1.
Fascism
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Fascism /ˈfæʃɪzəm/ is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. The first fascist movements emerged in Italy during World War I, opposed to liberalism, Marxism, and anarchism, fascism is usually placed on the far-right within the traditional left–right spectrum. Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought changes to the nature of war, society, the state. The advent of war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A military citizenship arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war, Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature, and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation. Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies. Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist, the descriptions neo-fascist or post-fascist are sometimes applied more formally to describe parties of the far right with ideologies similar to, or rooted in, 20th century fascist movements. The Italian term fascismo is derived from fascio meaning a bundle of rods and this was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates. According to Mussolinis own account, the Fascist Revolutionary Party was founded in Italy in 1915, in 1919, Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan, which became the Partito Nazionale Fascista two years later. The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity, a rod is easily broken. Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements, for example, historians, political scientists, and other scholars have long debated the exact nature of fascism. Each interpretation of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions too wide or narrow, according to many scholars, fascism—especially once in power—has historically attacked communism, conservatism and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far right. Roger Griffin describes fascism as a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a form of populist ultranationalism. Griffin describes the ideology as having three components, the rebirth myth, populist ultra-nationalism and the myth of decadence. Fascism is a revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis. Fascist Philosophies vary by application, but remain distinct by one theoretic commonality, all traditionally fall into the far-right sector of any political spectrum, catalyzed by afflicted class identities over conventional social inequities. John Lukacs, Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues there is no such thing as generic fascism. He claims that National Socialism and Communism are essentially manifestations of populism, Fascism was influenced by both left and right, conservative and anti-conservative, national and supranational, rational and anti-rational
2.
Nationalism
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Nationalism is a complex, multidimensional concept involving a shared communal identification with ones nation. It is contrasted by Anti-nationalism as a political ideology oriented towards gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, Nationalism therefore holds that a nation should govern itself, free from unwanted outside interference, and is linked to the concept of self-determination. Nationalism therefore seeks to preserve the nations culture and it often also involves a sense of pride in the nations achievements, and is closely linked to the concept of patriotism. In these terms, nationalism can be considered positive or negative, from a political or sociological outlook, there are three main paradigms for understanding the origins and basis of nationalism. The first, known as Primordialism or Perennialism, sees nationalism as a natural phenomenon and it holds that although the concept nationhood may be recent, nations have always existed. The third, and most dominant paradigm is Modernism, which sees nationalism as a recent phenomenon that needs the structural conditions of society in order to exist. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however and this anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. Nationalism means devotion for the nation and it is a sentiment that binds the people together. National symbols and flags, national anthems, national languages, national myths, Nationalism is a newer word, in English the term dates from 1844, although the concept is older. It became important in the 19th century, the term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that The twentieth century, a time of disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism. Nationalism is the term used to characterize the modern sense of national political autonomy. For example, German nationalism emerged as a reaction against Napoleonic control of Germany as the Confederation of the Rhine around 1805–14, linda Colley in Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 explores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century, National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one, Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song Rule, Britannia. in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American, the Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term in 1772 in his Essay on the Origins of Language. Stressing the role of a common language, the political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history, napoleons conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–06 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity
3.
Totalitarianism
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Totalitarianism is a political system in which the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible. A distinctive feature of totalitarian governments is an ideology, a set of ideas that gives meaning. The concept of totalitarianism was first developed in the 1920s by the Weimar German jurist, and later Nazi academic, Carl Schmitt, Schmitt used the term, Totalstaat, in his influential work on the legal basis of an all-powerful state, The Concept of the Political. The concept became prominent in Western political discourse as a concept that highlights similarities between Fascist states and the Soviet Union, the term was later assigned a positive meaning in the writings of Giovanni Gentile, Italy’s most prominent philosopher and leading theorist of fascism. He used the term “totalitario” to refer to the structure and goals of the new state, according to Benito Mussolini, this system politicizes everything spiritual and human, Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state. Churchill was then a backbencher MP representing the Epping constituency, in a radio address two weeks later Churchill again employed the term, this time applying the concept to a Communist or a Nazi tyranny. And went on to say Democracy is not an end but a means to the conquest of the new state, when the time comes, either parliament submits or we will eliminate it. G. Wells, Henry Miller or twopenny color postcards, every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism, as I understand it. During a 1945 lecture series entitled The Soviet Impact on the Western World, only the blind and incurable could ignore the trend towards totalitarianism, said Carr. Isabel Paterson, in The God of the Machine, used the term in connection with the Soviet Union, in The Origins of Totalitarianism, Hannah Arendt argued that Nazi and State communist regimes were new forms of government, and not merely updated versions of the old tyrannies. According to Arendt, the source of the appeal of totalitarian regimes is their ideology, which provides a comforting, single answer to the mysteries of the past, present. For Nazism, all history is the history of race struggle, once that premise is accepted, all actions of the state can be justified by appeal to Nature or the Law of History, justifying their establishment of authoritarian state apparatus. In addition to Arendt, many scholars from a variety of academic backgrounds, each one of these describes totalitarianism in slightly different ways. Is only concerned with power and as long as that is not contested it gives society a certain degree of liberty. Authoritarianism does not attempt to change the world and human nature, in contrast, a totalitarian regime attempts to control virtually all aspects of the social life, including the economy, education, art, science, private life, and morals of citizens. The officially proclaimed ideology penetrates into the deepest reaches of societal structure and it also mobilizes the whole population in pursuit of its goals. Friedrich and Brzezinski argue that a system has the following six, mutually supportive, defining characteristics. Single mass party, typically led by a dictator, system of terror, using such instruments as violence and secret police
4.
One-party state
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All other parties are either outlawed or allowed to take only a limited and controlled participation in elections. One-party states explain themselves through various methods, most often, proponents of a one-party state argue that the existence of separate parties runs counter to national unity. Others argue that the one party is the vanguard of the people, the Soviet government argued that multiple parties represented the class struggle, which was absent in Soviet society, and so the Soviet Union only had one party, the Communist Party. Some one-party states only outlaw opposition parties, while allowing allied parties to exist as part of a permanent coalition such as a popular front. However, these parties are largely or completely subservient to the ruling party, examples of this are the Peoples Republic of China under the United Front, or the National Front in former East Germany. Others may allow non-party members to run for seats, as was the case with Taiwans Tangwai movement in the 1970s and 1980s. Within their own countries, dominant parties ruling over one-party states are referred to simply as the Party. One-party systems often arise from decolonization because one party has had a dominant role in liberation or in independence struggles. One-party states are often, but not always, considered to be authoritarian or totalitarian, however, not all authoritarian or totalitarian states operate based on one-party rule. Some, especially absolute monarchies and certain military dictatorships, have all political parties illegal. The term communist state is used in the West to apply to states in which the ruling party subscribes to a form of Marxism–Leninism. While the role of the Communist Party is enshrined in the constitution, no party is permitted to campaign or run candidates for election, the party was conceived by the original Black American settlers and their descendants who referred to themselves as Americo-Liberians. Initially, its ideology was influenced by that of the Whig Party in the United States. Over time it developed into a powerful Masonic Order that ruled every aspect of Liberian society for well over a century until it was overthrown in 1980, while the True Whig Party still exists today, its influence has substantially declined
5.
Cult of personality
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Sociologist Max Weber developed a tripartite classification of authority, the cult of personality holds parallels with what Weber defined as charismatic authority. A cult of personality is similar to divinization, except that it is established by media and propaganda usually by the state. The term cult of personality probably appeared in English around 1800–1850, along with the French, at first it had no political connotations but was instead closely related to the Romantic cult of genius. The political use of the phrase came first in a letter from Karl Marx to German political worker, Wilhelm Blos,10 November 1877, robert Service notes that a more accurate translation of the Russian культ личности is the cult of the individual. Throughout history, monarchs and other heads of state were almost always held in enormous reverence, through the principle of the divine right of kings, in medieval Europe for example, rulers were said to hold office by the will of God. Ancient Egypt, Japan, the Inca, the Aztecs, Tibet, Siam, the spread of democratic and secular ideas in Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries made it increasingly difficult for monarchs to preserve this aura. It was from these circumstances in the 20th century that the personality cults arose. Often these cults are a form of political religion, personality cults were first described in relation to Totalitarianism regimes that sought to alter or transform society according to radical ideas. Not all dictatorships foster personality cults, while not all personality cults are practiced in dictatorships, for example, during the Cambodian Khmer Rouge regime, images of dictator Pol Pot were rarely seen in public, and his identity was under dispute abroad until after his fall from power. The same applied to numerous Eastern European communist regimes following World War II
6.
