insect costumes are used in theatrical productions and worn for parties and carnivals. Ethnoentomology developed from the 19th century with works by authors such as Alfred Russel Wallace. Hans Zinssers classic Rats, Lice and History showed that insects were an important force in human history, writers like William Morton Wheeler, Maurice Maeterlinck, and Jean Henri Fabre described insect life and communicated their meaning to people with imagination and brilliance. Frederick Simon Bodenheimers Insects as Human Food drew attention to the scope and potential of entomophagy, Food is the most studied topic in ethnoentomology, followed by medicine and beekeeping. In 1968, Erwin Schimitschek claimed cultural entomology as a branch of insect studies, in a review of the roles played in folklore and culture including religion, food, medicine. In 1984, Charles Hogue covered the field in English and from 1994 to 1997 and he added, Because the term cultural is narrowly defined, some aspects normally included in studies of human societies are excluded. Posey states at once that the division is artificial, complete with an unjustified us/them bias, a fundamental tenet is that a few species of arthropod are well understood for their influence on humans. However, insects offer ecological goods and services, the Xerces Society calculates the economic impact of four ecological services rendered by insects, pollination, recreation, dung burial, and pest control. The value has been estimated at $153 billion worldwide, as the ant expert E. O. Wilson observed, If all mankind were to disappear, the world would regenerate back to the rich state of equilibrium that existed ten thousand years ago. If insects were to vanish, the environment would collapse into chaos, a Nova segment on the American Public Broadcasting Service framed the relationship with insects in an urban context, We humans like to think that we run the world. But even in the heart of our cities, a rival superpower thrives. These tiny creatures live all around us in vast numbers, though we hardly notice them. But in many ways, it is they who really run the show, in other words, Start thinking about the bugs
26.
Origin of the domestic dog
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The origin of the domestic dog is not clear. The domestic dog is a member of genus Canis that forms part of the wolf-like canids, the closest living relative of the dog is the gray wolf and there is no evidence of any other canine contributing to its genetic lineage. The dog and the extant gray wolf form two clades, with modern wolves not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated. The archaeological record shows the first undisputed dog remains buried beside humans 14,700 years ago and these dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists. The dog was the first domesticated species, where the genetic divergence of dog and wolf took place remains controversial, with the most plausible proposals spanning Western Europe, Central Asia, and East Asia. The Western Eurasian dog population was partially and gradually replaced by East Asian dogs introduced by humans at least 6,400 years ago. Six million years ago at the close of the Miocene era, the climate was gradually cooling and this would lead to the glaciations of the Pliocene. In many areas the forests and savannahs were being replaced with steppe or grasslands, on opposite sides of the planet, two very different lineages would adapt to these changes and their evolution would produce two species that would become the most widely distributed of mammals. In eastern Africa, a split was occurring among the large primates, the two lineages would ultimately meet on the Eurasian continent. Further Information, Canid evolution Dog evolution is the descent with modification that led to the domestic dog. This process encompasses small-scale evolution and large-scale evolution, the domestic dog is the most widely abundant large carnivore. When and where dogs were first domesticated has vexed geneticists for the past 20 years, the range of natural variation among these characters that may have existed in ancient wolf populations, and the time it took for these traits to appear in dogs, are unknown. However, recent studies based on genetics propose four generalizations about dogs, over the past million years, numerous wolf-like forms existed but their turnover has been high, and modern wolves are not the lineal ancestors of dogs. This indicates that an extant wolf population that is the ancestor to dogs has not been found and is presumed extinct, the dog is not a separate species to the wolf. The dog was the first domesticated species and appeared more than 15,000 years before present, studies support two population bottlenecks had occurred to the dog lineage, one due to the initial domestication and one due to the formation of dog breeds. Dogs show both ancient and modern lineages, the ancient lineages appear most in Asia but least in Europe because the Victorian era development of modern dog breeds used little of the ancient lineages. All dog populations show some evidence of admixture between modern and ancient dogs. Some ancient dog populations that once occupied Europe and the New World no longer exist and this implies that some ancient dog populations were entirely replaced and others admixed over a long period of time
27.
