1.
TM-46 mine
–
The TM-46 mine is a large, circular, metal-cased Soviet anti-tank mine. It utilises either a pressure fuze or tilt-rod, which is screwed into the top, Anti-tank mines with this type of fuze were capable of inflicting much more damage to armored vehicles. The TMN-46 is a variant of the mine fitted with a fuze well on the bottom which is slightly off-set from the centre of the mine. This secondary fuze well can be fitted with a pull-fuze which functions as an anti-handling device, the mine was used by the North Vietnamese forces during the Vietnam War, and is found in many countries in Africa, the Middle East and South East Asia. Because the TM-46 has a casing, it is very easy to detect with a mine-detector. However, mine-fields containing TM-46s may have also been sown with minimum metal mines, diameter,305 mm Height,108 mm Operating pressure, 120–400 kg Weight,8.6 kg Explosive content,5.7 kg of TNT Fuzes, MV-5 pressure. TM-57 mine TM-62 series of mines Land mine Anti-tank mine
2.
Land mine
–
A land mine is an explosive device concealed under or on the ground and designed to destroy or disable enemy targets, ranging from combatants to vehicles and tanks, as they pass over or near it. Such a device is typically detonated automatically by way of pressure when a target steps on it or drives over it, a land mine may cause damage by direct blast effect, by fragments that are thrown by the blast, or by both. The name originates from the ancient practice of mining, where tunnels were dug under enemy fortifications or troop formations. These killing tunnels were at first collapsed to destroy targets located above, nowadays, in common parlance, land mine generally refers to devices specifically manufactured as anti-personnel or anti-vehicle weapons. The use of mines is controversial because of their potential as indiscriminate weapons. They can remain dangerous many years after a conflict has ended, harming the economy, to date,162 nations have signed the treaty. To act as passive area-denial weapons, land mines are currently used in large quantities mostly for this first purpose, thus their widespread use in the demilitarized zones of likely flashpoints such as Cyprus, Afghanistan and Korea. As of 2013, the governments that still laid land mines were Myanmar in its internal conflict. Land mines continue to kill or injure at least 4,300 people every year, even decades after the ends of the conflicts for which they were placed. This claim is dubious, as gunpowder warfare did not develop in China until the advent of the flamethrower in the 10th century, while the land mine was not seen in China until the late 13th century. Explosive land mines were being used in 1277 by the Chinese during the Song dynasty against an assault of the Mongols, the invention of this detonated enormous bomb was credited to one Lou Qianxia of the 13th century. The wad of the mine was made of wood, carrying three different fuses in case of defective connection to the touch hole. Pieces of bamboo are sawn into sections nine feet in length, all septa in the bamboo being removed, save only the last, boiling oil is next poured into and left there for some time before being removed. The fuse starts from the bottom, and is compressed into it to form an explosive mine, the gunpowder fills up eight-tenths of the tube, while lead or iron pellets take up the rest of the space, then the open end is sealed with wax. A trench five feet in depth is dug, the fuse is connected to a firing device which ignites them when disturbed. Further description of how this flint device operated was not made until a Chinese text of 1606 AD revealed that a drive had been used to work the steel wheel. Besides the use of steel wheels providing sparks for the fuses, there were other methods used as well, when the weapons were removed from the mound, this movement disturbed the bowl beneath them where the butt ends of the staffs were, which in turn ignited the fuses. According to the Wubei Huolongjing volume of the 17th century, the formula for this slow-burning incandescent material allowed it to burn continuously for 20 to 30 days without going out
3.
Tank
–
A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle designed for front-line combat, with heavy firepower, strong armour, and tracks providing good battlefield maneuverability. The first tanks were designed to overcome the deadlock of trench warfare, now they are a mainstay of ground forces. Modern tanks are versatile mobile land weapon platforms, mounting a large-calibre cannon in a rotating gun turret. In both offensive and defensive roles, they are units that are capable of performing tasks which are required of armoured units on the battlefield. As a result of advances, tanks underwent tremendous shifts in capability in the years since their first appearance. Tanks in World War I were developed separately and simultaneously by Great Britain and this was a prototype of a new design that would become the British Armys Mark I tank, the first tank used in combat in September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme. The name tank was adopted by the British during the stages of their development. While the British and French built thousands of tanks in World War I, Germany was unconvinced of the tanks potential, Tanks of the interwar period evolved into the much larger and more powerful designs of World War II. Tanks in the Cold War were designed with these weapons in mind, improved engines, transmissions and suspensions allowed tanks of this period to grow larger. Aspects of gun technology changed significantly as well, with advances in shell design, during the Cold War, the main battle tank concept arose and became a key component of modern armies. Modern tanks seldom operate alone, as they are organized into combined arms units which involve the support of infantry and they are also usually supported by reconnaissance or ground-attack aircraft. The tank is the 20th century realization of an ancient concept, the internal combustion engine, armour plate, and continuous track were key innovations leading to the invention of the modern tank. Many sources imply that Leonardo da Vinci and H. G. Wells in some way foresaw or invented the tank, leonardos late 15th century drawings of what some describe as a tank show a man-powered, wheeled vehicle with cannons all around it. However the human crew would not have power to move it over larger distance. In the 15th century, Jan Žižka built armoured wagons containing cannons, the caterpillar track arose from attempts to improve the mobility of wheeled vehicles by spreading their weight, reducing ground pressure, and increasing their traction. Experiments can be traced back as far as the 17th century and it is frequently claimed that Richard Lovell Edgeworth created a caterpillar track. It is true that in 1770 he patented a machine, that should carry and lay down its own road and his own account in his autobiography is of a horse-drawn wooden carriage on eight retractable legs, capable of lifting itself over high walls. The description bears no similarity to a caterpillar track, armoured trains appeared in the mid-19th century, and various armoured steam and petrol-engined vehicles were also proposed
4.
Armoured fighting vehicle
–
An armoured fighting vehicle is a combat vehicle, protected by strong armour and generally armed with weapons, which combines operational mobility, tactical offensive, and defensive capabilities. AFVs can be wheeled or tracked and it is not uncommon for AFVs to be simply referred to as armour. Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their role on the battlefield. This classification is not absolute, at different times different countries will classify the vehicle in different roles. For example, armoured carriers were generally replaced by infantry fighting vehicles in a similar role. Modern armoured fighting vehicles are the realization of an ancient concept, War machines with rudimentary armour have been used in battle for millennia. These designs historically struggled between the paradox of exposed-mobility, effective-firepower and cumbersome-protection, Siege engines, such as battering rams and trebuchets, would often be armoured in order to protect the crews from the defenders. Very large movable siege towers, helepolis were developed by Polyidus of Thessaly, the idea of a vehicle with a tortoise like cover has been known since antiquity. Frequently cited is Leonardo da Vincis 15th century sketch of a mobile, protected gun platform, the machine was to be mounted on four wheels which would be turned by the crew through a system of hand cranks and cage gears. Leonardo quoted I will build armored wagons which will be safe, there will be no obstacle which it cannot overcome. Modern replicas have demonstrated that the crew would have been able to move it over only short distances. The war wagon were medieval weapon-platforms developmed during the Hussite Wars around 1420 by Hussite forces rebelling in Bohemia. These heavy wagon were given protective sides with firing slits and heavy firepower from either a cannon or a force of hand-gunners and crossbowmen, supported by infantry using pikes, heavy arquebuses mounted on wagons were called arquebus à croc. These carried a ball of about 3.5 ounces, the first modern AFVs were armed cars, dating back virtually to the invention of the motor car. The Motor Scout was designed and built by British inventor F. R. Simms in 1898 and it was the first armed petrol engine powered vehicle ever built. The vehicle was a De Dion-Bouton quadricycle with a mounted Maxim machine gun on the front bar, an iron shield offered some protection for the driver from the front, but it lacked all-around protective armour. The armoured car was the first modern fully armoured fighting vehicle, the first of these was the Simms Motor War Car, designed by Simms and built by Vickers, Sons & Maxim in 1899. The vehicle had Vickers armour 6 mm thick and was powered by a four-cylinder 3. 3-litre 16 hp Cannstatt Daimler engine giving it a speed of around 9 miles per hour
5.
Anti-personnel mine
–
Anti-personnel mines are a form of mine designed for use against humans, as opposed to anti-tank mines, which are designed for use against vehicles. Anti-personnel mines may be classified into blast mines or fragmentation mines, the mines are often designed to injure, not kill, their victims in order to increase the logistical support required by enemy forces that encounter them. Some types of mines can also damage the tracks on armoured vehicles or the tires of wheeled vehicles. What makes them different from most anti-tank mines, however, is their smaller size and this process can be done manually, via dispensers on land vehicles, or from helicopters or aircraft. Alternatively, they can be dispensed by cargo-carrying artillery shells and their primary purpose is to blow the victims foot or leg off, disabling them. Injuring, rather than killing, the victim is viewed as preferable in order to increase the burden on the opposing force. When a person steps on a blast mine and activates it, the shock wave sends a huge compressive force upwards, ejecting the mine casing and any soil covering the mine along with it. When the blast wave hits the surface, it transfers the force into the subjects footwear. This results in a compression force being applied. In most cases, the foot is blown off by the blast wave. Different types of soil will result in different amounts of energy being transferred upward into the subjects foot, secondary injuries from a blast mine are often caused by the material that has been torn loose by the mines explosion. This consists of the soil and stones that were on top of the mine, parts of the victims footwear and this debris creates wounds typical of similar secondary blast effects or fragmentation. Special footwear, including combat boots or so-called blast boots, is only moderately protective against the effects of blast mines. Blast mines have little effect on armoured vehicles, but can damage a vehicle if it runs directly over the mine. Small blast mines will severely damage a tire, rendering it irreparable while some types could also damage adjacent running gear, the mine casing houses the components of the mine and protects it from its environment. Early mines, such as the used in the World War II era, had casings made of steel or aluminium. However, by the middle of the conflict, the British Army was using the first, practical, the Germans responded with mines that had a wooden or glass casing to make detection harder. Wooden mines had been used by the Russians in 1939, before the appearance of metal detectors, some, like the PP Mi-D mine, continued to be used into the 1980s as they were easy to make and hard to detect
6.