Dictatorship
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A dictatorship is a type of authoritarianism, in which politicians regulate nearly every aspect of the public and private behavior of citizens. Dictatorship and totalitarianism societies generally employ political propaganda to decrease the influence of proponents of alternative governing systems, in the past different religious tactics were used by the dictators to maintain their rule. Like the Monarchy system in the west, in the 19th and 20th centuries, traditional monarchies gradually declined and disappeared. Dictatorship and constitutional democracy emerged as the two major forms of government. Since World War II a broader range of dictatorships have been recognized including Third World dictatorships, theocratic or religious dictatorships, in the Roman Empire, a Roman dictator was the incumbent of a political office of legislate of the Roman Republic. Roman dictators were allocated absolute power during times of emergency and their power was originally neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification. There were no such dictatorships after the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and later such as Sulla. After the collapse of Spanish colonial rule, various dictators came to power in many liberated countries, such dictators have been also referred to as personalismo. The wave of military dictatorships in Latin America in the half of the twentieth century left a particular mark on Latin American culture. In Latin American literature, the dictator novel challenging dictatorship and caudillismo is a significant genre, there are also many films depicting Latin American military dictatorships. After World War II, dictators established themselves in the new states of Africa and Asia. These constitutions often failed to work without a middle class or work against the preexisting autocratic rule. Some elected presidents and prime ministers captured power by suppressing the opposition and installing one-party rule, whatever their form, these dictatorships had an adverse impact on economic growth and the quality of political institutions. Dictators who stayed in office for a time period found it increasingly difficult to carry out sound economic policies. The often-cited exploitative dictator is the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko, the global dynamics of democratization has been a central question for political scientists. The Third Wave Democracy was said to turn some dictatorships into democracies, the DD index is seen as an example of the minimalist approach, whereas the Polity data series, relatively more substantive. The most general term is despotism, a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power and that entity may be an individual, as in an autocracy, or it may be a group, as in an oligarchy. Despotism can mean tyranny, or absolutism, or dictatorship, dictatorship may take the form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism
7.
Militarism
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It may also imply the glorification of the military and of the ideals of a professional military class and the predominance of the armed forces in the administration or policy of the state. Militarism has been a significant element of the imperialist or expansionist ideologies of several nations throughout history, after World War II, militarism appeared in many of the post-colonial nations of Asia and Africa. Sŏngun, North Koreas Military First policy, regards military power as the highest priority of the country and this has escalated so much in the DPRK that one in five people serves in the armed forces, and the military has become one of the largest in the world. Songun elevates the Korean Peoples Armed Forces within North Korea as an organization and as a function, granting it the primary position in the North Korean government. The principle guides domestic policy and international interactions and it provides the framework of the government, designating the military as the supreme repository of power. It also facilitates the militarization of non-military sectors by emphasizing the unity of the military, the North Korean government grants the Korean Peoples Army as the highest priority in the economy and in resource-allocation, and positions it as the model for society to emulate. Songun is also the concept behind a shift in policies which emphasize the peoples military over all other aspects of state. The roots of German militarism can be found in 19th-century Prussia, after Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Prussia in 1806, one of the conditions of peace was that Prussia should reduce its army to no more than 42,000 men. Thus, in the course of ten years, he was able to gather an army of 420,000 men who had at least one year of military training, the officers of the army were drawn almost entirely from among the land-owning nobility. The result was there was gradually built up a large class of professional officers on the one hand, and a much larger class. These enlisted men had become conditioned to obey all the commands of the officers. This system led to several consequences, a second result was that the governing class desired to continue a system which gave them so much power over the common people, contributing to the continuing influence of the Junker noble classes. Militarism in Germany continued after World War I and the fall of the German monarchy, during the period of the Weimar Republic, the Kapp Putsch, an attempted coup détat against the republican government, was launched by disaffected members of the armed forces. After this event, some of the more radical militarists and nationalists were submurged in grief and despair into the NSDAP, the Third Reich was a strongly militarist state, after its fall in 1945, militarism in German culture was dramatically reduced as a backlash against the Nazi period. Contemporary opinions vary but Germans predominantly oppose unilateral military actions and are suspicious of all claims advocating them, in parallel with 20th-century German militarism, Japanese militarism began with a series of events by which the military gained prominence in dictating Japans affairs. This was evident in 15th-century Japans Sengoku period or Age of Warring States, Japans militarism is deeply rooted in the ancient samurai tradition, centuries before Japans modernization. It is exemplified by the 1882 Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors, in the 20th century, two factors contributed both to the power of the military and chaos within its ranks. One was the Cabinet Law, which required the Imperial Japanese Army and this essentially gave the military veto power over the formation of any Cabinet in the ostensibly parliamentary country
8.
Direct action
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Direct action occurs when a group takes an action which is intended to reveal an existing problem, highlight an alternative, or demonstrate a possible solution to a social issue. This can include nonviolent and less often violent activities which target persons, groups, examples of non-violent direct action can include sit-ins, strikes, workplace occupations, blockades, or hacktivism, while violent direct action may include political violence or assaults. Tactics such as sabotage and property destruction may be considered violent if people are hurt in the action, by contrast, electoral politics, diplomacy, negotiation, and arbitration are not usually described as direct action, as they are politically mediated. Direct action tactics have been around for as long as conflicts have existed, the radical union the Industrial Workers of the World first mentioned the term direct action in a publication in reference to a Chicago strike conducted in 1910. American anarchist Voltairine de Cleyre wrote an essay called Direct Action in 1912 which is widely cited today. In his 1920 book, Direct Action, William Mellor placed direct action firmly in the struggle between worker and employer for control over the life of society. Mellor defined direct action as the use of form of economic power for securing of ends desired by those who possess that power. Mellor considered direct action a tool of both owners and workers and for this reason he included within his definition lockouts and cartels, as well as strikes, over and over they were arrested, fined, and imprisoned. Till they finally compelled their persecutors to let them alone, —de Cleyre, undated Martin Luther King felt that non-violent direct actions goal was to create such a crisis and foster such a tension as to demand a response. The rhetoric of Martin Luther King, James Bevel, and Mohandas Gandhi promoted non-violent revolutionary direct action as a means to social change. Noteworthy, Gandhi and Bevel had been influenced by Leo Tolstoys The Kingdom of God Is Within You. By the middle of the 20th century, the sphere of action had undoubtedly expanded. Some sections of the movement used direct action, particularly during the 1980s. In the US, mass protests opposed nuclear energy, weapons, many groups also set up semi-permanent peace camps outside air bases such as Molesworth and Greenham Common, and at the Nevada Test Site. Environmental movement organizations such as Greenpeace have used direct action to pressure governments, on April 28,2009, Greenpeace activists, including Phil Radford, scaled a crane across the street from the Department of State, calling on world leaders to address climate change. Soon thereafter, Greenpeace activists dropped a banner off of Mt. Rushmore, placing President Obamas face next to other historic presidents, overall, more than 2,600 people were arrested while protesting energy policy and associated health issues under the Barack Obama Administration. In 2009, hundreds blocked the gates of the coal fired power plant that powers the US Congress building, following the Power Shift conference in Washington, D. C. Anti-globalization activists made headlines around the world in 1999, when they forced the Seattle WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 to end early with direct action tactics
9.
Imperialism
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Imperialism is an action that involves a country extending its power by the acquisition of territories. It may also include the exploitation of these territories, an action that is linked to colonialism, colonialism is generally regarded as an expression of imperialism. However, both are examples of imperialism, the word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power. It first became common in Great Britain, during the 1870s and was used with a negative connotation, the term was and is mainly applied to Western political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars, some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neocolonialism, the word empire comes from the Latin word imperium, for which the closest modern English equivalent would perhaps be sovereignty, or simply rule. The greatest distinction of an empire is through the amount of land that a nation has conquered and expanded, Political power grew from conquering land, however cultural and economic aspects flourished through sea and trade routes. A distinction about empires is that although political empires were built mostly by expansion overland, economic, some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas consisted of animals and plant products. European empires in Asia and Africa have come to be seen as the forms of imperialism. European expansion caused the world to be divided by how developed, the two main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of areas of income and profit, the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low income. These critical theories of Geo-politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning and this idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order has become in our modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major players in the market, some states today are viewed as empires due to their political. The term imperialism is often conflated with colonialism, however scholars have argued that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe ones superiority, domination, colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Thus it can be said that imperialism includes some form of colonialism, colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area, colonialisms core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the states lands
10.