Service animal
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Service animals are animals that have been trained to perform tasks that assist people with disabilities. Service animals may also be referred to as assistance animals, assist animals, support animals, or helper animals depending on the country, Dog are the most common service animals, assisting people in many different ways since at least 1927. Other animals such as monkeys, birds, and horses have also been documented, in places of public accommodation in the United States, only dogs are legally considered service animals. It is legal in certain states to have service animals, for instance, in Montana all animals are allowed at state level. Many cats, birds, and even a wolf are working to help mitigate peoples disabilities in Montana and it is also legal to train your own service animal in the United States. There is a definition for assistance animals under the US Fair Housing Act as well as a broader definition for service animals under the US Air Carrier Access Act. However, religious organizations are not required to provide such access, current federal regulations define service animal for ADA purposes to exclude all species of animals other than domestic dogs and miniature horses. Other laws, though, still provide broader definitions in other areas, for instance, the Department of Transportations regulations enacting the Air Carrier Access Act permit dogs and other service animals to accompany passengers on commercial airlines. A service animal is a dog that is trained to do work or perform tasks for a person with a disability. Generally, title II and title III entities must permit service animals to people with disabilities in all areas where members of the public are allowed to go. Entities covered by the ADA must modify their policies to permit miniature horses where reasonable, the regulations set out four assessment factors to assist entities in determining whether miniature horses can be accommodated in their facility. In most South American countries and Mexico, guide dog access depends solely upon the goodwill of the owner or manager, in more tourist-heavy areas, guide dogs are generally welcomed without problems. In Brazil, however, a 2006 federal decree requires allowance of guide dogs in all public, the Brasília Metro has developed a program which trains guide dogs to ride it. In Europe, the situation varies by location, some countries have laws that govern the entire country and sometimes the decision is left up to the respective regions. In Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act 1992 protects all assistance dog handlers, current laws may not ensure that assistance dog users can always have their service animals present in all situations. Each state and territory has its own laws, which pertain to guide dogs. Queensland has introduced the Guide Hearing and Assistance Dog Act 2009 that covers all certified assistance dogs, in Canada, guide dogs along with other service animals are allowed anywhere that the general public is allowed, as long as the owner is in control of them. Fines for denying a service animal access can be up to $3000 in Alberta, in South Korea, it is illegal to deny access to guide dogs in any areas that are open to the public
28.
Social grooming
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In social animals, including humans, social grooming is an activity in which individuals in a group clean or maintain one anothers body or appearance. A related term, allogrooming, indicates social grooming between members of the same species, Grooming is a major social activity, and a means by which animals who live in proximity may bond and reinforce social structures, family links, and build relationships. Social grooming also is used as a form of reconciliation and a means of resolution in some species. Mutual grooming typically describes the act of grooming between two individuals, often as a part of grooming, pair bonding, or a precoital activity. Social grooming behavior presents several advantages which come in various forms. Extensive research has been conducted on these advantages, and has aided behavioral ecologists in understanding this behavior through an evolutionary perspective, there are a variety of proposed mechanisms for how social grooming enhances fitness. One of the most critical functions of grooming is to establish social networks. In many species, individuals form close social connections dubbed “friendships. ”In primates especially, grooming is known to have social significance and function in the formation. Grooming networks in black crested gibbons have been proven to contribute greater social cohesion, groups of gibbons with more stable social networks formed grooming networks that were significantly more complex, while groups with low stability networks formed far fewer grooming pairs. In meerkats, social grooming has shown to carry the role of maintaining relationships that increase fitness. In addition to primates, though far less studied, animals such as deer, cows, horses, vole, mice, meerkats, coati, lions, birds, bats also form social bonds through grooming behavior. Social grooming is critical for vampire bats especially, since it is necessary for them to maintain food-sharing relationships in order to sustain their food regurgitation sharing behavior, Social grooming relationships have been proven to provide direct fitness benefits to a variety of species. One such study, which collected 16 years of data on wild baboons. A positive relationship is established between infant survival to one year and a composite sociality index, a measure of sociality based on proximity, evidence has also been provided for the effect of sociality on adult survival in wild female baboons. A direct correlation between measures of social connectedness and median survival time was modelled, in humans, social connection has been shown to positively influence both health and survival. Social bonds established by grooming may provide an advantage in the form of conflict resolution and protection from aggression. In this highly studied baboon species, adult females form relationships with their kin, in Barbary macaques, social grooming results in the formation of crucial relationships among partners. These social relationships serve to aid cooperation and facilitate protection against combative groups composed of other males, furthermore, social relationships have also been proven to decrease risk of infanticide in several primates
29.