Fuze
–
In military munitions, a fuze or fuse is the part of the device that initiates function. In some applications, such as torpedoes, a fuze may be identified by function as the exploder, the relative complexity of even the earliest fuze designs can be seen in cutaway diagrams. A fuze is a device that detonates an explosive material under specified conditions. In addition, a fuze will have safety and arming mechanisms that protect users from premature or accidental detonation, for example, an artillery fuzes battery is activated by the high acceleration of cannon launch, and the fuze must be spinning rapidly before it will function. Complete bore safety can be achieved with mechanical shutters that isolate the detonator from the charge until the shell is fired. A fuze may contain only the electronic or mechanical elements necessary to signal or actuate the detonator, Fuzes for large explosive charges may include an explosive booster. Professional publications about explosives and munitions distinguish the fuse and fuze spelling, the UK Ministry of Defence states, FUSE, Cord or tube for the transmission of flame or explosion usually consisting of cord or rope with gunpowder or high explosive spun into it. FUZE, A device with explosive components designed to initiate a main charge, oliver Hogg states the following about fuze, The word fuze is often spelt fuse by those unaquainted with artillery usage. Fuse, derived from fusus, the past participle of fundo, means to melt, fuze, on the other hand, is the shortened or modern method of spelling fuzee, meaning a tube filled with combustible material. It is a derivation of fusus, a spindle and from the French fusee and it is well to make this point at the outset. Historically, it was spelled with s or z. In the United States and some forces, fuze is used to denote a sophisticated ignition device incorporating mechanical and/or electronic components as opposed to a simple burning fuse. The situation of usage and the characteristics of the munition it is intended to affect the fuze design e. g. its safety. Artillery fuzes may be initiated by a mechanism, impact or detection of proximity to the target. Requirements for a hand grenade fuze are defined by the small size. This necessitates manual arming before throwing as the grenade has insufficient initial acceleration for arming to be driven by setback and these are also referred to as pistols. The main design consideration is that the projectile is large and accelerating vertically downwards, the main design consideration is that the bomb the fuze is intended to actuate is stationary, and the target itself is moving in making contact. Time fuzes detonate after a set period of time by using one or more combinations of mechanical, depending on the technology used, the device may self-destruct some seconds, minutes, hours, days, or even months after being deployed
7.
Locomotive
–
A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles and these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains. Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front, however, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive at the front, at the rear, or at each end. Prior to locomotives, the force for railroads had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power. The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick, in 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 long tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles, the locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside in northern England, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murrays rack locomotive, Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the locomotives of Trevithick. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives, Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers, in 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials and this success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. The first inter city passenger railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, there are a few basic reasons to isolate locomotive train power, as compared to self-propelled vehicles. Maximum utilization of power cars Separate locomotives facilitate movement of costly motive power assets as needed, flexibility Large locomotives can substitute for small locomotives when more power is required, for example, where grades are steeper. As needed, a locomotive can be used for freight duties. Obsolescence cycles Separating motive power from payload-hauling cars enables replacement without affecting the other, to illustrate, locomotives might become obsolete when their associated cars did not, and vice versa
8.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
9.
Confederate States Army
–
The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
10.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
11.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
12.
Shell (projectile)
–
A shell is a payload-carrying projectile that, as opposed to shot, contains an explosive or other filling, though modern usage sometimes includes large solid projectiles properly termed shot. Solid shot may contain a pyrotechnic compound if a tracer or spotting charge is used, originally, it was called a bombshell, but shell has come to be unambiguous in a military context. Words cognate with grenade are still used for an artillery or mortar projectile in some European languages, shells are usually large-calibre projectiles fired by artillery, combat vehicles, and warships. Shells usually have the shape of a cylinder topped by a nose for good aerodynamic performance, possibly with a tapering base. Solid cannonballs did not need a fuse, but hollow munitions filled with something such as gunpowder to fragment the ball, needed a fuse, percussion fuses with a spherical projectile presented a challenge because there was no way of ensuring that the impact mechanism hit the target. Therefore, shells needed a fuse that was ignited before or during firing. The earliest record of shells being used in combat was by the Republic of Venice at Jadra in 1376, shells with fuses were used at the 1421 siege of St Boniface in Corsica. These were two hollowed hemispheres of stone or bronze held together by an iron hoop, as described in their book, these hollow, gunpowder-packed shells were made of cast iron. At least since the 16th Century grenades made of ceramics or glass were in use in Central Europe, a hoard of several hundred ceramic greandes were discovered during building works in front of a bastion of the Bavarian City of Ingolstadt, Germany dated to the 17th Century. Lots of the grenades obtained their orignal blackpowder loads and igniters, most probably the grenades were intentionally dumped the moat of the bastion before the year 1723. Early powder burning fuses had to be loaded fuse down to be ignited by firing or a portfire put down the barrel to light the fuse, other shells were wrapped in bitumen cloth, which would ignite during the firing and in turn ignite a powder fuse. Nevertheless, shells came into use in the 16th Century. By the 18th Century, it was known that the fuse towards the muzzle could be lit by the flash through the windage between the shell and the barrel, the use of exploding shells from field artillery became relatively commonplace from early in the 19th century. Until the mid 19th century, shells remained as simple exploding spheres that used gunpowder and they were usually made of cast iron, but bronze, lead, brass and even glass shell casings were experimented with. The word bomb encompassed them at the time, as heard in the lyrics of The Star-Spangled Banner, typically, the thickness of the metal body was about a sixth of their diameter and they were about two thirds the weight of solid shot of the same calibre. To ensure that shells were loaded with their fuses towards the muzzle, in 1819, a committee of British artillery officers recognised that they were essential stores and in 1830 Britain standardised sabot thickness as a half inch. The sabot was also intended to reduce jamming during loading, despite the use of exploding shell, the use of smoothbore cannons, firing spherical projectiles of shot, remained the dominant artillery method until the 1850s. By the late 18th century, artillery could use canister shot to defend itself from infantry or cavalry attack and this involved loading a tin or canvas container filled with small iron or lead balls instead of the usual cannonball
13.
Mortar (weapon)
–
A mortar is a device that fires projectiles at low velocities and short ranges. The mortar has traditionally used as a weapon to propel explosive mortar bombs in high-arcing ballistic trajectories. The weapon is typically muzzle-loading with a short, often smooth-bore barrel, Modern mortars are light and easily portable. They can be used for fire support with a variety of ammunition. Mortars have been used for hundreds of years, originally in siege warfare, many historians consider the first mortars to have been used at the 1453 siege of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror. A European account of the 1456 siege of Belgrade by Giovanni da Tagliacozzo said that the Ottoman Turks used seven mortars that fired stone shots one Italian mile high. The time of flight of these was long enough that casualties could be avoided by posting observers to give warning of their trajectories. However, earlier mortars were used in Korea in a 1413 naval battle when Korean gunsmiths developed the Wangu, the earliest version of the Wangu dates back to 1407. Choe Hae-san, the son of Choe Mu-seon, is credited with inventing the first Wangu. Early mortars, such as the Pumhart von Steyr, were large and heavy. Simply made, these weapons were no more than iron bowls reminiscent of the kitchen, an early transportable mortar was invented by Baron Menno van Coehoorn. This mortar fired a shell, which had a fuse lit by the hot gases when fired. This innovation was taken up, necessitating a new form of naval ship. Mortars played a significant role in the Venetian conquest of Morea, an early use of these more mobile mortars as field weapons was by British forces in the suppression of the 1719 Jacobite rising at the Battle of Glen Shiel. High angle trajectory mortars held an advantage over standard field guns in the rough terrain of the West Highlands of Scotland. Coehorn-type mortars of approximately 180 pounds weight were used by both sides during the American Civil War and these answered as coehorns, and shells were successfully thrown from them into the trenches of the enemy. The mortar had fallen out of use by the Napoleonic era. The German Army studied the Siege of Port Arthur, where heavy artillery had been unable to destroy defensive structures like barbed wire, the solution they developed was a short-barrelled rifled muzzle-loading mortar called the Minenwerfer, and was built in three sizes
14.
