1.
Clint Eastwood
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Clinton Clint Eastwood Jr. is an American actor, filmmaker, musician, and political figure. These roles, among others, have made Eastwood an enduring icon of masculinity. For his work in the Western film Unforgiven and the sports drama Million Dollar Baby, Eastwood won Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture, as well as receiving nominations for Best Actor. Eastwoods greatest commercial successes have been the adventure comedy Every Which Way But Loose and its sequel, the war drama biopic American Sniper set box office records for the largest January release ever and was also the largest opening ever for an Eastwood film. Eastwood received considerable praise in France for several films, including some that were not well received in the United States. Eastwood has been awarded two of Frances highest honors, in 1994 he became a recipient of the Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, in 2000, Eastwood was awarded the Italian Venice Film Festival Golden Lion for lifetime achievement. Since 1967, Eastwood has run his own company, Malpaso. Starting in 1986, Eastwood served for two years as Mayor of Carmel-by-the-Sea, California, a non-partisan office, Eastwood was born Clinton Eastwood Jr. May 31,1930, in San Francisco, California, the son of Clinton Eastwood Sr. and he has one younger sister, Jeanne Bernhardt. Eastwood is of English, Irish, Scottish, and Dutch ancestry and he is descended from Mayflower passenger William Bradford, and through this line is the 12th generation of his family born in North America and the 13th generation to live in North America. His family moved often as his father worked at jobs along the West Coast, settled in Piedmont, California, the Eastwoods lived in a very wealthy part of town, had a swimming pool, belonged to the country club, and each parent drove their own car. Clint attended Piedmont Junior High School, shortly before he was to enter Piedmont High School, he rode his bike on the schools sports field and tore up the wet turf, this resulted in his being asked not to enroll. Clint graduated from the airplane shop, I think that was his major, joked classmate Don Kincaid. Another high school friend, Don Loomis, echoed I dont think he was spending much time at school because he was having a pretty good time elsewhere. I think what happened is he just went off and started having a good time, I just dont think he finished high school, explained Fritz Manes, a boyhood friend two years younger than Eastwood, who remained associated with him until their falling out in the mid-1980s. Biographer Patrick McGilligan notes that high school records are a matter of strict legal confidentiality. Eastwood worked at a number of jobs, including lifeguard, paper carrier, grocery clerk, forest firefighter, Eastwood has said that he tried to enroll at Seattle University but was then drafted into the United States Army during the Korean War. He always dropped the Korean War reference, hoping everyone would conclude that he was in combat, actually, hed been a lifeguard at Fort Ord in northern California for his entire stint in the military, commented Eastwoods former longtime companion, Sondra Locke
2.
A Fistful of Dollars
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A Fistful of Dollars was filmed on a low budget, and Eastwood was paid $15,000 for his role. Released in Italy in 1964, and then in the United States in 1967 and it was followed by For a Few Dollars More and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, also starring Eastwood. Collectively, the films are known as the Dollars Trilogy, or The Man With No Name Trilogy, all three films were later released in sequence in the United States, in 1967, catapulting Eastwood into stardom. The film has been identified as a remake of the Akira Kurosawa film Yojimbo, which resulted in a successful lawsuit by Toho. In the United States, the United Artists publicity campaign referred to Eastwoods character in all three films as the Man with No Name, as few spaghetti westerns had yet been released in the United States, many of the European cast and crew took on American-sounding stage names. These included Leone himself, Gian Maria Volontè, and composer Ennio Morricone, a Fistful of Dollars was shot in Spain, mostly near Hoyo de Manzanares close to Madrid, but also in the Tabernas Desert and in the Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park, both in Almería province. A stranger arrives at the little Mexican border town of San Miguel, the Stranger seizes his opportunity when he sees the Rojos massacre a detachment of Mexican soldiers who were escorting a shipment of gold. He takes two of the bodies to a nearby cemetery and sells information to both sides, saying that two Mexican soldiers survived the attack. Both sides race to the cemetery, the Baxters to get the survivors to testify against the Rojos, the factions engage in a gunfight, with Ramón managing to kill the survivors and Esteban capturing John Baxters son, Antonio. While the Rojos and the Baxters are fighting, the Stranger searches the Rojo hacienda for the gold, while he is searching he accidentally knocks out a woman, Marisol. He takes her to the Baxters, who, in turn, during the exchange, Marisols son, Jesús runs towards her, followed by her husband, Julio. While the family embraces, Ramón orders one of his men, Rubio, Silvanito attempts to protect the family with a shotgun with the Stranger backing him up. Neither Ramón nor any of his men attempt to challenge the Stranger, the Stranger then tells Marisol to go to Ramón and for Julio to take Jesús home. He learns from Silvanito that Ramón had framed Julio for cheating during a game and taken Marisol as his prisoner. He gives Marisol some money and tells her family to leave the town, when the Rojos discover that he freed Marisol, they capture and torture him, but he escapes. Believing the Stranger to be protected by the Baxters, the Rojos set fire to the Baxter home, ramon kills John Baxter and Antonio after pretending to spare them. Consuelo, John Baxters wife, appears and curses the Rojos for killing her unarmed husband and she is then shot and killed by Esteban. With help from Piripero, the local coffin-maker, the Stranger escapes town by hiding in a coffin, the Stranger hides and convalesces in a nearby mine
3.