Zooarchaeology
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Zooarchaeology is the study of faunal remains. Faunal remains are the left behind when an animal dies. It includes, bones, shells, hair, chitin, scales, hides, proteins, of these items, bones and shells are the ones that occur most frequently at archaeological sites where faunal remains can be found. Much of the time, most of the remains do not survive. They often decompose or break because of various circumstances and this can cause difficulties in identifying the remains and interpreting their significance. The development of zooarchaeology in Eastern North America can be broken up into three different periods, the first being the Formative period starting around the 1860s, the second being the Systematization period beginning in the early 1950s, and the Integration period which began about 1969. Full-time zooarchaeologists didn’t come about until the Systematization period, before that it was just a technique that was applied but not specifically studied. Zooarchaeological specialists started to come about partly because of a new approach to archaeology known as “processual archaeology. ”This approach puts more emphasis on explaining why things happened, archaeologists began to specialize in zooarchaeology, and their numbers increased from there on. Zooarchaeology is primarily used to answer several questions and these include, What was the diet like, and in what ways were the animals used for food. Which were the animals that were eaten, in what amounts, who were the ones to obtain the food, and did the availability of that food depend on age or gender. How was culture, such as technologies and behavior, influenced by, what purposes, other than food, were animals used for. Zooarchaeology can also tell us what the environment might have been like in order for the different animals to have survived, in addition to helping us understand the past, zooarchaeology can also help us to improve the present and the future. Studying how people dealt with animals, and its effects can help us avoid many potential ecological problems and this specifically includes problems involving wildlife management. For example, one of the questions that wildlife preservationists ask is whether they should keep animals facing extinction in several smaller areas, based on zooarchaeological evidence, they found that animals that are split up into several smaller areas are more likely to go extinct. One of the techniques that use is close attention to taphonomy. This includes studying how items are buried and deposited at the site in question, what the conditions are that aid in the preservation of these items, another technique that zooarchaeologists use is lab analysis. This analysis can include comparing the skeletons found on site with already identified animal skeletons and this not only helps to identify what the animal is, but also whether the animal was domesticated or not. Yet another technique that zooarchaeologists use is quantification and they make interpretations based on the number and size of the bones
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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Animal testing
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This approach can be contrasted with field studies in which animals are observed in their natural environments. Examples of applied research include testing, breeding, defense research and toxicology, in education, animal testing is sometimes a component of biology or psychology courses. The practice is regulated to varying degrees in different countries, worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals—from zebrafish to non-human primates—ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million used annually. In the United States in 2014, official statistics indicate that 834,453 vertebrates were used in research, in the European Union, these species represent 93% of animals used in research. If the same was true in the United States, then the number of animals used in research is estimated to be between 12 and 25 million. One estimate of mice and rats used in the United States alone in 2001 was 80 million, in the European Union in 2011,11.5 million animals were used in research. Mice, rats, fish, amphibians and reptiles together account for over 85% of research animals, most animals are euthanized after being used in an experiment. Supporters of the use of animals in experiments, such as the British Royal Society, the terms animal testing, animal experimentation, animal research, in vivo testing, and vivisection have similar denotations but different connotations. Literally, vivisection means the cutting up of a living animal, the word has a negative connotation, implying torture, suffering, and death. The word vivisection is preferred by those opposed to this research, the earliest references to animal testing are found in the writings of the Greeks in the 2nd and 4th centuries BCE. Aristotle and Erasistratus were among the first to perform experiments on living animals, galen, a physician in 2nd-century Rome, dissected pigs and goats, and is known as the father of vivisection. Animals have repeatedly been used through the history of biomedical research, the founders, in 1831, of the Dublin Zoo were members of the medical profession, interested in studying the animals both while they were alive and when they were dead. In the 1880s, Louis Pasteur convincingly demonstrated the theory of medicine by inducing anthrax in sheep. In the 1880s, Robert Koch infected mice and guinea pigs with anthrax, in the 1890s, Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to describe classical conditioning. In World War I, German agents infected sheep bound for Russia with anthrax, between 1917 and 1918, the Germans infected mules in Argentina bound for American forces, resulting in the death of 200 mules. Insulin was first isolated from dogs in 1922, and revolutionized the treatment of diabetes, on November 3,1957, a Soviet dog, Laika, became the first of many animals to orbit the earth. In the 1970s, antibiotic treatments and vaccines for leprosy were developed using armadillos and this genetic research progressed rapidly and, in 1996, Dolly the sheep was born, the first mammal to be cloned from an adult cell. Toxicology testing became important in the 20th century, in the 19th century, laws regulating drugs were more relaxed
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Animal welfare