Battle of Saint-Mihiel
–
The U. S. Army Air Service played a significant role in this action. This battle marked the first use of the terms D-Day and H-Hour by the Americans, the fighting was depicted in the 1927 film Wings. The attack at the St. Mihiel salient was part of a plan by Pershing in which he hoped that the Americans would break through the German lines and capture the fortified city of Metz. It was the first and only offensive launched solely by the United States Army in World War I, and this meant that their artillery was out of place and the American attack, coming up against disorganized German forces, proved more successful than expected. The St. Mihiel attack established the stature of the U. S, the U. S. attack faltered as artillery and food supplies were left behind on the muddy roads. The attack on Metz was not realized, as the Germans refortified their positions, Saint-Mihiel is a town in the Meuse department in northeastern France. Since the end of the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, the town was no longer considered important strategically and this changed early in World War I with the town inside the battlefront. In 1914, the German command wished to take the Verdun fortifications which formed a point in the French lines. A first attempt, at Bois-le-Pretre, failed despite violent fighting, during two more attempts, German troops took Saint-Mihiel and the fort at Camp des Romains, but they were ultimately stopped at the Fort de Troyon to the south of Verdun. During the course of the war the front did not change much in this area, Saint-Mihiel formed a salient inside the French lines, blocking communications between Nancy and Verdun. The area near St. Mihiel would know much fighting, The Crête des Éparges, the Bois dAilly and the Tranchée de la Soif, isolated behind German lines, Commander dAndrés men fight three days without food or water before surrender in May 1915. Bois Brûlé, many casualties when German conquer a redoubt on December 1914 and it is here that the sub-officer Jacques Péricard pronounced the famous words, Debout les morts. on 8 April 1915. The forêt dApremont, the Tête à vache trenches, Calonne trenches… But despite French attacks the German forces were able to retain this strategic location until the last months of the war. General John Pershing thought that a successful Allied attack in the region of St. Mihiel, Metz, for this, he placed his confidence in a young First Infantry Division Major, George Marshall, to move troops and supplies effectively throughout the battle. After these goals were accomplished, the Americans could launch offensives into Germany proper, the American First Army had been activated in August and taken over the sector of the Allied line. Pershing had to persuade Marshall Foch to permit an American attack on the salient, the weather corps of Corps I Operation Order stated, Visibility, Heavy driving wind and rain during parts of day and night. This would pose a challenge to the Americans when the order to advance was given, in some parts of the road, the men were almost knee-deep in mud and water. After five days of rain, the ground was impassable to both the American tanks and infantry
15.
Third Battle of the Aisne
–
It was one of a series of offensives, known as the Kaiserschlacht, launched by the Germans in the spring and summer of 1918. The massive surprise attack lasted from 27 May until 4 June 1918 and was the first full-scale German offensive following the Lys Offensive in Flanders in April. The Germans held the Chemin des Dames Ridge from the First Battle of the Aisne in September 1914 to 1917, operation Blücher-Yorck was planned primarily by Erich Ludendorff, who was certain that success at the Aisne would lead the German armies to within striking distance of Paris. Thus, the Aisne drive was to be essentially a large diversionary attack, the defense of the Aisne area was in the hands of General Denis Auguste Duchêne, commander of the French Sixth Army. On the morning of 27 May 1918, the Germans began a bombardment of the Allied front lines with over 4,000 artillery pieces, huddled together, they made easy artillery targets. The bombardment was followed by a poison gas drop, the Kaiser came to inspect the progress of the battle. He interviewed captured British Brigadier-General Hubert Rees, the Kaiser was amused to learn that he was Welsh, the same nationality as Lloyd George. Taken completely by surprise and with their defences spread thin, the Allies were unable to stop the attack, Victory seemed near for the Germans, who had captured just over 50,000 Allied soldiers and over 800 guns by 30 May 1918. But advancing within 56 kilometres of Paris on 3 June, the German armies were beset by problems, including supply shortages, fatigue, lack of reserves. On 6 June 1918, following many successful Allied counter-attacks, the German advance halted on the Marne, much as the Michael and Georgette offensives had in March, the French had suffered over 98,000 casualties and the British around 29,000. German losses were nearly as great, if not slightly heavier, duchene was sacked by French Commander-in-Chief Philippe Petain for his poor handling of the British and French troops. The Americans had arrived and proven themselves in combat for the first time in the war, Ludendorff, encouraged by the gains of Blücher-Yorck, launched further offensives culminating in the Second Battle of the Marne. Chemins des Dames Ridge Evans, M. M. Battles of World War I,1918, A Very British Victory, Phoenix Books, London. A Young Mans War, Medlar Press
16.
Meuse-Argonne Offensive
–
It was fought from 26 September 1918, until the Armistice of 11 November 1918, a total of 47 days. American losses were exacerbated by the inexperience of many of the troops, the Meuse-Argonne was the principal engagement of the AEF during World War I. The logistical prelude to the Meuse attack was planned by then-Colonel George Marshall who managed to move American units to the front after the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, on 26 September, the Americans began their strike towards Sedan in the south. The next day British and Belgian divisions drove towards Ghent, and then British, the Meuse-Argonne offensive, shared by the U. S. forces with the French Fourth Army on the left, was the biggest operation and victory of the American Expeditionary Forces in World War I. The bulk of the AEF had not gone into action until 1918, the Meuse-Argonne battle was the largest frontline commitment of troops by the U. S. Army in World War I, and also its deadliest. Command was coordinated, with some U. S. troops attached, the main U. S. effort of the Meuse-Argonne offensive took place in the Verdun Sector, immediately north and northwest of the town of Verdun, between 26 September and 11 November 1918. However, far to the north, U. S. Quentin Canal, the American forces initially consisted of fifteen divisions of the U. S. First Army commanded by then-General John J. Pershing until October 16, the logistics were planned and directed by then-Colonel George C. Marshall. The French forces next to them consisted of 31 divisions including the Fourth Army, the U. S. S. and French contributions in troops were considerable. Most of the equipment was provided by the European Allies. For the Meuse-Argonne front alone, this represented 2,780 artillery pieces,380 tanks and 840 planes, as the battle progressed, both the Americans and the French brought in reinforcements. Eventually,22 American divisions would participate in the battle at one time or another, other French forces involved included the 2nd Colonial Corps, under Henri Claudel, which had also fought alongside the AEF at the Battle of Saint-Mihiel earlier in September 1918. The opposing forces were wholly German, during this period of the war, German divisions procured only 50 percent or less of their initial strength. The 117th Division, which opposed the U. S. 79th Division during the offensives first phase, had only 3,300 men in its ranks. For example, divisions that served on the Eastern front would have high morale, while conversely divisions that had been on the Western front had poor morale. Resistance grew to approximately 200, 000–450,000 German troops from the Fifth Army of Group Gallwitz commanded by General Georg von der Marwitz, the Americans estimated that they opposed parts of 44 German divisions overall, though many fewer at any one time. The objective was the capture of the hub at Sedan which would break the railway network supporting the German Army in France. During the three hours preceding H hour, the Allies expended more ammunition than both sides managed to fire throughout the four years of the Civil War, the cost was later calculated to have been $180 million, or $1 million per minute
17.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
18.
Tellermine 29
–
The Tellermine 29 is a round, metal-cased German anti-tank blast landmine. It first entered service in 1929, and the initial German defence plan was to purchase 6,000 a year, by 1937 with the introduction of the Tellermine 35, it was being used for training, and the majority were sent to warehouses. The mine did see limited service during the Second World War,29 fuzes that are normally set at an activation pressure of 125 kg, but can be set to function with a pressure of just 45 kg or even function as a tripwire fuze. The mine is fitted with two secondary fuze wells that enable the fitting of anti-handling devices, a training version of the mine designated T. Mi.29 was also produced that was filled with a smoke-generating main charge and holes along the circumference to allow the smoke to escape. A number of Yugoslavian mines copied the basic pattern of the Tellermine 29, including the TMA3 and TMA4
19.
Explosive material
–
An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may be composed of a single ingredient or a combination of two or more. Materials that detonate are said to be high explosives and materials that deflagrate are said to be low explosives, Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives. A wide variety of chemicals can explode, a number are manufactured specifically for the purpose of being used as explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, in contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding. The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp, though early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times, the first widely used explosive in warfare and mining was black powder, invented in 9th century China. This material was sensitive to water, and it produced copious amounts of dark smoke, the first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, TNT in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867, World War I saw the adoption of TNT trinitrotoluene in artillery shells. World War II saw a use of new explosives. In turn, these have largely replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-4. However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-4 and PETN are waterproof, the largest commercial application of explosives is mining. In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in cladding, a thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive, at one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force, the explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers and it is possible that some fraction of the surface material from either layer eventually gets ejected when the end of material is reached. Hence, the mass of the now welded bilayer, may be less than the sum of the masses of the two initial layers, there are applications where a shock wave, and electrostatics, can result in high velocity projectiles. Thus, explosives are substances that contain an amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. Consequently, most commercial explosives are compounds containing -NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups that
20.