Fascism and ideology
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The history of Fascist ideology, or fascism and ideology, is long and involves many sources. In Italy, Fascism styled itself as the successor of Rome. Its relationship with other ideologies of its day was complex, often at once adversarial and focused on co-opting their more popular aspects. German-style fascism opposed equality for non-Aryan races and minorities, but not for pure-blooded Germans since Hitler sought a “classless” and “socially just society. ”Early influences that shaped the ideology of fascism have been dated back to ancient Greece. The political culture of ancient Greece and specifically the ancient Greek city state of Sparta under Lycurgus, with its emphasis on militarism, Nazi Führer Adolf Hitler emphasized that Germany should adhere to Hellenic values and culture – particularly that of ancient Sparta. The Spartans were emulated by the quasi-fascist regime of Ioannis Metaxas who called for Greeks to wholly commit themselves to the nation with self-control as the Spartans had done, the Greek philosopher Plato supported many similar political positions to fascism. In The Republic, Plato emphasizes the need for absolute and unlimited authority of a king in an ideal state. Plato believed the state would be ruled by an elite class of rulers known as Guardians. Plato believed in a state with unlimited powers. Plato held Athenian democracy in contempt, saying The laws of democracy remain a dead letter, its freedom is anarchy, like fascism Plato emphasized that individuals must adhere to laws and perform duties while declining to grant individuals rights to limit or reject state interference in their lives. Like fascism Plato claimed that a state would have state-run education that was designed to promote able rulers and warriors. Plato, like many fascist ideologues, also advocated for a state-sponsored eugenics program to be carried out in order to improve the Guardian class in his Republic through selective breeding, Italian Fascist Duce Benito Mussolini had a strong attachment to the works of Plato. However, there are significant differences between Platos ideals and fascism, unlike fascism Plato never promoted expansionism and he was opposed to offensive war. Italian Fascists identified their ideology as being connected to the legacy of ancient Rome, julius Caesar and Augustus were idolized by Italian Fascists. Italian Fascism views the state of Italy as the heir of the Roman Empire. Italian Fascists identify the Roman Empire as being an ideal organic, Italian Fascists also idolized Augustus as the champion who built the Roman Empire. The fasces – a symbol of Roman authority – was the symbol of the Italian Fascists, there were a number of influences on fascism from the Renaissance era in Europe. Niccolò Machiavelli is known to have influenced Italian Fascism, particularly his promotion of the authority of the state
11.
Fascist symbolism
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As there have been many different manifestations of fascism, especially during the interwar years, there were also many different symbols of fascist movements. Fascist symbolism typically involved nationalist imagery, Fascist movements are led by a Leader who is publicly idolized in propaganda as the nations saviour. A number of fascist movements use a straight-armed salute, the use of symbols, graphics, and other artifacts created by fascist, authoritarian and totalitarian governments has been noted as a key aspect of their propaganda. The original symbol of fascism, in Italy under Benito Mussolini, was the fasces and this is an ancient Imperial Roman symbol of power carried by lictors in front of magistrates, a bundle of sticks featuring an axe, indicating the power over life and death. Before the Italian Fascists adopted the fasces, the symbol had been used by Italian political organizations of political ideologies. Italian Fascism utilized the color black as a symbol of their movement, black being the color of the uniforms of their paramilitaries, known as Blackshirts. The blackshirt derived from Italys daredevil elite shock troops known as the Arditi, soldiers who were trained for a life of violence. The colour black as used by the Arditi, symbolized death, Nazism was different from Italian Fascism in that it was explicitly racist in nature. Its symbol was the swastika, at the time a commonly seen symbol in the world that had experienced a revival in use in the world in the early 20th century. German völkisch Nationalists claimed the swastika was a symbol of the Aryan race, as the Italian Fascists adapted elements of their ethnic heritage to fuel a sense of Nationalism by use of symbolism, so did Nazi Germany. The black-white-red tricolor of the German Empire was utilized as the scheme of the Nazi flag. The color brown was the color of Nazism, due to it being the color of the SA paramilitaries. The fascist Falange in Spain utilized the yoke and arrows as their symbol, organized fascist movements typically use military-like uniforms with the symbol of their movement on them. In Italy, the Italian Fascist movement in 1919 wore black military-like uniforms, other fascist countries largely copied the symbolism of the Italian Fascists and German Nazis for their movements. Like them, their uniforms looked typically like military uniforms with Nationalist type insignia of the movement, the Spanish Falange adopted dark blue shirts for their party members, symbolizing Spanish workers, many of whom wore blue shirts. Berets were also used, representing their Carlist supporters, the Spanish Blue Division expeditionary volunteers sent to the Eastern Front of WW2 in support of the Germans likewise wore blue shirts, berets and their army trousers. Many other fascist movements did not win power or were relatively minor regimes in comparison, the symbol of the Bulgarian national-socialist Ratnik movements was a sun cross named Bogar. The BUF previously used the image of a gold fasces superimposed on a blue circle, the emblem was also disparagingly referred to as The Flash In The Pan, particularly by opponents of Mosley
12.
Corporatism
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It is theoretically based on the interpretation of a community as an organic body. The term corporatism is based on the Latin root word corpus meaning body, in 1881, Pope Leo XIII commissioned theologians and social thinkers to study corporatism and provide a definition for it. Corporatism is related to the concept of structural functionalism. Corporate social interaction is common within kinship groups such as families, clans, in addition to humans, certain animal species like penguins exhibit strong corporate social organization. Corporatist types of community and social interaction are common to many ideologies, Corporatism may also refer to economic tripartism involving negotiations between business, labour, and state interest groups to establish economic policy. This is sometimes referred to as neo-corporatism and is associated with social democracy. Kinship-based corporatism emphasizing clan, ethnic, and family identification has been a phenomenon in Africa, Asia. Confucian societies based upon families and clans in East Asia and Southeast Asia have been considered types of corporatism, China has strong elements of clan corporatism in its society involving legal norms concerning family relations. Islamic societies often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society, in Italy, various function-based groups and institutions were created, including universities, guilds for artisans and craftspeople, and other professional associations. Some Catholic corporatist states include Austria under the leadership of Federal Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, in response to the Roman Catholic corporatism of the 1890s, Protestant corporatism was developed, especially in Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. However, Protestant corporatism has been less successful in obtaining assistance from governments than its Roman Catholic counterpart. In social psychology and biology, researchers have found the presence of corporate social organization amongst animal species. Research has shown that penguins are known to reside in densely populated corporate breeding colonies, ancient Greece developed early concepts of corporatism. Aristotle in Politics also described society as being divided along natural classes and functional purposes that were priests, rulers, slaves, after the French Revolution, the existing absolutist corporatist system was abolished due to its endorsement of social hierarchy and special corporate privilege for the Roman Catholic Church. The new French government considered corporatisms emphasis on group rights as inconsistent with the promotion of individual rights. Subsequently corporatist systems and corporate privilege throughout Europe were abolished in response to the French Revolution, from 1789 to the 1850s, most supporters of corporatism were reactionaries. A number of reactionary corporatists favoured corporatism in order to end liberal capitalism, from the 1850s onward progressive corporatism developed in response to classical liberalism and Marxism. These corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the middle classes and this was in opposition to the Marxist conception of class conflict
13.