Man with No Name
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He is easily recognizable due to his iconic brown hat, green poncho, tan cowboy boots, fondness for cigarillos and the fact that he rarely talks. Since he never received a name in any of the films, in 2008, Empire chose the Man With No Name as the 33rd greatest movie character of all time. A Fistful of Dollars was directly adapted from Akira Kurosawas Yojimbo and it was the subject of a successful lawsuit by Yojimbos producers. Like Eastwoods western setting character, Mifune plays a ronin with no name, when pressed, he gives the pseudonym Sanjuro Kuwabatake, a reference to his age and something he sees through a window. The convention of hiding the characters arms from view is shared as well, with Mifunes character typically wearing his arms inside his kimono, prior to signing on to Fistful, Eastwood had seen Kurosawas film and was impressed by the character. During filming, he did not emulate Mifunes performance beyond what was already in the script and he also insisted on removing some of the dialogue in the original script, making the character more silent and thus adding to his mystery. As the trilogy progressed, the character even more silent. Leone himself clearly believed this theory, saying that Kurosawas Yojimbo was inspired by an American novel of the série noire so I was really taking the back home again. Although Kurosawa never publicly credited Hammett, Roger Corman claims that Kurosawa privately acknowledged Red Harvest as an influence, the lead character in Hammetts Red Harvest is also nameless, identified only as a Continental Op after the detective agency he works for. A subsequent film, Last Man Standing starring Bruce Willis, is a remake of Yojimbo. In A Fistful of Dollars, he is called Joe by the undertaker, Piripero, in For a Few Dollars More, he is called Manco because he does everything left-handed, except for shooting. In The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, Tuco calls him Blondie for his light hair and he is also The Good from which the film receives its name. In the Dollars book series, he is known as The Hunter, The Bounty Killer, Mister Sudden Death, Nameless, No Name. Once again, the Man with No Name is forced to turn him in for gold, reverend Leemon Fairfeather in The Devils Dollar Sign hatches a plan to make Nameless the object of a huge bounty put upon him by outlaws. Professor Samson Garff in The Million-Dollar Bloodhunt is an aeronaut using a balloon, saginaw Kirp in Blood for a Dirty Dollar is a life insurance salesman on a mission of vengeance against the unknown person who betrayed his Army unit into a fatal ambush. After comparing the received bounty with his $10-a-month ranch pay, the young cowhand chose to change his life, after that, The Man with No Name had decided never to have a partner again. In July 2007, American comic book company Dynamite Entertainment announced that they were going to begin publishing a book featuring The Man With No Name. Set after the events of The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, Dynamite refers to him as Blondie, the nickname Tuco uses for him in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
4.
Spaghetti Western
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The term was used by American critics and other countries because most of these Westerns were produced and directed by Italians. According to veteran Spaghetti Western actor Aldo Sambrell, the phrase Spaghetti Western was coined by Spanish journalist Alfonso Sánchez, the denomination for these films in Italy is western allitaliana. Italo-Western is also used, especially in Germany, the term Eurowesterns may be used to also include Western movies that were produced in Europe but not called Spaghetti Westerns, like the West German Winnetou films or Ostern Westerns. The majority of the films were international co-productions between Italy and Spain, and sometimes France, Germany, Israel, Yugoslavia, or the United States. These movies were released in Italian, but as most of the films featured multilingual casts and sound was post-synched. Over six hundred European Westerns were made between 1960 and 1978 and these are consistently listed among the best Westerns of any variety. Sergio Leones A Fistful of Dollars established the Spaghetti Western as a kind of Western. In this seminal film the hero enters a town that is ruled by two outlaw gangs and ordinary social relations are non-existent and he betrays and plays the gangs against one another in order to make money. Then he uses his cunning and exceptional skill to assist a family threatened by both gangs. His treachery is exposed and he is beaten, but in the end he defeats the remaining gang. Leone moved on from borrowing and established his own oft imitated style, Leones films and other core Spaghetti Westerns are often described as having eschewed, criticised or even demythologized many of the conventions of traditional U. S. Westerns. This was partly intentional and partly the context of a different cultural background, use of pathos received a big boost with Sergio Corbuccis influential Django. However, in the years use of cunning and irony became more prominent. This was seen in Leones next two Westerns, with their emphasis on unstable partnerships, Ennio Morricones music for A Fistful of Dollars and later Spaghetti Westerns was just as seminal and imitated. It expresses a similar duality between quirky and unusual sounds and instruments on the one hand, and sacral dramatizing for the big scenes on the other. Most Spaghetti Westerns were made on low budgets, using inexpensive locales, gods Gun was filmed in Israel. In the 1960s, critics recognized that the American genres were rapidly changing, the genre most identifiably American, the Western, seemed to be evolving into a new rougher form. For many critics, Sergio Leones films were part of the problem, Leones Dollars Trilogy was not the beginning of the Spaghetti Western cycle in Italy, but for Americans Leones films represented the true beginning of the Italian invasion of an American genre
5.