Tellermine 35
–
The Tellermine 35 was a German metal-cased anti-tank mine used extensively during the Second World War. The mines case is made of steel, and has a slightly convex pressure plate on the top surface with a central fuze well. Two secondary fuze wells are located on the side and bottom of the mine for anti-handling devices, for use on beaches and underwater the mine could be deployed inside a specially designed earthenware or concrete pot, which acted as a waterproof jacket for the mine. A later variant of the mine, the T. Mi.35 was produced with a ribbed case, the ribbed case stopped sand from blowing off the top of the mine when it was used in a desert or sandy environment. Pressure of 400 pounds on the center of the mine or 200 pounds on its edge deforms the pressure plate compressing a spring, and breaking a shear pin which holds back the spring-loaded striker. Once the striker is released it flips downwards into a cap which fires the adjacent detonator followed by the booster charge. From 1943, they were painted dark yellow
21.
Spanish Civil War
–
Ultimately, the Nationalists won, and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from April 1939 until his death in November 1975. Sanjurjo was killed in an accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal. The coup was supported by units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba. However, rebelling units in some important cities—such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Málaga—did not gain control, Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country, the Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, operated a policy of non-intervention. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west and they also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists, with the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime. The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, organized purges occurred in territory captured by Francos forces to consolidate the future regime. A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, the extent to which Republican authorities took part in killings in Republican territory varied. The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain and those in favour of reforming Spains government vied for political power with conservatives, who tried to prevent reforms from taking place. Some liberals, in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812, sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain, the reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government. Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874, until the 1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture. There was little development of an industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy remained powerful, a number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions. In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon, two distinct factors led to the uprisings, a series of urban riots and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military concerned with the ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873 Isabellas replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated owing to increasing pressure. After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874, Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy, alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute
22.
Anti-handling device
–
An anti-handling device is an attachment to or integral part of a landmine or other munition e. g. some fuze types found in general purpose air-dropped bombs, cluster bombs and sea mines. It is designed to prevent tampering, when the protected device is disturbed, it detonates, killing or injuring anyone within the blast area. There is a strong functional overlap of booby traps and anti-handling devices, anti-handling devices prevent the capture and reuse of the munition by enemy forces. They also hinder bomb disposal or demining operations, both directly and by deterrence, thereby creating a more effective hazard or barrier. Anti-handling devices greatly increase the danger of munitions to civilian populations in the areas in which they are used because their mechanisms are so easily triggered. An anti-tank mine with a device fitted is almost guaranteed to detonate if it is lifted/overturned. Munitions fitted with anti-handling devices increase the difficulty and cost of post-conflict clearing operations, not all munitions will have an anti-handling device. Perhaps one in ten antitank mines in a defensive minefield will have boobytrap firing devices screwed into their secondary fuze wells. Even so, deminers and EOD personnel are forced to assume that all items they encounter may have been boobytrapped and this has the effect of significantly slowing down the clearance process. Anti-handling mechanisms have been used in fuzes since at least 1940, in, for example, Luftwaffes ZUS-40 anti-removal fuze which was used during the London Blitz, zUS-40s were designed to fit underneath most Luftwaffe bomb fuzes. When a delayed-action bomb containing a ZUS-40 was dropped on a target, however, so long as the main bomb fuze remained inside its fuze well, the cocked firing pin in the ZUS-40 was prevented from springing forward. ZUS-40s were often fitted underneath a type 17 clockwork long delay fuze, which gave between 2 and 72 hours delayed detonation. Rendering safe a type 17 fuze was normally a simple and straightforward process i. e. unscrew the fuze locking ring, remove the fuze from its pocket in the side of the bomb and unscrew the gaine. However, fitting a ZUS-40 underneath a type 17 fuze made the process much more complicated. Because the ZUS-40 was designed to be concealed underneath a conventional bomb fuze, in any case, many electrically fired German bomb fuzes already had a pendulum-based trembler switch which triggered detonation if the bomb was subjected to rough handling. Some German anti-handling fuzes were even more dangerous to EOD personnel, such as the type 50 and these were normally fitted to 250/500 kg bombs and contained two mercury tilt switches which detected vertical or horizontal movement. The fuzes fully armed themselves approximately 30 seconds after hitting the ground, subsequently, if the bomb was moved in any way, the mercury switch triggered detonation. To complicate matters further, German bombs could have two separate fuze pockets fitted, with different fuze types screwed into each one
23.
Winter War
–
The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939–1940. It began with the Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, the League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union from the League on 14 December 1939. Finland refused and the USSR invaded the country, the Soviets possessed more than three times as many soldiers as the Finns, thirty times as many aircraft, and a hundred times as many tanks. The Red Army, however, had been crippled by Soviet leader Joseph Stalins Great Purge of 1937. With more than 30,000 of its officers executed or imprisoned, including most of those of the highest ranks, because of these factors, and high morale in the Finnish forces, Finland repelled Soviet attacks for several months, much longer than the Soviets expected. However, after reorganization and adoption of different tactics, the renewed Soviet offensive overcame Finnish defenses at the borders, hostilities ceased in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty. Finland ceded territory representing 11% of its area and 13% of its economy to the Soviet Union. Soviet losses were heavy, and the international reputation suffered. While the Soviet Union did not conquer all Finland, Soviet gains exceeded their pre-war demands and they gained substantial territory along Lake Ladoga, providing a buffer for Leningrad, and territory in northern Finland. Finland retained its sovereignty and enhanced its international reputation, the end of the war cancelled the Franco-British plan to send troops to Finland through northern Scandinavia. One of the goals of the projected Franco-British operation had been to take control of northern Swedens iron ore. For this reason it was also a factor in the launching of Operation Weserübung, Nazi Germanys invasion of Denmark. The poor performance of the Red Army encouraged Hitler to think that an attack on the Soviet Union would be successful, until the beginning of the 19th century, Finland constituted the eastern part of the Kingdom of Sweden. In 1809, to protect their capital, Saint Petersburg. While abortive because of Russias internal strife, these attempts ruined Russias relations with the Finns, the new Bolshevik Russian government was weak, and with the threat of civil war looming Soviet Russia recognized the new Finnish government just three weeks after the declaration of independence. Sovereignty was fully achieved in May 1918 after a civil war. Finland joined the League of Nations in 1920, from which it sought security guarantees, nevertheless, the government of Sweden carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy. Another Finnish military policy was the top secret military cooperation between Finland and Estonia, the 1920s and early 1930s were a politically unstable time in Finland
24.
TM-35 mine
–
The TM-35 was a rectangular, metal-cased Soviet anti-tank mine used during the Second World War. The mine has a case, which is rectangular with a carrying handle on one side. The mines main charge consisted of 200 gram blocks of TNT packed into the metal case, the mine could be fitted with a number of improvised anti-handling devices utilizing the MUV pull fuze. Length,229 mm Weight,5.2 kg Explosive content, up to 2.8 kg of TNT TM-35 mine at ORDATA
25.
Sevastopol
–
Sevastopol or traditionally Sebastopol is a city located in the southwestern region of the Crimean Peninsula on the Black Sea. Sevastopol has a population of 393, 304 , concentrated mostly near the Bay of Sevastopol, the location and navigability of the citys harbours have made Sevastopol a strategically important port and naval base throughout history. The city has been a home to the Russian Black Sea Fleet, although relatively small at 864 square kilometres, Sevastopols unique naval and maritime features provide the basis for a robust economy. The city enjoys mild winters and moderate summers, characteristics that help make it a popular seaside resort and tourist destination. The city is also an important centre for marine biology, in particular, the name of Sevastopolis was originally chosen in the same etymological trend as other cities in the Crimean peninsula that was intended to reflect its ancient Greek origins. It is a compound of the Greek adjective, σεβαστός and the noun πόλις, Σεβαστός is the traditional Greek equivalent of the Roman honorific Augustus, originally given to the first emperor of the Roman Empire, Augustus and later awarded as a title to his successors. Despite its Greek origin, the name itself is not from Ancient Greek times, the city was probably named after the Empress Catherine II of Russia who founded Sevastopol in 1783. She visited the city in 1787 accompanied by Joseph II, the Emperor of Austria, in the west of the city, there are well-preserved ruins of the ancient Greek port city of Chersonesos, founded in the 5th century BC by settlers from Heraclea Pontica. This name means peninsula, reflecting its location, and is not related to the ancient Greek name for the Crimean Peninsula as a whole. In English the current spelling has the pronunciation /səˈvæstəˌpoʊl/ or /ˌsɛvəˈstoʊpəl/, whilst the spelling has the pronunciation /sᵻˈbæstəpəl, -pɒl/ or /səˈbæstəˌpoʊl. Ukrainian, Севастополь, Russian, Севастополь, pronounced in Ukrainian, in the 6th century BC a Greek colony was established in the area of the modern-day city. The Greek city of Chersonesus existed for almost two years, first as an independent democracy and later as part of the Bosporan Kingdom. In the 13th and 14th centuries it was sacked by the Golden Horde several times and was totally abandoned. The modern day city of Sevastopol has no connection to the ancient and medieval Greek city, five years earlier, Alexander Suvorov ordered that earthworks be erected along the harbour and Russian troops be placed there. In February 1784, Catherine the Great ordered Grigory Potemkin to build a fortress there, the realisation of the initial building plans fell to Captain Fyodor Ushakov who in 1788 was named commander of the port and of the Black Sea squadron. It became an important naval base and later a commercial seaport, in 1797, under an edict issued by Emperor Paul I, the military stronghold was again renamed to Akhtiar. Finally, on 29 April,1826, the Senate returned the name to Sevastopol. One of the most notable involving the city is the Siege of Sevastopol carried out by the British, French, Sardinian, and Turkish troops during the Crimean War
26.