Benito Mussolini
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Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician, journalist, and leader of the National Fascist Party, ruling the country as Prime Minister from 1922 to 1943. He ruled constitutionally until 1925, when he dropped all pretense of democracy, known as Il Duce, Mussolini was the founder of Italian Fascism. In 1912 Mussolini was the member of the National Directorate of the Italian Socialist Party. Mussolini was expelled from the PSI for withdrawing his support for the stance on neutrality in World War I. He served in the Royal Italian Army during the war until he was wounded and discharged in 1917, Mussolini denounced the PSI, his views now centering on nationalism instead of socialism, and later founded the fascist movement. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the youngest Prime Minister in Italian history until the appointment of Matteo Renzi in February 2014, within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. Mussolini remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943, a few months later, he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic, a German client regime in northern Italy, he held this post until his death in 1945. Mussolini had sought to delay a major war in Europe until at least 1942, however, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, resulting in declarations of war by France and the United Kingdom and starting World War II. In the summer of 1941 Mussolini sent Italian forces to participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union, and war with the United States followed in December. On 24 July 1943, soon after the start of the Allied invasion of Italy, the Grand Council of Fascism voted against him, on 12 September 1943, Mussolini was rescued from prison in the Gran Sasso raid by German special forces. In late April 1945, with total defeat looming, Mussolini attempted to escape north and his body was then taken to Milan, where it was hung upside down at a service station for public viewing and to provide confirmation of his demise. Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a town in the province of Forlì in Romagna on 29 July 1883. During the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed Duces town, pilgrims went to Predappio and Forlì, to see the birthplace of Mussolini. His father, Alessandro Mussolini, was a blacksmith and a Socialist, while his mother, Benito was the eldest of his parents three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed, as a young boy, Mussolini would spend some time helping his father in his smithy. His fathers political outlook combined views of anarchist figures like Carlo Cafiero and Mikhail Bakunin, the military authoritarianism of Garibaldi, in 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldis death, Benito Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the republican nationalist. The conflict between his parents about religion meant that, unlike most Italians, Mussolini was not baptized at birth, as a compromise with his mother, Mussolini was sent to a boarding school run by Salesian monks. After joining a new school, Mussolini achieved good grades, in 1902, Mussolini emigrated to Switzerland, partly to avoid military service
14.
Adolf Hitler
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Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
15.
Francisco Franco
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Francisco Franco Bahamonde was a Spanish general who ruled over Spain as a military dictator for 36 years from 1939 until his death. As a conservative and a monarchist, he opposed the abolition of the monarchy, with the 1936 elections, the conservative Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups lost by a narrow margin and the leftist Popular Front came to power. Intending to overthrow the republic, Franco followed other generals in attempting a coup that precipitated the Spanish Civil War. With the death of the generals, Franco quickly became his factions only leader. Leaving half a million dead, the war was won by Franco in 1939. He established a dictatorship, which he defined as a totalitarian state. Franco proclaimed himself Head of State and Government under the title El Caudillo, under Franco, Spain became a one-party state, as the various conservative and royalist factions were merged into the fascist party and other political parties were outlawed. Although Francos Spain maintained a policy of neutrality during World War II. Francos regime has been called a fascist one, Spain was isolated by the international community for nearly a decade after World War II. By the 1950s, the nature of his regime changed from being openly totalitarian, by the 1960s Spain saw incremental reforms and progressive economic development. After a 36-year rule, Franco died in 1975 and he restored the monarchy before his death, which made King Juan Carlos I his successor, who led the Spanish transition to democracy. After a referendum, a new constitution was adopted, which transformed Spain into a democracy under a constitutional monarchy. Franco was born at half past noon on December 4,1892, at 108 Calle Frutos Saavedra in Ferrol and his father was of Andalusian ancestry. His mother was María del Pilar Bahamonde y Pardo de Andrade, Francisco was to follow his father into the Navy, but as a result of the Spanish–American War the country lost much of its navy as well as most of its colonies. Not needing any more officers, the Naval Academy admitted no new entrants from 1906 to 1913, to his fathers chagrin, Francisco decided to try the Spanish Army. In 1907, he entered the Infantry Academy in Toledo, graduating in 1910 as a lieutenant, two years later, he obtained a commission to Morocco. Spanish efforts to occupy their new African protectorate provoked the protracted Rif War with native Moroccans and their tactics resulted in heavy losses among Spanish military officers, and also provided an opportunity to earn promotion through merit. It was said that officers would receive either la caja o la faja, Franco quickly gained a reputation as a good officer
16.
Corneliu Zelea Codreanu
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The Legionnaires traditionally referred to Codreanu as Căpitanul, and he held absolute authority over the organization until his death. Codreanu, who began his career in the wake of World War I as an anticommunist, Cuza and Constantin Pancu, was a co-founder of the National-Christian Defense League and assassin of the Iaşi Police prefect Constantin Manciu. Following Codreanus instructions, the Legion carried out assassinations of politicians it viewed as corrupt, including Prime Minister Ion G. Duca, simultaneously, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu advocated Romanias adherence to a military and political alliance with Nazi Germany. He was succeeded as leader by Horia Sima, in 1940, under the National Legionary State proclaimed by the Iron Guard, his killing served as the basis for violent retribution. Corneliu Zelea Codreanus views influenced the modern far-right, Corneliu Codreanu was born in Huşi to Elizabeth and Ion Zelea Codreanu son of Neculai born Zelinski. His father, a teacher, would become a political figure within his sons movement. A native of Bukovina in Austria-Hungary, Ion had originally been known as Zelinski, his wife and she was born to Marița Sârghi and Carol Brauner who had Bavarian origins. His paternal great-grandfather, Simion Zelea was a descendant from a family of peasants from the village Igești in the province of Bukovina. When Bukovina was under Polish administration, he was forced by authorities to change his name from Zelea to Zelinski, later in 1902, Ion Zelea Codreanu changed his name from Zelinski to his forefathers name, Zelea. Despite some statements according to which Ion Zelea Codreanu was originally a Slav of Ukrainian or Polish origin, thus, Codreanu the elder associated with antisemitic figures such as University of Iaşi professor A. C. Historian Ilarion Ţiu describes this as an attempt to offend and libel Codreanu, too young for conscription in 1916, when Romania entered World War I on the Entente side, Corneliu nonetheless tried his best to enlist and fight in the subsequent campaign. His education at the school in Bacău ended in the same year as Romanias direct involvement in the war. In this context, the easternmost region of Bessarabia, which united with Romania in 1918, was believed by Codreanu and others to be especially prone to Bolshevik influence. Codreanu inherited his fathers antisemitism, but connected it with anticommunism, in the belief that Jews were, among other things, Codreanus hero from his childhood until the end of his life was Stephen the Great. One awestruck female follower wrote, The Captain came from a world of Good, a medieval knight, a martyr and a hero. Codreanus female followers consistently praised him as a romantic, noble white knight figure who had come to save Romania. Codreanu studied law in Iași, where he began his political career, like his father, he became close to A. C. Codreanus fear of Bolshevik insurrection led to his efforts to address industrial workers himself, historian Adrian Cioroianu defined the early Codreanu as a quasi-demagogue agitator
17.
Ikki Kita
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Ikki Kita was a Japanese author, intellectual and political philosopher who was active in early-Shōwa period Japan. A harsh critic of the Emperor system and the Meiji Constitution, he asserted that the Japanese were not the emperors people and he advocated a complete reconstruction of Japan through a form of statist, right-wing socialism. Kita was in contact with people on the extreme right of Japanese politics. The government saw Kitas ideas as disruptive and dangerous, in 1937 he was implicated, although not directly involved, in a coup attempt. He is still read in academic circles in Japan. Kita was born on Sado Island, Niigata Prefecture, where his father was a sake merchant, Sado island had a reputation for being rebellious, and Kita took some pride in this. He studied Chinese classics in his youth and became interested in socialism at the age of 14, in 1900 he began publishing articles in a local newspaper criticizing the Kokutai theory. This led to an investigation which was later dropped. In 1904 he moved to Tokyo, where he audited lectures at Waseda University and he met many influential figures in the early socialist movement in Japan but quickly became disillusioned, the movement was, according to him, full of opportunists. He published his first book in 1906 after one year of research – a 1, 000-page political treatise, The Theory of Japans National Polity and Pure Socialism. His socialism, however, owed little to Marxism and was instead a nationalist brand of socialism that resisted foreign influence as incompatible with Japan, the result had nothing in common with any Marxian notions of socialism from below. Kita was also attracted to the cause of the Chinese Revolution of 1911 and he traveled to China to assist in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. However, Kita was also interested in the right wing. The right-wing, ultra-nationalist Kokuryūkai, founded in 1901, was part of a current that has a history back to the Genyosha of 1881. In his book on Kita, George Wilson tries to play down or deemphasize all such matters, Kitas article called Tut-tut, those who oppose the war showed he had little time for those idiots who opposed the Russo-Japanese war. In addition, Kitas first book, the Kokutairon book, was banned upon publication, some have argued from this to assert that Kita must have been deemed a radical threat from the left to the government. However, the case of Uchida Ryoheis anti-Russian book Roshiya bokoku ron was also subjected to a ban upon its appearance, the government had a predilection for banning books, irrespective of whether they stemmed from the right or from the left of the political spectrum. By the time Kita returned to Japan in January 1920, he had become disillusioned with the Chinese Revolution
18.