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Animal welfare is the well-being of animals. The standards of animal welfare vary considerably between different contexts. These standards are under constant review and are debated, created and revised by animal groups, legislators. These concerns can include how animals are slaughtered for food, how they are used in research, how they are kept. Animal welfare was a concern of some ancient civilizations but began to take a place in Western public policy in 19th-century Great Britain. In the 21st century, it is a significant focus of interest in science, ethics, there are two forms of criticism of the concept of animal welfare, coming from diametrically opposite positions. One view, dating back centuries, asserts that animals are not consciously aware, however, some still maintain that consciousness is a philosophical question that may never be scientifically resolved. The other view is based on the animal rights position that animals should not be regarded as property, accordingly, some animal rights proponents argue that the perception of better animal welfare facilitates continued and increased exploitation of animals. Some authorities therefore treat animal welfare and animal rights as two opposing positions, others see the increasing concern for animal welfare as incremental steps towards animal rights. There are many different approaches to describing and defining animal welfare, providing good animal welfare is sometimes defined by a list of positive conditions which should be provided to the animal. This approach is taken by the Five Freedoms and the three principles of Professor John Webster, in the past, many have seen farm animal welfare chiefly in terms of whether the animal is producing well. g. Others in the field, such as Professor Ian Duncan and Professor Marian Dawkins and this approach indicates the belief that animals should be considered as sentient beings. In any assessment of welfare, it is these feelings that should be assessed, Dawkins wrote, Let us not mince words, Animal welfare involves the subjective feelings of animals. Yew-Kwang Ng defines animal welfare in terms of economics, Welfare biology is the study of living things. Despite difficulties of ascertaining and measuring welfare and relevancy to normative issues and they have offered the following eight principles for developing and evaluating animal welfare policies. Decisions regarding animal care, use, and welfare shall be made by balancing scientific knowledge, Animals must be provided water, food, proper handling, health care, and an environment appropriate to their care and use, with thoughtful consideration for their species-typical biology and behavior. Animals should be cared for in ways that minimize fear, pain, stress, procedures related to animal housing, management, care, and use should be continuously evaluated, and when indicated, refined or replaced. Conservation and management of animal populations should be humane, socially responsible, Animals shall be treated with respect and dignity throughout their lives and, when necessary, provided a humane death
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Veganism
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Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. A follower of either the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan, distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans refrain from consuming animal products, not only meat but also eggs, dairy products and other animal-derived substances. The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who not only follow a diet but extend the philosophy into other areas of their lives. Donald Watson coined the term vegan in 1944 when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England, at first he used it to mean non-dairy vegetarian, but from 1951 the society defined it as the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals. Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s, more vegan stores opened, and vegan options became increasingly available in supermarkets and restaurants in many countries. Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease and they are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. The German Society for Nutrition cautions against vegan diets for children, because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12, researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement. The origin of the English term vegetarian is unknown, the earliest known use is attributed to the actress Fanny Kemble, writing around 1839 in Georgia in the United States. The practice can be traced to Indus valley civilization in 3300 -1300 BCE Ancient India, the earliest known vegan was the Arab poet Al-Maʿarri. Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century England and the United States, a minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely. Lambe called animal food an habitual irritation, and argued that ilk eating and flesh eating are but branches of a common system, and they must stand or fall together. Sylvester Grahams meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, several vegan communities were established around this time. In 1843 members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food, led by Sophia Chichester, Alcott House also helped to establish the British Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent. Belongs to the more moderate division. The first known vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldons No Animal Food, the consumption of milk and eggs became a battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger, it appears from the pages that many opponents of veganism came from within the vegetarian community. This lent support to the position, although Gandhi himself drank goats milk
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Ahimsa
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Ahimsa means not to injure and compassion and refers to a key virtue in Indian religions. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike, hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, i. e. cause no injury, do no harm. Ahimsa is also referred to as nonviolence, and it applies to all living beings—including all animals—in ancient Indian religions, Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues and an important tenet of Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Ahimsa is a concept, inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy, therefore. Ahimsa has also related to the notion that any violence has karmic consequences. While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of Ahimsa, most popularly, Mahatma Gandhi strongly believed in the principle of ahimsa. Ahimsas precept of cause no injury includes ones deeds, words, classical literature of Hinduism such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as modern scholars debate principles of Ahimsa when one is faced with war and situations requiring self-defence. The historic literature from India and modern discussions have contributed to theories of Just War, and theories of appropriate self-defence. The word Ahimsa—sometimes spelled as Ahinsa—is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike, hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, There is a debate on the origins of the word Ahimsa, and how its meaning evolved. Mayrhofer as well as Dumot suggest the word may be han which means kill. Schmidt as well as Bodewitz explain the root word is hiṃs and the Sanskrit verb hinasti. Wackernagel-Debrunner concur with the latter explanation, ancient texts use ahimsa to mean non-injury, a broader concept than non-violence. Non-injury implies not killing others, as well as not hurting others mentally or verbally, in classical Sanskrit literature of Hinduism, another word Adrohi is sometimes used instead of Ahimsa, as one of the cardinal virtues necessary for moral life. One example is in Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.6.23, Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in Vedic texts. The oldest scripts, along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices, indirectly mention Ahimsa, the term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda, where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of non-injury, the Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture. Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads, Kaneda gives examples of the word Ahimsa in these Upanishads. Other scholars suggest Ahimsa as a concept that started evolving in the Vedas
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