Teller mine
–
The Teller mine was a German-made antitank mine common in World War II. With explosives sealed inside a metal casing and fitted with a pressure-actuated fuze. As the name suggests the mines were plate-shaped, because of its rather high operating pressure, only a vehicle or heavy object passing over the Teller mine would set it off. This action arms the anti-handling device, thereafter, any attempt to disarm the mine by unscrewing the pressure plate to remove the fuze will automatically release the spring-loaded firing pin inside it, triggering detonation. Since it is impossible to determine which type has been installed. The T. Mi. Z.43 fuze can be fitted to the Teller mine 35,42 and 43 series, to hinder demining, all Teller mines featured two additional fuze wells to enable anti-handling devices to be attached, typically some form of pull-fuze
27.
Fragmentation (weaponry)
–
Fragmentation is the process by which the casing of an artillery shell, bomb, grenade, etc. is shattered by the detonation of the explosive filler. The correct technical terminology of these pieces is fragmentation – although shards or splinters can be used for non-preformed fragments, preformed fragments can be of various shapes and size and are normally held rigidly within some form of matrix or body until the high explosive filling is detonated. These casing pieces are often referred to as shrapnel, though this is the result of the original term being culturally genericized due to its uniquely memorable phonology. The use of fragmentation in bombs dates to the 14th century, the fragmentation bombs were filled with iron pellets and pieces of broken porcelain. Once the bomb explodes, the resulting shrapnel is capable of piercing the skin, for this bomb you take tung oil, yin hsiu, salammoniac, chin chih, scallion juice, and heat them so as to coat a lot of iron pellets and bits of broken porcelain. Then fill in to a case of cast iron making a fragmentation bomb, when it bursts, it breaks into pieces that wound the skin and break the bones and blinds their eyes. The modern fragmentation grenade was developed during the 20th century, the Mills bomb, first adopted in 1915 by the British army, is an early fragmentation grenade used in World War I. The Mk 2 grenade was a fragmentation grenade adopted by the American military based on the Mills bomb, the term shrapnel is often incorrectly used to refer to fragments produced by any explosive weapon. However, the shrapnel shell predates the modern high-explosive shell and operates via a different process. A shrapnel shell consists of a shell casing filled with steel or lead balls suspended in a resin matrix, when the projectile is fired, it travels a pre-set distance along a ballistic trajectory before the fuse ignites a relatively weak secondary charge in the base of the shell. Since the cone of impact is small, shrapnel shells needed to be carefully sighted. Detonating on impact after being fired, whereas a shrapnel shell would ineffectually fire its contents only a few feet into the air in a cone-shaped pattern, another artillery round very similar to shrapnel is canister shot, sometimes called case shot. Canister shot is a sheet metal casing filled with steel or lead balls. Upon firing, the casing fractures as it exits the muzzle of the gun and dispenses the balls from the gun’s muzzle much like a large shotgun
28.
Tilt-rod fuze
–
A tilt-rod fuze is a device used to trigger anti-vehicle landmines. Typically it consists of a pole, normally around a meter high. The small time delay allows the vehicle to continue over the mine before detonating, exposing more of it to the blast. A tilt-rod fuze has a number of advantages over pressure fuzes - it acts across the width of a vehicle. This allows it to attack the vehicles belly and potentially cause a catastrophic kill, additionally, tilt rod fuzes tend to be resistant to blast overpressure clearing methods, which can trigger most pressure fuzes. The main disadvantage is the rod mechanism, which may be negated by laying the mine in undergrowth
29.
Satchel charge
–
In World War II, combat engineers used satchel charges to demolish heavy stationary targets such as rails, obstacles, blockhouses, bunkers, caves, and bridges. The World War II-era United States Army M37 Demolition Kit contained eight blocks of explosive, with 2 priming assemblies. Part or all of charge could be placed against a structure or slung into an opening. It was usually detonated with a pull igniter, when used as an anti-tank weapon, charges were sufficient to severely damage the tracks. 4 kg charges were enough to destroy medium tanks, later in the Vietnam War, Vietcong and North Vietnamese soldiers assigned elite sappers to stealthily penetrate defenses of sites controlled by enemy forces. Often, this meant using satchel charges as well as Bangalore torpedoes to successfully blast through barbed wire entanglements, minefields, structures, the later U. S. M183 Demolition Charge Assembly contained 20 lb of C-4 in each satchel, and could be used with a timed fuse. In the Second Battle of Fallujah in Iraq, U. S. M220 lb assault demolitions were used to collapse houses being used as fighting positions by insurgents, some special forces may use customized satchel charges designed to destroy their specific missions target
30.
Sticky bomb
–
74, commonly known as the S. T. Grenade or sticky bomb, was a British hand grenade designed and produced during the Second World War, when the user pulled a pin on the handle of the grenade, the casing would fall away and expose the sticky sphere. Pulling another pin would arm the firing mechanism and the user would then attempt to attach the grenade to a tank or other vehicle. Letting go of the handle would release a lever that would activate a five-second fuse, the grenade had several faults with its design. In tests, it failed to adhere to dusty or muddy tanks and, if the user was not careful after freeing the grenade from its casing, between 1940 and 1943, approximately 2.5 million were produced. The French Resistance were also issued a quantity of the grenades, since at least 1938, Jefferis had been toying with the idea of a demolition or anti-tank weapon that would be ideal for irregular warfare. It would work by having an explosive charge deform so that it had an area of intimate contact with the surface of the target. Then, when detonated, the effect of the explosion would be focused on a small area, sappers call such a device a poultice or squash head charge. These were fitted with handles and dipped in rubber solution to make them sticky. In experiments, these proved difficult to aim and only by chance did any stick to the metal bins used to represent tanks. With the end of the Battle of France and the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from the port of Dunkirk between 26 May and 4 June 1940, a German invasion of Great Britain seemed likely. However, the British Army was not well equipped to defend the country in such an event, under the circumstances, Jefferis considered that his idea might have more general application for the British Army and the Home Guard. Jefferis was in charge of a department known as MIR, which had created to develop and deliver weapons for use by guerrilla. MIR was now charged with the development of the Sticky Bomb, the problem of designing a sticky bomb was delegated to the enthusiastic genius of Robert Stuart Macrae. Clearly, some sort of bag was required to contain an explosive gel so that it did not matter how the bomb landed on the target. However, a bag is hard to throw and trials had not been at all satisfactory. Experiments with glass flasks filled with cold porridge confirmed that this was the way to go. The grenade needed a delay for the thrower to get clear, having covered the bomb in glue, a non-sticky handle was required
31.
Hawkins mine
–
75, also known as the Hawkins grenade was a British anti-tank hand grenade used during World War II. It was one of a number of grenades developed for use by the British Army and Home Guard in the aftermath of the Dunkirk evacuation. The grenade first appeared in 1942, and was designed to be more versatile than previous grenades, such as the Grenade, Hand, Anti-tank No.73 and the Grenade, Hand, Anti-Tank, No.74. It was rectangular in shape, about 150 millimetres in length and 75 millimetres in width, when a vehicle drove over the grenade, it cracked a chemical igniter and leaked acid onto a sensitive chemical, which detonated the explosive. Multiple grenades were used to destroy tanks or disable their tracks. It was used by the British Army and the United States Army, with the using it until 1955 and the latter also creating their own variant. With the end of the Battle of France and the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from the port of Dunkirk between 26 May and 4 June 1940, a German invasion of Great Britain seemed likely. However, the British Army was not well-equipped to defend the country in such an event, as a result of these shortcomings, a number of new anti-tank weapons had to be developed to equip the British Army and the Home Guard with the means to repel German armoured vehicles. Many of these were hand grenades, large numbers of which could be built in a very short space of time. They included the Grenade, Hand, Anti-tank No,73, which was little more than a Thermos-sized bottle filled with TNT, and the Grenade, Hand, Anti-tank No. 74, also known as the Sticky bomb, which was coated with a strong adhesive, a more versatile grenade appeared in 1942 in the form of the Grenade, Hand, Anti-tank, No. 75, more known as the Hawkins grenade, which was designed so that it could be used in a number of roles. The grenade was rectangular in shape and approximately 150 millimetres in length and 75 millimetres in width and its explosive content consisted of around 0.45 kilograms of blasting explosive, which was usually either ammonal or TNT. On the top of the grenade was a plate, under which the user would insert a chemical igniter, which would act as the weapons fuse. When a vehicle drove over the grenade, its weight crushed the plate, which in turn cracked the igniter, this then leaked acid onto a sensitive chemical which detonated the charge. The grenade was designed so that it could either be thrown at a vehicle like an ordinary anti-tank grenade and it was also fitted with areas where blasting caps or cordtex could be placed, so that it could be used as a demolition charge. Introduced in 1942, the grenade saw service with the British Army until 1955, the United States Army also used the grenade, as well as developing their own variant known as the M7 light anti-tank mine. When used in a role, a number of the grenades could be strung together in a daisy chain at intervals of around two feet, and then placed across a road to damage an armoured vehicle
32.