Wang Jingwei
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Wang Jingwei, born as Wang Zhaoming, but widely known by his pen name Jingwei, was a Chinese politician. His political orientation veered sharply to the later in his career after he joined the Japanese. Wang was an associate of Sun Yat-sen for the last twenty years of Suns life. After Suns death Wang engaged in a struggle with Chiang Kai-shek for control over the Kuomintang. Wang served as the head of state for this Japanese puppet government until he died, born in Sanshui, Guangdong, but of Zhejiang origin, Wang went to Japan as an international student sponsored by the Qing Dynasty government in 1903, and joined the Tongmenghui in 1905. As a young man, Wang came to blame the Qing dynasty for holding China back, while in Japan, Wang became a close confidant of Sun Yat-sen, and would later go on to become one of the most important members of the early Kuomintang. In the years leading up to the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, Wang gained prominence during this period as an excellent public speaker and a staunch advocate of Chinese nationalism. He was jailed for plotting an assassination of the regent, Prince Chun and he remained in jail from 1910 until the Wuchang Uprising the next year, and became something of a national hero upon his release. During and after the Xinhai Revolution, Wangs political life was defined by his opposition to Western imperialism and he is believed by many to have drafted Suns will during the short period before Suns death, in the winter of 1925. He was considered one of the contenders to replace Sun as leader of the KMT. Wang had clearly lost control of the KMT by 1926, when, following the Zhongshan Warship Incident, Chiang successfully sent Wang, during the Northern Expedition, Wang was the leading figure in the left-leaning faction of the KMT that called for continued cooperation with the Chinese Communist Party. Although Wang collaborated closely with Chinese communists in Wuhan, he was opposed to communism. He did not believe that Communists could be true patriots or true Chinese nationalists, in early 1927, shortly before Chiang captured Shanghai and moved the capital to Nanjing, Wangs faction declared the capital of the Republic to be Wuhan. Wang later blamed the failure of his Wuhan government on its adoption of communist agendas. Wangs regime was opposed by Chiang Kai-shek, who was in the midst of a purge of communists in Shanghai and was calling for a push farther north. The separation between the governments of Wang and Chiang are known as the Ninghan Separation, Chiang Kai-shek occupied Shanghai in April 1927, and began a bloody suppression of suspected communists known as the White Terror. Fearing retribution as a communist sympathiser, Wang publicly claimed allegiance to Chiang, between 1929 and 1930, Wang collaborated with Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan to form a central government in opposition to the one headed by Chiang. Wang took part in a conference hosted by Yan to draft a new constitution, and was to serve as the Prime Minister under Yan, Wangs attempts to aid Yans government ended when Chiang defeated the alliance in the Central Plains War
19.
Konstantin Rodzaevsky
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Konstantin Vladimirovich Rodzaevsky was the leader of the Russian Fascist Party, which he led in exile from Manchuria, chief editor of the RFP Nash Put. Born in Blagoveshchensk in a family of the Siberian middle-class, he fled the Soviet Union for Manchuria in 1925, in Harbin, Rodzaevsky entered the law academy and joined the Russian Fascist Organization. He modeled himself on Benito Mussolini, and also used the Swastika as one of the symbols of the movement and they created an international organization of White émigrés with a central office in Harbin, the Russian Far East Moscow, and links in twenty-six nations around the world. The most important of these posts was in New York City. Rodzaevsky had around 12,000 followers in Manchukuo, during the 2, 600th anniversary of the founding of the Empire of Japan, Rodzaevsky, with a select group of people, paid his respects to Emperor Hirohito at the official celebration in the region. The fascists installed a great swastika of neon light at their branch in Manzhouli and it was kept on all day and night to provide a show of power against the Soviet government. During World War II, Rodzaevsky tried to launch a struggle against Bolshevism. He gave himself up to Soviet authorities in Harbin in 1945, with a letter that shows striking similarities with the doctrines of National Bolshevism, capable of overturning the Jewish government and creating a new Russia. Instead, he was arrested, tried, and sentenced to be shot and he was executed in a Lubyanka prison cellar. In 2001, a book by Rodzaevsky, Zaveshchanie russkogo fashista, was published in Russia, the Russian Fascists, Tragedy and Farce in Exile, 1925-1945 by John J. Stephan ISBN 0-06-014099-2 К. Руссаки,2002 ISBN 5-93347-063-5 Inventory to the John J. Stephan Collection, 1932—1978
20.
Oswald Mosley
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Sir Oswald Ernald Mosley, 6th Baronet was a British politician best remembered as leader of the pro-German British Union of Fascists in the 1930s. He returned to Parliament as Labour MP for Smethwick at a by-election in 1926 and he was considered a potential Labour Prime Minister, but resigned due to disagreement with the Governments unemployment policies. He then formed the New Party and he lost his seat at Smethwick in 1931. The New Party merged with the BUF in 1932, Mosley was interned in prison in 1940 and the BUF was outlawed. He was released in 1943, and, politically discredited by his association with fascism, he moved abroad in 1951 and he stood for Parliament twice in the postwar era, achieving very little support. Mosley was the eldest of the three sons of Sir Oswald Mosley, 5th Baronet, and Katharine Maud Edwards-Heathcote, daughter of Captain Justinian H. Edwards-Heathcote and Eleanor Stone. His branch of the Mosley family was the Anglo-Irish family at its most prosperous, Mosley was born on 16 November 1896 at 47 Hill Street, Mayfair, Westminster. After his parents separated he was brought up by his mother, who went to live at Betton Hall near Market Drayton, within the family and among intimate friends, he was always called Tom. He lived for years at Apedale Hall in Newcastle-under-Lyme, also in Staffordshire. He was educated at West Downs School and Winchester College, in January 1914 he entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, but was expelled in June for a riotous act of retaliation against a fellow student. During the First World War he was commissioned into the 16th The Queens Lancers and he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps as an observer, but while demonstrating in front of his mother and sister he crashed, which left him with a permanent limp. He returned to the trenches before the injury was fully healed and he spent the remainder of the war at desk jobs in the Ministry of Munitions and in the Foreign Office. Lord Curzon had to be persuaded that Mosley was a husband, as he suspected Mosley was largely motivated by social advancement in Conservative Party politics. The 1920 wedding took place in the Chapel Royal in St Jamess Palace in London – arguably the social event of the year. The hundreds of guests included European royalty such as King George V and Queen Mary and he succeeded to the Baronetcy of Ancoats upon his fathers death in 1928, which entitles the current holder to the prefix style Sir. Cynthia died of peritonitis in 1933, after which Mosley married his mistress Diana Guinness and they married in secret in Germany on 6 October 1936 in the Berlin home of Germanys Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda Joseph Goebbels. Adolf Hitler was one of the guests, by Diana, he had two sons, Oswald Alexander Mosley, father of Louis Mosley, and Max Mosley, who was president of the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile for 16 years. Mosley reportedly struck a deal in 1937 with Francis Beaumont, heir to the Seigneurage of Sark, to set up a privately owned radio station on Sark
21.