Dollars Trilogy
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The Dollars Trilogy, also known as the Man with No Name Trilogy, is a film series consisting of three Spaghetti Western films directed by Sergio Leone. The films are titled A Fistful of Dollars, For a Few Dollars More and The Good, the Bad and they were distributed by United Artists. The series has become known for establishing the Spaghetti Western genre, the three films are consistently listed among the best rated Western films of all time. Although it was not Leones intention, the three came to be considered a trilogy following the exploits of the same so-called Man with No Name. The Man with No Name concept was invented by the American distributor United Artists, eastwoods character does indeed have a name and a different one in each film, Joe, Monco and Blondie, respectively. A Fistful of Dollars is an remake of Akira Kurosawas 1961 film Yojimbo starring Toshiro Mifune. The only actors to appear in all three movies besides Eastwood are Mario Brega, Aldo Sambrell, Benito Stefanelli and Lorenzo Robledo. Four other actors each appear twice in the trilogy, playing different characters, Lee Van Cleef, Gian Maria Volontè, Luigi Pistilli, I think changed the style, the approach to Westerns. They made the violence and the aspect a little more larger than life. They were stories that hadnt been used in other Westerns, composer Ennio Morricone provided original music score for all three films, although in A Fistful of Dollars he was credited as Dan Savio. The 1999 DVD, plus the 2010 and 2014 Blu-ray box set releases by MGM, American Rebel, The Life of Clint Eastwood
6.
Protagonist
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A protagonist is the main character in any story, such as a literary work or drama. The protagonist is at the center of the story, typically makes the key decisions, the protagonist usually affects the main characters circumstances as well, as they are often the primary actor propelling the story forward. If a story contains a subplot, or is a made up of several stories. The word protagonist is used notably in stories and forms of literature and culture that contain stories, in those forms the protagonist may simply be the leading actor, or the principal character in the story. The antagonist will provide obstacles and complications and create conflict that test the protagonist, thus revealing the strengths, the earliest known examples of protagonist are dated back to Ancient Greece. At first dramatic performances involved merely dancing and recitation by the chorus, but then in Poetics, Aristotle describes how a poet named Thespis introduced the idea of having one actor step out and engage in a dialogue with the chorus. This was the invention of tragedy, which occurred about 536 B. C, then the poet Aeschylus, in his plays, introduced a second actor, inventing the idea of dialogue between two characters. Sophocles then wrote plays that required a third actor, euripides play Hippolytus may be considered to have two protagonists. The protagonist of the first half is Phaedra, who dies partway through the play and her stepson, the titular Hippolytus, assumes the dominant role in the second half of the play. In Ibsen’s play The Master Builder, the protagonist is the architect Halvard Solness, the young woman, Hilda Wangel, whose actions lead to the death of Solness, is the antagonist. In Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is the protagonist and he is actively in pursuit of his relationship with Juliet, and the audience is invested in that story. The character of Tybalt opposes Romeo’s desires, he is the antagonist, in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, Prince Hamlet, who seeks revenge for the murder of his father, is the protagonist. The antagonist would be the character who most opposes Hamlet, Claudius, in the novel The Catcher in the Rye, the character Holden Caulfield is the protagonist. He is the character, and the reader is invested in his story. Sometimes, a work will have a false protagonist, who may seem to be the protagonist, the character Marion in Alfred Hitchcocks film Psycho is an example. A novel that contains a number of narratives may have a number of protagonists, alexander Solzhenitsyns The First Circle, for example, depicts a variety of characters imprisoned and living in a gulag camp. Leo Tolstoys War and Peace, depicts fifteen major characters involved in or affected by a war
7.