Topfmine
–
The Topfmines were a series of German circular minimum metal anti-tank blast mines that entered service with the German army in 1944, during the Second World War. The mines used a case made of compressed wood-pulp, cardboard and tar along with glass plugs, often the only metallic part of the mines was the detonator. To enable the mines to be found by friendly forces, the mines were painted with a black sandy substance called Tarnsand, Allied forces found that although the mines were undetectable by Allied mine detectors, German mine detectors could find the mines when they had been marked with Tarnsand. The Topfmine A had a flattened dome-shaped case with a flat circular pressure plate on the top surface surrounded by a circular shear groove. The case was made from pulped wood and cardboard mixed with tar for waterproofing. However, sometimes the case was made from bituminous coal waste, the SF1 fuze was inserted into the underside of the mine and was placed inside a large glass plug which sealed the bottom of the mine. A secondary fuze well was provided on the bottom of this plug for installing anti-handling devices, the SF1 fuze was constructed of glass and wood and contained a detonator and booster charge. Pressure of approximately 330 pounds on the plate caused the plate to shear off from the mine casing, collapsing down on the glass head of the pressure fuze. The glass head was driven downwards, crushing two glass vials of chemicals, which reacted together causing a flash, initiating the detonator, booster and finally the main charge of TNT. Two versions of the mine were produced - a fully waterproofed version designated To. Mi. A4531, the Topfmine B was broadly similar to the A version, the principal difference being a smooth case without a raised pressure plate. This version instead had a shear groove to prevent water from working its way into the mine. The Topfmine C changed the design to a flattened cylinder shape. This design was very thin-walled and sympathetic detonation could occur if the mines were planted closer together than seven feet, TM 5-223, Foreign Mine Warfare Equipment, November 1957 TM-E 30-451, Handbook of German Military Forces Catalog of Enemy Ordnance,1945
33.
Riegel mine 43
–
The Riegel mine 43 or is a German steel cased anti-tank bar mine used during the Second World War. The mine is a thin rectangle. It consists of a lower and upper metal tray, and an internal metal-cased explosive block and it uses two ZZ42 fuzes inserted into either end of the internal block, although it can be used with an additional pressure fuze on the top. The mine is similar to the Italian B-2 mine, a variant, the Riegel mine 44 was also produced with a different fuze. Approximately 3,051,400 were produced between 1943 and 1945, attempting to disarm Riegelmines is extremely dangerous because the metal wires in the fuze mechanisms quickly become corroded, which makes them highly unstable. As a result, Riegelmines are highly sensitive to the smallest disturbance, the situation is further complicated by the fact that Riegel mines can be fitted with up to three anti-handling devices. The recommended render-safe procedure for any Riegel mine is to destroy it in situ by detonating an explosive charge next to it. Countries where Riegel mines were laid include the Netherlands, Egypt and Libya. Weight,9.3 kg Explosive content,4 kg of TNT Length,800 mm Width,95 mm Height,120 mm Operating pressure, janes Mines and Mine Clearance 2005-2006 TM-E 30-451
34.
Mobility kill
–
A mobility kill in armoured warfare is a weapon or vehicle that is immobilized, or the act of immobilizing such a target. This is often caused by the vehicle triggering a mine by driving over it. Tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles can be immobilized by damage to their engines, tracks, or running gear. Because of the nature of modern warfare, such a vehicle is often effectively useless on the battlefield, though it may later be salvaged for spares, or repaired. In rare cases, tanks that have suffered mobility kills have continued to engage targets with their main gun. Alternatively they may be subject to artillery bombardment, in any case, enemy ground troops may attack stranded vehicles with additional ATGMs or RPGs. It is claimed that the Wehrmacht lost more Panther tanks as mobility kills than as catastrophic kills in World War II, mission Kill Catastrophic kill US Army FM 20-32 glossary of terms at globalsecurity. org ace and electronic warfare lexicon glossary
35.
L9 Bar Mine
–
The L9 Bar Mine is a large rectangular British anti-tank landmine. The bar mines principal advantage is its length, and therefore its trigger length. A typical anti-tank landmine is circular, and a vehicles wheels or tracks, to increase the probability of a vehicle striking the mine, the mines effective trigger width must be increased. The bar mines shape allows a 50% reduction in the number of mines in a minefield without reducing its effectiveness. It was reported that it would take 90 sappers 150 minutes to lay a 1,000 yard mine field consisting of 1,250 Mk 7 British anti-tank mines, weighing a total of 17 tonnes. By comparison, it would take 30 sappers 60 minutes to lay a 1,000 yard minefield consisting of 655 bar mines weighing a total of 7.2 tonnes. The long mines can also be laid through a simple plough attached to the rear of a FV432 Armoured Personnel Carrier, laying circular mines in similar fashion requires a far larger plough and more powerful towing vehicle. The bar mine is made of plastic, and cannot be detected by metal detectors, a metal plate is attached to bar mines which are intended to be subsequently recovered by friendly forces, usually for training purposes. A full width attack mine fuze and a fuze are available for the bar mine. If either is used, the mine must be laid by hand, a training version of the mine is bio-degradable, and consists of sand or peat in a cardboard casing. The L9 Bar Mine entered British service in 1969, a number of sub-variants of the mine exist, designated L9A1 through L9A8. It was replaced as a mine in British service in 2010. The bar mine was used by detachments of special forces of the British Army during the Gulf War in 1991. A number were captured from Kuwaiti Army stocks by the Iraqi Army in 1990 and it was reported that they disabled a number of M60 Patton tanks and other armoured vehicles belonging to the United States Marine Corps, even when these were fitted with mine-clearing ploughs. The British Army has since been using bar mines simply as breaching frame charges, for instance to blow holes in tough compound walls in Afghanistan and Iraq. Among other users have been Denmark, where it was introduced as the Pansermine M/75, in 1989 an electromagnetic FWAM fuse replaced the original fuse as Pansermine M/88. Both mines have since been out of use. In 2012, a parcel of forty bar mines being shipped by rail on a Ministry Of Defence train from DMC Longtown to Oxfordshire disappeared while in transit
36.
Blast resistant mine
–
A Blast resistant mine is a landmine with a fuze which is designed to be insensitive to the shock wave from a nearby explosion. This feature makes it difficult or impossible to clear mines using explosive minefield breaching techniques. As a result, the process of clearing minefields is slower, Blast resistance can be achieved in a number of ways. In pressure fuzed landmines this is achieved by having the fuze react differently based on the duration of the pressure impulse. The sudden impulse from impact or explosion does not have sufficient duration to inflate the bladder and rotate the locking collar, a second technique involves the use of tilt or pull, rather than downward pressure to trigger the mine. An example of a mine using this technique is the Valmara 69, a third technique involves the use of a pressure plate with a small surface area yet broad ground coverage like the M1 mine. This is less effective than the first two techniques, but much simpler to implement, additionally seismic fuzes can be used to detonate mines, based on the characteristic sounds of footsteps or vehicles.6 and TC/6 mines - blast resistant anti-tank mine
37.
RDX
–
RDX is the organic compound with the formula 3. It is a white solid used as an explosive. Chemically, it is classified as nitramide, a more powerful explosive than TNT, it was used widely in World War II. It is often used in mixtures with other explosives and plasticizers or phlegmatizers, RDX is stable in storage and is considered one of the most powerful and brisant of the military high explosives. RDX is also known, but less commonly, as cyclonite, hexogen, T4, in the 1930s, the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, started investigating cyclonite to use against German U-boats that were being built with thicker hulls. The goal was a more powerful than TNT. For security reasons, Britain termed cyclonite as Research Department Explosive, the term RDX appeared in the United States in 1946. The first public reference in the United Kingdom to the name RDX, RDX was widely used during World War II, often in explosive mixtures with TNT such as Torpex, Composition B, Cyclotols, and H6. RDX was used in one of the first plastic explosives, the bouncing bomb depth charges used in the Dambusters Raid each contained 6,600 pounds of Torpex. RDX is believed to have used in many bomb plots including terrorist plots. RDX forms the base for a number of military explosives, Composition A, Granular explosive consisting of RDX. C-4 consists of RDX, a plasticizer, a binder, which is usually polyisobutylene, Composition CH-6,97. 5% RDX,1. 5% calcium stearate,0. 5% polyisobutylene, and 0. 5% graphite. DBX, Castable mixture consisting of 21% RDX, 21% ammonium nitrate, 40% TNT, developed during World War II, it was to be used in underwater munitions as a substitute for Torpex employing only half the amount of then-strategic RDX. As the supply of RDX became more adequate, the mixture was shelved, Cyclotol, Castable mixture of RDX with TNT designated by the amount of RDX/TNT, such as Cyclotol 70/30. HBX, Castable mixtures of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminium, h-6, Castable mixture of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminum, and paraffin wax. PBX, RDX is also used as a component of many polymer-bonded explosives. RDX-based PBXs typically consist of RDX and a polymer/co-polymer binder, semtex, Plastic demolition explosives containing RDX and PETN as major energetic components. Torpex, 42% RDX, 40% TNT, and 18% powdered aluminium, the mixture was designed during World War II and used mainly in underwater ordnance
38.