William Dudley Pelley
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William Dudley Pelley was an American writer and spiritualist who founded the fascist Silver Legion of America in 1933 and ran for President in 1936 for the Christian Party. He was sentenced to 15 years in prison for sedition in 1942, upon his death, The New York Times assessed him as an agitator without a significant following. Born in Lynn, Massachusetts, William Dudley Pelley grew up in poverty and his father was initially a Southern Methodist Church minister, later a small businessman and shoemaker. Largely self-educated, Pelley became a journalist and gained respect for his writing skills, two of his short stories received O. Henry awards, The Face in the Window in 1920, and The Continental Angle in 1930. He was hired by the Methodist Centenary to study Methodist missions around the world and he joined the Red Cross in Siberia, where he helped the White Russians during the Russian Civil War. His opposition to Communism grew, and he began to subscribe to the theory of Jewish Communism, Pelley became disillusioned with the film industry, specifically with his treatment by Jewish studio executives. He moved to New York, and then to Asheville, North Carolina in 1932, and began publishing magazines and essays detailing his new religious system, the Liberation Doctrine. In 1928, Pelley said he had an experience, which he described in an article for American Magazine called My Seven Minutes in Eternity. In later writings, he described the experience as hypo-dimensional and he wrote that during this event, he met with God and Jesus Christ, who instructed him to undertake the spiritual transformation of America. He later claimed that the experience gave him the ability to levitate, see through walls and his metaphysical writings greatly boosted his public visibility. Some of the members of the original Ascended Master Teachings religion, the I AM Activity, were recruited from the ranks of Pelleys organization. Pelleys religious system was a mixture of theosophy, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism and he considered it to be a perfected form of Christianity, in which Jews and Communists represented the forces of evil. When the Great Depression struck America in 1929, Pelley became active in politics, after moving to Asheville, Pelley founded Galahad College in 1932. The college specialized in courses in Social Metaphysics, and Christian Economics. He also founded Galahad Press, which he used to various political and metaphysical magazines, newspapers. On January 30,1933, Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, Pelley, an admirer of Hitler, founded the Silver Legion, an antisemitic organization whose followers, known as the Silver Shirts and Christian Patriots, wore Nazi-style silver uniform shirts. Their insignia was a scarlet L, emblazoned on their flags, biographer Scott Beekman noted Pelley was. one of the first Americans to create an organization celebrating the work of Adolf Hitler. Pelley traveled nationwide, holding recruitment rallies, lectures, and public speeches and he founded Silver Legion chapters in almost every state in the country
22.
Aleksandr Dugin
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Aleksandr Gelyevich Dugin is a Russian political scientist known for his fascist views who calls to hasten the end of times with all out war. He has close ties with the Kremlin and the Russian military, having served as an advisor to State Duma speaker Gennadiy Seleznyov, but Dugin and Kurginyan do not have the slightest impact on what is going on in the Kremlin and do not even get coaching there. Dugin was the organizer of the National Bolshevik Party, National Bolshevik Front. He is the author of more than 30 books, among them Foundations of Geopolitics, in 1979, he entered the Moscow Aviation Institute, but did not graduate due to his association with thinking contrary to the ongoing regime, which caused him to be expelled from the institute. In 1998, Dugin, Geydar Dzhemal, and Evgeniy Golovin created a center based on their long time shared interests called the New University project. Dugin was baptized at the age of six in the Russian Orthodox Temple of Michurinsk by his great-grandmother Elena Mikhailovna Kargaltseva and he enthusiastically adheres to the faith of the Russian Old Believers, a group of believers who rejected the 1652–1666 reforms of the official Russian Orthodox Church. Dugin in the 1980s was a dissident and an anti-communist, Dugin worked as a journalist before becoming involved in politics just before the fall of communism. In 1988 he and his friend Geydar Dzhemal joined the nationalist group Pamyat and he helped to write the political program for the newly refounded Communist Party of the Russian Federation under the leadership of Gennady Zyuganov. In his 1997 article Fascism – Borderless and Red, Dugin proclaimed the arrival of a genuine, true, radically revolutionary and consistent and he believes that it was by no means the racist and chauvinist aspects of National Socialism that determined the nature of its ideology. The excesses of this ideology in Germany are a matter exclusively of the Germans, while Russian fascism is a combination of natural national conservatism with a passionate desire for true changes. Waffen-SS and especially the scientific sector of this organization, Ahnenerbe, was an oasis in the framework of the National Socialist regime. Dugin soon began publishing his own journal entitled Elementy, which began by praising Franco-Belgian Jean-François Thiriart. Consistently glorifying both Tsarist and Stalinist Russia, Elementy also revealed Dugins admiration for Julius Evola, Dugin also collaborated with the weekly journal Den, a bastion of Russian anti-Cosmopolitanism previously directed by Alexander Prokhanov. Dugin was amongst the earliest members of the National Bolshevik Party, after breaking with Limonov, he became close to Yevgeny Primakov and later to Vladimir Putins circle. Dugin claims to be disapproving of liberalism and the West, particularly American hegemony and his assertions show that he likes Stalin and the Soviet Union, We are on the side of Stalin and the Soviet Union. He adds, We want patriotic radio, TV, patriotic experts and we want the media that expresses national interests. The Eurasia Party, later Eurasia Movement, was recognized by the Ministry of Justice on 31 May 2001. Dugins Eurasianist ideology has also linked to his adherence to the doctrines of the Traditionalist School
23.
The Doctrine of Fascism
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The Doctrine of Fascism is an essay attributed to Benito Mussolini. In truth, the first part of the essay, entitled Idee Fondamentali was written by philosopher Giovanni Gentile, while only the part is the work of Mussolini himself. It was first published in the Enciclopedia Italiana of 1932, as the first section of an entry on Fascismo. The entire entry on Fascism spans pages 847–884 of the Enciclopedia Italiana, the Mussolini essay leads off the entry, FASCISMO - Movimento politico italiano creato da Benito Mussolini. The second section of the essay is titled, Dottrina Politica e sociale, the Mussolini entry starts on page 847 and ends on 851 with the credit line Benito Mussolini. All subsequent translations of The Doctrine of Fascism are from this work and we are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the right, a Fascist century. If the 19th century was the century of the individual we are free to believe that this is the collective century, and therefore the century of the State. For if the century was a century of individualism it may be expected that this will be a century of collectivism. —Benito Mussolini, The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism, ” Jane Soames authorized translation, Hogarth Press, London,1933, against individualism, the Fascist conception is for the State, and it is for the individual in so far as he coincides with the State. It is opposed to classical Liberalism, Liberalism denied the State in the interests of the particular individual, Fascism reaffirms the State as the true reality of the individual. 1935 version Yet the Fascist State is unique, and an original creation and it is not reactionary, but revolutionary. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, Fascism is therefore opposed to Socialism to which unity within the State is unknown, and which sees in history nothing but the class struggle. I therefore hope this assembly will accept the claims advanced by national syndicalism. Fascism the precise negation of that doctrine which formed the basis of the so-called Scientific or Marxian Socialism, after Socialism, Fascism attacks the whole complex of democratic ideologies and rejects them both in their theoretical premises and in their applications or practical manifestations. Fascism is definitely and absolutely opposed to the doctrines of liberalism, —Benito Mussolini,1935, The Doctrine of Fascism, Firenze, Vallecchi Editore. In view of the fact that private organisation of production is a function of national concern, State intervention in economic production arises only when private initiative is lacking or insufficient, or when the political interests of the State are involved. This intervention may take the form of control, assistance or direct management, —Benito Mussolini,1935, Fascism, Doctrine and Institutions, Rome, Ardita Publishers. It thus repudiates the doctrine of Pacifism – born of a renunciation of the struggle, war alone brings up to its helghast tension all human energy and puts the stamp of nobility upon the peoples who have courage to meet it
24.
Mein Kampf
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Mein Kampf is a 1925 autobiographical book by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work outlines Hitlers political ideology and future plans for Germany, Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926. The book was edited by Hitlers deputy Rudolf Hess, Hitler began the book while imprisoned for what he considered to be political crimes following his failed Putsch in Munich in November 1923. Although Hitler received many visitors initially, he devoted himself entirely to the book. As he continued, Hitler realized that it would have to be a two-volume work, in 2016, following the expiry of the copyright held by the Bavarian state government, Mein Kampf was republished in Germany for the first time since 1945. Hitler originally wanted to call his forthcoming book Viereinhalb Jahre gegen Lüge, Dummheit und Feigheit, or Four, max Amann, head of the Franz Eher Verlag and Hitlers publisher, is said to have suggested the much shorter Mein Kampf or My Struggle. The narrative describes the process by which he became increasingly antisemitic and militaristic and he speaks of not having met a Jew until he arrived in Vienna, and that at first his attitude was liberal and tolerant. When he first encountered the anti-semitic press, he says, he dismissed it as unworthy of serious consideration, later he accepted the same anti-semitic views, which became crucial to his program of national reconstruction of Germany. Mein Kampf has also studied as a work on political theory. For example, Hitler announces his hatred of what he believed to be the two evils, Communism and Judaism. He announced that he wanted to destroy the parliamentary system, believing it to be corrupt in principle. While historians dispute the exact date Hitler decided to force the Jewish people to emigrate to Madagascar, first published in 1925, Mein Kampf shows Hitlers personal grievances and his ambitions for creating a New Order. Historian Ian Kershaw points out that passages in Mein Kampf are undeniably of a genocidal nature. The racial laws to which Hitler referred resonate directly with his ideas in Mein Kampf, in his first edition of Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that the destruction of the weak and sick is far more humane than their protection. Apart from this allusion to humane treatment, Hitler saw a purpose in destroying the weak in order to provide the proper space and purity for the strong. In the chapter Eastern Orientation or Eastern Policy, Hitler argued that the Germans needed Lebensraum in the East, a historic destiny that would properly nurture the German people. In Mein Kampf Hitler openly stated the future German expansion in the East and we take up where we broke off six hundred years ago. We stop the endless German movement to the south and west, at long last we break off the colonial and commercial policy of the pre-War period and shift to the soil policy of the future
25.
The Myth of the Twentieth Century
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The Myth of the Twentieth Century is a 1930 book by Alfred Rosenberg, one of the principal ideologues of the Nazi Party and editor of the Nazi paper Völkischer Beobachter. The titular myth is the myth of blood, which under the sign of the swastika unchains the racial world-revolution and it is the awakening of the race soul, which after long sleep victoriously ends the race chaos. The book has been described as one of the two great unread bestsellers of the Third Reich, in private Adolf Hitler said, I must insist that Rosenbergs The Myth of the Twentieth Century is not to be regarded as an expression of the official doctrine of the party. Hitler awarded the first State Prize for Art and Science to the author of The Myth of the Twentieth Century. Rosenberg was inspired by the racist theories of Arthur de Gobineau, in his 1853–1855 book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, Rosenbergs The Myth of the Twentieth Century was conceived as a sequel to Chamberlains 1899 book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century. Rosenberg believed that God created mankind as separate, differentiated races in a hierarchy of nobility of virtue. Rosenbergs racial interpretation of history concentrates on the influence of the Jewish race in contrast to the Aryan race. He equates the latter with the Nordic peoples of northern Europe and also includes the Berbers from North Africa, according to Rosenberg, modern culture has been corrupted by Semitic influences, which have produced degenerate modern art, along with moral and social degeneration. In contrast, Aryan culture is defined by innate moral sensibility, Rosenberg believed that the higher races must rule over the lower and not interbreed with them, because cross-breeding destroys the divine combination of physical heredity and spirit. In Rosenbergs view of history, migrating Aryans founded various ancient civilizations which later declined. These civilizations included the Indo-Aryan civilization, ancient Persia, Greece and he saw the ancient Germanic invasions of the Roman empire as saving its civilization, which had been corrupted both by race mixing and by Judaized-cosmopolitan Christianity. In contemporary Europe, he saw the areas that embraced Protestantism as closest to the Aryan racial and spiritual ideal. The Mythus is very anti-Catholic, seeing the Churchs cosmopolitanism and Judaized version of Christianity as one of the factors in Germanys spiritual bondage. This account of history is used to support his dualistic model of human experience, as are ideas co-opted from Nietzsche. Thanks to Nazi support, the book had more than one million copies by 1944. After a year Hitler still had nothing to say, Hitler gave the still-unread work back to him saying, I feel sure that its all right. In his diary Joseph Goebbels called the very good when he first read it. Albert Speer however remembered that Goebbels mocked Alfred Rosenberg, Goebbels also called the book a philosophical belch
26.
Axis powers
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The Axis powers, also known as the Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, were the nations that fought in World War II against the Allied Powers. The Axis agreed on their opposition to the Allies, but did not completely coordinate their activity, the Axis grew out of the diplomatic efforts of Germany, Italy, and Japan to secure their own specific expansionist interests in the mid-1930s. The first step was the treaty signed by Germany and Italy in October 1936, Mussolini declared on 1 November that all other European countries would from then on rotate on the Rome–Berlin axis, thus creating the term Axis. The almost simultaneous second step was the signing in November 1936 of the Anti-Comintern Pact, Italy joined the Pact in 1937. At its zenith during World War II, the Axis presided over territories that occupied parts of Europe, North Africa. There were no three-way summit meetings and cooperation and coordination was minimal, the war ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Axis powers and the dissolution of their alliance. As in the case of the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, at the time he was seeking an alliance with the Weimar Republic against Yugoslavia and France in the dispute over the Free State of Fiume. The term was used by Hungarys prime minister Gyula Gömbös when advocating an alliance of Hungary with Germany, when Mussolini publicly announced the signing on 1 November, he proclaimed the creation of a Rome–Berlin axis. Italy under Duce Benito Mussolini had pursued an alliance of Italy with Germany against France since the early 1920s. He believed that Italy could expand its influence in Europe by allying with Germany against France, in early 1923, as a goodwill gesture to Germany, Italy secretly delivered weapons for the German Army, which had faced major disarmament under the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. General Hans von Seeckt supported an alliance between Germany and the Soviet Union to invade and partition Poland between them and restore the German-Russian border of 1914. The discussions concluded that Germans still wanted a war of revenge against France but were short on weapons, however at this time Mussolini stressed one important condition that Italy must pursue in an alliance with Germany, that Italy must. Tow them, not be towed by them, the French government warned Italy that it had to choose whether to be on the side of the pro-Versailles powers or that of the anti-Versailles revanchists. Grandi responded that Italy would be willing to offer France support against Germany if France gave Italy its mandate over Cameroon, France refused Italys proposed exchange for support, as it believed Italys demands were unacceptable and the threat from Germany was not yet immediate. In 1932, Gyula Gömbös and the Party of National Unity rose to power in Hungary, Gömbös sought to alter Hungarys post–Treaty of Trianon borders by forming an alliance with Austria and Italy, knowing that Hungary alone was not capable of challenging the Little Entente powers. At the meeting between Gömbös and Mussolini in Rome on 10 November 1932, the question came up of the sovereignty of Austria in relation to the rise to power in Germany of the Nazi Party. Mussolini was worried about Nazi ambitions towards Austria, and indicated that at least in the term he was committed to maintaining Austria as a sovereign state. Italy had concerns over a Germany which included Austria laying land claims to German-populated territories of the South Tyrol within Italy, Mussolini said he hoped the Anschluss could be postponed as long as possible until the breakout of a European war that he estimated would begin in 1938
27.
1934 Montreux Fascist conference
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The Fascist International Congress was a meeting held by deputies from a number of European Fascist organizations. The conference was held on 16–17 December 1934 in Montreux, Switzerland, the conference was organised and chaired by Comitati dAzione per lUniversalita di Roma, or the Action Committees for the Universality of Rome. CAUR was a founded in 1933 by Benito Mussolinis Fascist Regime. As different groups tried to obtain subsidies all manners of conflicts arose on issues such as racism, anti-Semitism, corporatism, the first world conference of the CAUR convened at Montreux on 16 December. Participants from fascist organisations in 13 European countries attended, including Ion Moța of Romanias Iron Guard, Vidkun Quisling of Norways Nasjonal Samling, notable in their absence were any representatives from Nazi Germany. José Antonio Primo de Rivera, while allowing members of the Falange to participate, stated that the Falange as an organisation would not be represented, other notable absences included the Austrian Ernst Rudiger von Starhemberg and any representatives from the British Union of Fascists. From the outset, the conference was marred by conflicts between the participants. Coselschi, acting as President of the Conference, clashed with Quisling over the importance of Nazi Germany to international fascism. Moța, supported by the Danish and Swiss delegates, likewise created a rift by underlining the centrality of anti-Semitism to fascist movements, the Romanian Iron Guard stressed the need for race to be an integral component of fascism. On the matter of anti-Semitism, several resolutions were adopted. The delegates at the conference also unanimously declared their opposition to communist movements, a second and final conference was held in Montreux in April 1935. The conference was not able to bridge the gulf between those participants who proposed achieving national integration by a corporative socio-economic policy and those who favored an appeal to race. Pretensions to universal fascism could not survive this rift, and the movement did not meet its goal of acting as a counterbalance to international communism, the CAUR did not win official endorsement from the Italian Fascist Party or the Spanish Falange. It was unsuccessful either to present a commonly agreed definition as to what fascism was or to unite most major fascist parties into one international movement, definitions of Fascism Fascism Fascism as an international phenomenon Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks International Federation of Eugenics Organizations
28.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
29.