Shaped charge
–
A shaped charge is an explosive charge shaped to focus the effect of the explosives energy. Various types are used to cut and form metal, initiate nuclear weapons, penetrate armor, the Munroe or Neumann effect is the focusing of blast energy by a hollow or void cut on a surface of an explosive. The earliest mention of hollow charges occurred in 1792, the first true hollow charge effect was achieved in 1883, by Max von Foerster, chief of the nitrocellulose factory of Wolff & Co. in Walsrode, Germany. By 1886, Gustav Bloem of Düsseldorf, Germany had obtained U. S, patent 342,423 for hemispherical cavity metal detonators to concentrate the effect of the explosion in an axial direction. The Munroe effect is named after Charles E. Munroe, who discovered it in 1888. As a civilian chemist working at the U. S. Conversely, if letters were raised in relief above the surface of the explosive, in 1894, Munroe constructed the first crude shaped charge, Among the experiments made. Was one upon a safe twenty-nine inches cube, with four inches. Hen a hollow charge of nine pounds and a half in weight and untamped was detonated on it. The hollow cartridge was made by tying the sticks of dynamite around a tin can, part of that 1900 article was reprinted in the February 1945 issue of Popular Science, describing how shaped-charge warheads worked. It was this article that at last revealed to the public how the fabled Bazooka actually worked against armored vehicles during WWII. In 1910, Egon Neumann of Germany discovered that a block of TNT, the military usefulness of Munroes and Neumanns work was unappreciated for a long time. Between the world wars, academics in several countries – Myron Yakovlevich Sukharevskii in the Soviet Union, payment and Donald Whitley Woodhead in Britain, and Robert Williams Wood in the U. S. – recognized that projectiles could form during explosions. However, it was not until 1932 that Franz Rudolf Thomanek, when the Austrian government showed no interest in pursuing the idea, Thomanek moved to Berlins Technische Hochschule, where he continued his studies under the ballistics expert Carl Julius Cranz. There in 1935, he and Hellmuth von Huttern developed a prototype anti-tank round, although the weapons performance proved disappointing, Thomanek continued his developmental work, collaborating with Hubert Schardin at the Waffeninstitut der Luftwaffe in Braunschweig. By 1937, Shardin believed that hollow-charge effects were due to the interactions of shock waves and it was during the testing of this idea that, on February 4,1938, Thomanek conceived the shaped-charge explosive. During World War II, shaped-charge munitions were developed by Germany, Britain, the Soviet Union, the development of shaped charges revolutionized anti-tank warfare. Tanks faced a serious vulnerability from a weapon that could be carried by an infantryman or aircraft, one of the earliest uses of shaped charges was by German glider-borne troops against the Belgian Fort Eben-Emael. These demolition charges – developed by Dr. Wuelfken of the German Ordnance Office – were unlined explosive charges and didnt produce a metal jet like the modern HEAT warheads
39.
Cluster munition
–
A cluster munition is a form of air-dropped or ground-launched explosive weapon that releases or ejects smaller submunitions. Commonly, this is a bomb that ejects explosive bomblets that are designed to kill personnel. Other cluster munitions are designed to destroy runways or electric transmission lines, disperse chemical or biological weapons. Some submunition-based weapons can disperse non-munitions, such as leaflets, because cluster bombs release many small bomblets over a wide area, they pose risks to civilians both during attacks and afterwards. Unexploded bomblets can kill or maim civilians and/or unintended targets long after a conflict has ended, Cluster munitions are prohibited for those nations that ratify the Convention on Cluster Munitions, adopted in Dublin, Ireland in May 2008. The Convention entered into force and became binding international law upon ratifying states on 1 August 2010, as of 1 October 2015, a total of 118 states have joined the Convention, as 98 States parties and 20 Signatories. The first cluster bomb used operationally was the German SD-2 or Sprengbombe Dickwandig 2 kg and it was used in World War II to attack both civilian and military targets. The technology was developed independently by the United States, Russia, the US used the 20-lb M41 fragmentation bomb wired together in clusters of 6 or 25 with highly sensitive or proximity fuzes. From the 1970s to the 1990s cluster bombs became standard air-dropped munitions for many nations and they have been produced by 34 countries and used in at least 23. Artillery shells that employ similar principles have existed for decades and they are typically referred to as ICM shells. The US military slang terms for them are firecracker or popcorn shells, a basic cluster bomb consists of a hollow shell and then two to more than 2,000 submunitions or bomblets contained within it. Some types are dispensers that are designed to be retained by the aircraft after releasing their munitions, the submunitions themselves may be fitted with small parachute retarders or streamers to slow their descent. Modern cluster bombs and submunition dispensers are often multiple-purpose weapons, containing mixtures of anti-armor, anti-personnel, the submunitions themselves may also be multi-purpose, such as combining a shaped charge, to attack armour, with a fragmenting case, to attack infantry, material, and light vehicles. Modern multipurpose munitions may also have an incendiary effect, recently submunition-based weapons have been designed that deploy smart submunitions, using thermal and visual sensors to locate and attack particular targets, usually armored vehicles. Weapons of this include the US CBU-97 sensor-fuzed weapon, first used in combat during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Incendiary cluster bombs are intended to start fires, just as conventional incendiary bombs and they are specifically designed for this purpose, with submunitions of white phosphorus or napalm, and they often include anti-personnel and anti-tank submunitions to hamper firefighting efforts. When used in cities they have often preceded by the use of conventional explosive bombs to break open the roofs. One of the earliest examples is the so-called Molotov bread basket first used by the Soviet Union in the Winter War of 1939-40 and this type of munition was extensively used by both sides in the strategic bombings of World War II
40.
MPB mine
–
The MPB is a Polish off-route anti-tank mine. It was developed by BELMA with its partner Military Institute of Engineer Technology, the MPB consists of a metal cylinder filled with explosives, mounted horizontally in an adjustable frame. The mine is intended to be hidden from view of the intended target, off to the side of a probable vehicle route, usually a road, to attack the weaker armour on the sides. The mine can be triggered by either a contact fuze or an influence fuze based on infra-red and acoustic sensors, and is also fitted with an anti-handling device. When used with the passive infrared fuze, a sensor detects approaching vehicles and activates the infra-red sensor. The mine can be programmed to self-destruct after either 1,10 or 30 days have passed, the energy carried by the projectile is large enough that it can often significantly damage a vehicle that it hits. Length,450 mm Width,390 mm Height,700 mm Weight,45 kg BELMA, WITI, Janes Mines and Mine Clearance 2005-2006
41.
Explosively formed penetrator
–
As the name suggests, the effect of the explosive charge is to deform a metal plate into a slug or rod shape and accelerate it toward a target. They were first developed during WWII, an EFP, on the other hand, has a liner face in the shape of a shallow dish. The force of the blast moulds the liner into any of a number of shapes, depending on the shape of the plate and how the explosive is detonated. A less sophisticated approach for changing the formation of an EFP is the use of wire-mesh in front of the liner, with the mesh in place the liner fragments into multiple penetrators. In addition to single-penetrator EFPs, there are EFP warheads whose liners are designed to more than one penetrator. The liner of an MEFP generally comprises a number of dimples that intersect each other at sharp angles, upon detonation the liner fragments along these intersections to form up to dozens of small, generally spheroidal projectiles, producing an effect similar to that of a shotgun. The pattern of impacts on target can be controlled based on the design of the liner. A nuclear-driven MEFP was apparently proposed by a member of the JASON group in 1966 for terminal ballistic missile defense, a related device was the proposed nuclear pulse propulsion unit for Project Orion. The penetration is proportional to the density of the metal, tantalum 16.654 g/cm3, copper 8.960 g/cm3. Tantalum is preferable in delivery systems that have limitations in size, like the SADARM, for other weapon systems where the size does not matter, a copper liner of double the calibre is used. An EFP eight inches in diameter threw a seven-pound copper slug at Mach 6, EFPs have been used in improvised explosive devices against armoured cars, for example in the 1989 assassination of the German banker Alfred Herrhausen, and by Hezbollah in the 1990s. A recent development is their use in IEDs by insurgents in Iraq against coalition vehicles. The charges are generally cylindrical, fabricated from commonly available metal pipe, explosive is loaded behind the metal liner to fill the pipe. Upon detonation, the projects the liner to form a projectile. Often mounted on crash barriers at window level, they are placed along roadsides at choke points where vehicles must slow down and this gives the operator time to judge the moment to fire, when the vehicle is moving more slowly. Detonation is controlled by cable, radio control, TV or IR remote controls, EFPs can be deployed singly, in pairs, or in arrays, depending on the tactical situation. At close standoff distance there is no need for the cone-tailed projectiles aerodynamic stability, the SIM-EFP is a construction that fits in between the military linear cutting charge and the platter charge. The main difference is how much the rectangular liner plate is bent, sIM-EFPs are built from simple cut and bent steel bars, side by side, with explosives attached
42.
Improvised explosive device
–
An improvised explosive device is a bomb constructed and deployed in ways other than in conventional military action. It may be constructed of conventional explosives, such as an artillery round. IEDs are commonly used as roadside bombs, IEDs are generally seen in heavy terrorist actions or in unconventional warfare by guerrillas or commando forces in a theater of operations. In the second Iraq War, IEDs were used extensively against US-led invasion forces and they are also used in Afghanistan by insurgent groups, and have caused over 66% of coalition casualties in the 2001–present Afghanistan War. IEDs were also used extensively by cadres of the rebel Tamil Tiger organization against military targets in Sri Lanka, an IED is a bomb fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals and designed to destroy or incapacitate personnel or vehicles. In some cases, IEDs are used to distract, disrupt, or delay an opposing force, IEDs may incorporate military or commercially sourced explosives, and often combine both types, or they may otherwise be made with homemade explosives. An IED has five components, a switch, an initiator, container, charge, an IED designed for use against armoured targets such as personnel carriers or tanks will be designed for armour penetration, by using a shaped charge that creates an explosively formed penetrator. IEDs are extremely diverse in design and may contain many types of initiators, detonators, penetrators, antipersonnel IEDs typically also contain fragmentation-generating objects such as nails, ball bearings or even small rocks to cause wounds at greater distances than blast pressure alone could. IEDs are triggered by various methods, including remote control, infrared or magnetic triggers, in some cases, multiple IEDs are wired together in a daisy chain to attack a convoy of vehicles spread out along a roadway. IEDs made by inexperienced designers or with substandard materials may fail to detonate, the sophistication of an IED depends on the training of the designer and the tools and materials available. IEDs may use artillery shells or conventional high-explosive charges as their explosive load as well as homemade explosives, chlorine liquid has been added to IEDs in Iraq, producing clouds of chlorine gas. A vehicle-borne IED, or VBIED, is a term for a car bomb or truck bomb but can be any type of transportation such as a bicycle, motorcycle, donkey. They are typically employed by insurgents, and can carry a large payload. They can also be detonated from a remote location, vBIEDs can create additional shrapnel through the destruction of the vehicle itself and use vehicle fuel as an incendiary weapon. The act of a persons being in this vehicle and detonating it is known as an SVBIED suicide, the fougasse was improvised for centuries, eventually inspiring factory-made land mines. Ernst Jünger mentions in his war memoir the systematic use of IEDs, another early example of coordinated large-scale use of IEDs was the Belarusian Rail War launched by Belarusian guerrillas against the Germans during World War II. Both command-detonated and delayed-fuse IEDs were used to derail thousands of German trains during 1943–1944, starting six months before the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR on 27 December 1979, the Afghan Mujahideen were supplied with large quantities of military supplies. Among those supplies were many types of anti-tank mines, the insurgents often removed the explosives from several foreign anti-tank mines, and combined the explosives in tin cooking-oil cans for a more powerful blast
43.
Demining
–
Demining or mine clearance is the process of removing land mines from an area, while minesweeping describes the act of detecting mines. There are two types of mine detection and removal, military and humanitarian. Minesweepers use many tools in order to accomplish their task, there also are or have been other methods developed to detect mines, including the use of trained marine mammals, bacteria, acoustics, and other more exotic methods. In the combat zone, the process is referred to as mine clearance, according to the doctrine of the U. S. and other armies, mine clearance is carried out by combat engineers. The military priority is to breach the minefield quickly in order to create a path for troops or ships. Speed is vital, both for reasons and because units attempting to breach the minefield may be under enemy fire. Both anti-personnel mines and anti-tank mines must be removed, although only in the lanes through which troops or vehicles are planned to advance. The risk to sappers is far greater because they may be called upon to perform clearance as tactics dictate, including in all-weather conditions, command may accept casualties in the process. Furthermore, it is accepted that mine clearance will be imperfect, one advantage is that, in military operations, sappers are dealing with recently laid mines that respond predictably to clearance, have not migrated, and have not degraded. In this they are aided by technical intelligence on the current adversarys mines. In these mine clearance operations, the methods that are applied for detection and removal are quicker, in times of relative peace, the process of mine removal is referred to as demining. This is a thorough, time-intensive process that seeks to locate all mines so that the land or sea area may be returned to normal use. It is vital that this process be exhaustive, in this context demining is one of the tools of mine action. Coordinated by Mine Action Coordination Centers run by the United Nations or a host government, in post-conflict areas, minefields are often contaminated with a mixture of explosive remnants of war that includes unexploded ordnance as well as landmines. In that context, the humanitarian effort is often referred to as battle area clearance. In some situations, clearing landmines is a condition before other humanitarian programs can be implemented. There is an organization, APOPO, that is training African rats to detect landmines much as dogs do, in many circumstances, the only method that meets the United Nations requirements for effective humanitarian demining, the International Mine Action Standards, is manual detection and disarmament. The process is slow, expensive and dangerous, although demining can be safer than construction work if procedures are followed rigorously
44.
South African Defence Force
–
The South African Defence Force comprised the South African armed forces from 1957 until 1994. Shortly before the state reconstituted itself as a republic in 1961, the former Union Defence Force was officially succeeded by the SADF, the SADF, in turn, was superseded by the South African National Defence Force in 1994. The military was composed of white South Africans, who alone were subject to conscription. However, Asians and Coloured citizens with mixed ancestry were eligible to serve as volunteers, units such as the 32 Battalion incorporated many black volunteers. Conscription was opposed by such as the End Conscription Campaign. During apartheid, armed SADF troops were used in quelling opposition to minority rule, SADF personnel were also deployed during the related South African Border and Namibian independence conflicts. Before 1957, the Union of South Africa had relied on small standing cadres for defence, during the Second World War the Union Defence Force initially fielded only 3,353 full-time soldiers, with another 14,631 active in reserve roles. These troops were not prepared to fight in Europe proper, as they had hitherto been trained only in light infantry tactics. However, Jan Christiaan Smuts proved remarkably resourceful in raising 345,049 men for operations, South African soldiers went on to distinguish themselves as far abroad as Italy. After 1957, the new South African Defence Force was faced with an upsurge in African nationalism. In 1963 its total strength stood at around 25,000 men, by 1977, the United Nations was imposing arms sanctions on the republic due to its controversial policy of racial apartheid. SADF units fought in the Angolan Civil War during Operation Savannah and were active alongside Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War. Further enlargement and modernisation of the armed forces continued under former defence minister Pieter Willem Botha and this was partially justified as a new structure intended to turn back a total onslaught on the republic from abroad. In 1984, at least 6,000 such insurgents were being trained and armed by Tanzania, Ethiopia, the Soviet Union, in general the struggle went badly for South Africas opponents. Mozambique provided support and shelter to ANC operatives, in retaliation South African units launched massive counterstrikes which the security forces were in no position to block. Military aircraft and special forces deployed across Zimbabwe, Botswana, Lesotho. 30,000 South African military personnel were posted on the Namibian border by late 1985, sWAPOs MPLA allies, with the backing of the Cuban army, were often unable to protect them. These raids reflected the SADFs talent for combating rural insurgency, major guerrilla camps were always chief targets, whether on foreign or domestic soil
45.
Casspir
–
The Casspir is a Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected Vehicle that has been in use in South Africa for over 30 years. It is a four-wheeled, four-wheel drive vehicle, used for transport of troops and it can hold a crew of two, plus 12 additional soldiers and associated equipment. The Casspir was unique in design when launched, providing for passive mine defence, the main armoured steel body of the vehicle is raised high above the ground, so when a mine is detonated, the explosion is less likely to damage the crew compartment and kill the occupants. The cross-section of the hull is V-shaped, directing the force of the explosion outwards, the vehicle also offers crew protection from small arms fire. The capabilities of the Casspir were the basis of the capabilities required by the U. S. Marines for their Mine Resistant Ambush Protected or MRAP vehicle project, the name Casspir is an anagram of the abbreviations of the customer, the South African Police, and the design authority, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Although the Casspir was deployed in townships during the apartheid era and these requirements led to the distinctive V-shaped hull and a wheeled chassis. The Casspir was designed by the Defence Research Unit of CSIR specifically to protect occupants against landmines. It is certified to protect its occupants against a triple TM-57 mine blast under a wheel, the Casspir has V-bottomed armoured monocoque hull, designed to deflect the force of an explosion outwards, to which a leaf-spring suspension is attached. After two years of testing, the South African Police were eventually satisfied they had a good vehicle. Some 190 Mk1 Casspir were manufactuered by Henred Fruehauf, in 1981 production was taken over by TFM, which improved the design to the Mk 2. TFM was subsequently taken over by Reumech OMC, Reumech in turn was taken over by Vickers Defence Systems of the UK and renamed Vickers OMC. When Alvis purchased Vickers Defence Systems to become Alvis Vickers, Vickers OMC became Alvis OMC, in 2004 BAE Systems acquired Alvis Vickers and Alvis OMC was renamed Land Systems OMC. Land Systems OMC was 75 per cent acquired by Denel in 2015, an estimated 2800 Casspir of all types have been built. The South African Police Service auctioned off some of their surplus Casspirs to the public at a 2008 auction, a new Casspir known as Casspir NG2000 is being manufactured by Denel Mechem. The vehicle was launched in April 2013, made extensive use of Mercedes-Benz truck components. Can be used as a weapon platform, did not enter production Sesspir - In 1984-85 the CSIR developed a prototype Casspir with six wheels. An additional non-driven axle was fitted in front of the front drive axle and it steered along with the regular driven front wheels and was equipped with winch cables to hoist either side of the axle clear off the ground in the event of the loss of a wheel