March on Rome
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The March on Rome was a march by which Italian dictator Benito Mussolinis National Fascist Party came to power in the Kingdom of Italy. The march took place from 22 to 29 October 1922, in March 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the first Italian Combat Leagues at the beginning of the two red years. He suffered a defeat in the election of November 1919 mainly due to Mussolini’s attempt to “out-socialist the socialists” at the ballot box, but, by the election of 1921, Mussolini entered the Parliament. Out of his Fascist party the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale were formed, in August 1920, the Blackshirts were used to break the general strike which had started at the Alfa Romeo factory in Milan. In November 1920, after the assassination of Giordana, the Blackshirts were used as a tool by the state to crush the socialist movement. Trade unions were dissolved while left-wing mayors resigned, the fascists, included on Giovanni Giolittis National Union lists at the May 1921 elections, then won 36 seats. Mussolini then withdrew his support to Giolitti and attempted to out a temporary truce with the socialists by signing a Pacification Pack in summer 1921. This provoked a conflict with the most fanatical part of the movement, in July 1921, Giolitti attempted without success to dissolve the squadristi. In August, an anti-fascist general strike was triggered, but failed to rally the Italian Peoples Party and was repressed by the fascists. A few days before the march, Mussolini consulted with the U. S. Ambassador Richard Washburn Child about whether the U. S. government would object to Fascist participation in a future Italian government, Child encouraged him to go ahead. Generals Gustavo Fara and Sante Ceccherini assisted to the preparations of the March of 18 October, other organizers of the march included the Marquis Dino Perrone Compagni and Ulisse Igliori. On 24 October 1922, Mussolini declared before 60,000 people at the Fascist Congress in Naples, Our program is simple, meanwhile, the Blackshirts, who had occupied the Po plain, took all strategic points of the country. On 26 October, former prime minister Antonio Salandra warned current Prime Minister Luigi Facta that Mussolini was demanding his resignation, however, Facta did not believe Salandra and thought that Mussolini would govern quietly at his side. To meet the threat posed by the bands of fascist troops now gathering outside Rome, having had previous conversations with the king about the repression of fascist violence, he was sure the king would agree. However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order, on 28 October, the King handed power to Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and the right-wing. Mussolini was asked to form his cabinet on 29 October 1922, Mussolini thus legally reached power, in accordance with the Statuto Albertino, the Italian Constitution. The March on Rome was not the seizure of power which Fascism later celebrated and this transition was made possible by the surrender of public authorities in the face of fascist intimidation. Many business and financial leaders believed it would be possible to manipulate Mussolini, whose speeches and policies emphasized free market
30.
Beer Hall Putsch
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About two thousand Nazis marched to the centre of Munich, where they confronted the police, which resulted in the death of 16 Nazis and four police officers. Hitler himself was wounded during the clash, after two days, Hitler was arrested and charged with treason. From Hitlers perspective, there were three positive benefits from this attempt to seize power unlawfully, First, the putsch brought Hitler to the attention of the German nation and generated front page headlines in newspapers around the world. His arrest was followed by a 24-day trial, which was widely publicized, Hitler was found guilty of treason and sentenced to five years in Landsberg Prison. The second benefit to Hitler was that he used his time in prison to produce Mein Kampf, on 20 December 1924, having served only nine months, Hitler was released. The final benefit that Hitler accrued was the insight that the path to power was through legitimate means rather than revolution or force, such beer halls also became the host of occasional political rallies. One of Munichs largest beer halls was the Bürgerbräukeller and this was the location of the famous Beer Hall Putsch. The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, sounded the knell of German power. Germany, it was felt, had been betrayed by civilian leaders and Marxists, Hitler remained in the army, in Munich, after World War I. He participated in national thinking courses. These had been organized by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian army, under Captain Karl Mayr, Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an army lance corporal, to infiltrate the tiny Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated DAP. Hitler joined the DAP on 12 September 1919 and he soon realized that he was in agreement with many of the underlying tenets of the DAP, and he rose to its top post in the ensuing chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich. By agreement, Hitler assumed the leadership of a number of Bavarian patriotic associations. This political base extended to include about 15,000 brawlers, in addition to von Kahr, Bavarian state police chief Colonel Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow formed a ruling triumvirate. Hitler announced that he would hold 14 mass meetings beginning on 27 September 1923, afraid of the potential disruption, one of Kahrs first actions was to ban the announced meetings. Hitler was under pressure to act, the Nazis, with other leaders in the Kampfbund, felt they had to march upon Berlin and seize power or their followers would turn to the Communists. Hitler enlisted the help of World War I general Erich Ludendorff in an attempt to gain the support of Kahr, however, Kahr had his own plan with Seisser and Lossow to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler. November 1923 was the height of hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic, the attempted putsch was inspired by Benito Mussolinis successful March on Rome, from 22 to 29 October 1922
31.
Pacification of Libya
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The pacification resulted in mass deaths of the indigenous people in Cyrenaica - one quarter of Cyrenaicas population of 225,000 people died during the conflict. Italy had been in near-constant conflict with the Senussis since Italy seized control of Libya from the Ottoman Empire, warfare between the British versus the Senussis continued until 1917 when the Senussis made peace with the British. In 1917, Italy signed the Treaty of Acroma that acknowledged effective virtual independence of Libya from direct Italian control, in 1918, Tripolitanian rebels founded the Tripolitanian Republic. In 1922 Tripolitanian leaders offered Idris the position of Emir of Tripolitania, however prior to Idris being able to accept the position, the Italian government decided to initiate a campaign of reconquest of Libya. The rise to power of Benito Mussolini as Prime Minister of Italy, however attempts by Italian forces to occupy the forest hills of Jebel Akhtar were met with popular guerrilla resistance. This resistance was led by Senussi sheikh Omar Mukhtar, by doing this, the Italians cut off the physical connection formerly held by the rebels between Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. By late 1928, the Italians took control of Ghibla and its tribes were disarmed, attempted negotiations between Italy and Omar Mukhtar broke down and Italy then planned for the complete conquest of Libya from the rebels. In 1930, Italian forces conquered Fezzan and rose the Italian flag in Tummo, the camps held only rudimentary medical services, with the camps of Soluch and Sisi Ahmed el Magrun with 33,000 internees each having only one doctor between them. Typhus and other diseases spread rapidly in the camps as the people were physically weakened by meagre food rations provided to them, by the time the camps closed in September 1933,40,000 of the 100,000 total internees had died in the camps. To close rebel supply routes from Egypt, the Italians constructed a 300-kilometre barbed wire fence on the border with Egypt that was patrolled by armoured cars, in 1931, Italian forces seized Kufra where Senussi refugees were bombed and strafed by Italian aircraft as they fled into the desert. Mukhtar was captured by the Italians in 1931 followed by a court martial, mukhtars death effectively ended the resistance, and in January 1932, Badoglio proclaimed the end of the Pacification of Libya
32.
German federal election, November 1932
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Federal elections were held in Germany on 6 November 1932. They saw a significant drop in votes for the Nazi Party and increases for the Communists, the next free election was not held until August 1949 in West Germany, the next free all-German elections took place in December 1990 after reunification. The results of the November 1932 election were a disappointment for the Nazis. Although they emerged once more as the largest party by far, they had fewer seats than before, and failed to form a government coalition in the Reichstag parliament. However, on 12 September 1932 Papen had to ask Hindenburg to dissolve the parliament in order to preempt a motion of no confidence tabled by the Communist Party, thus, the election of November 1932 was held following this dissolution of parliament in September. The DNVP, which had backed Papen, gained 15 seats as a result, after the election, Chancellor Papen urged Hindenburg to continue to govern by emergency decrees. These plans failed when in turn Hitler disempowered Strasser and approached Papen for coalition talks, Papen obtained Hindenburgs consent to form the Hitler Cabinet on 30 January 1933