Hero
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The concept of the hero was first founded in classical literature. It is the main or revered character in heroic epic poetry celebrated through ancient legends of a people, often striving for military conquest and living by a continually flawed personal honor code. The definition of a hero has changed throughout time, and the Merriam Webster dictionary defines a hero as a person who is admired for great or brave acts or fine qualities. The word hero comes from the Greek ἥρως, hero, warrior, before the decipherment of Linear B the original form of the word was assumed to be *ἥρωϝ-, hērōw-, R. S. P. Beekes has proposed a Pre-Greek origin. According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the Indo-European root is *ser meaning to protect, according to Eric Partridge in Origins, the Greek word Hērōs is akin to the Latin seruāre, meaning to safeguard. Partridge concludes, The basic sense of both Hera and hero would therefore be protector, the word hero is used in English to refer either explicitly to male heroes or as a gender neutral form. The use of the male form hero as a gender neutral substantive is a modern advent, see also Gender neutrality in English. A classical hero is considered to be a warrior who lives and dies in the pursuit of honor, each classical heros life focuses on fighting, which occurs in war or during an epic quest. Classical heroes are commonly semi-divine and extraordinarily gifted, like Achilles, or, alternatively, are like Beowulf, evolving into heroic characters through their perilous circumstances. While these heroes are incredibly resourceful and skilled, they are often foolhardy, court disaster, risk their followers lives for trivial matters, during classical times, people regarded heroes with the highest esteem and utmost importance, explaining their prominence within epic literature. Hector was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War, Hector acted as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy, killing 31,000 Greek fighters, offers Hyginus. Hector was known not only for his courage but also for his noble, indeed, Homer places Hector as peace-loving, thoughtful as well as bold, a good son, husband and father, and without darker motives. However, his familial values conflict greatly with his aspirations in The Iliad. Hector is ultimately betrayed by the gods when Athena appears disguised as his ally Deiphobus and convinces him to take on Achilles, Achilles was a Greek Hero who was considered the most formidable military fighter in the entire Trojan War and the central character of The Iliad. He was the child of Thetis and Peleus, making him a demi-god and he wielded superhuman strength on the battlefield and was blessed with a close relationship to the Gods. Achilles famously refuses to fight after his dishonoring at the hands of Agamemnon, Achilles was known for uncontrollable rage that defined many of his bloodthirsty actions, such as defiling Hectors corpse by dragging it around the city of Troy. Achilles plays a role in The Iliad brought about by constant de-humanization throughout the epic. Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the gods, thus Heracless name means the glory of Hera, even though he was tormented all his life by Hera, the Queen of the Gods
8.
Ethical code
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Ethical codes are adopted by organizations to assist members in understanding the difference between right and wrong and in applying that understanding to their decisions. An ethical code generally implies documents at three levels, codes of ethics, codes of conduct for employees, and codes of professional practice. Many companies use the phrases ethical code and code of conduct interchangeably, a code of ethics will start by setting out the values that underpin the code and will describe a companys obligation to its stakeholders. The code is available and addressed to anyone with an interest in the companys activities. It will include details of how the plans to implement its values and vision, as well as guidance to staff on ethical standards. However, a code of conduct is generally addressed to and intended for employees alone and it usually sets out restrictions on behavior, and will be far more compliance or rules focused than value or principle focused. A code of practice is adopted by a profession or by a governmental or non-governmental organization to regulate that profession, in a membership context, failure to comply with a code of practice can result in expulsion from the professional organization. Listed below are a few examples of professional codes from the Society of Professional Journalists, minimize Harm - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics – It is possible to get the truth out without having to put someone’s life and reputation in jeopardy. Being patient and being able to listen and make the right make a better PR. Being able to get along with the individual is beneficial to both yourself and the client, show Loyalty - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics - be faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest. Act Fairly - Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics - deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media, respect all opinions and support the right of free expression. Act Independently - Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics – being independent and taking on your own ventures and this means that you take risks to get the job done. Minimize Harm - Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics - Balance the public’s need for information against potential harm or discomfort, pursuit of the news is not a license for arrogance or undue intrusiveness. Balance a suspect’s right to a trial with the public’s right to know. Consider the implications of identifying criminal suspects before they face legal charges, act Independently - Society of Professional Journalist Code of Ethics - Avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived. They are distinct from moral codes that may apply to the culture, education, often, acts that violate ethical codes may also violate a law or regulation and can be punishable at law or by government agency remedies. Even organizations and communities that may be considered criminal in nature may have ethical codes of conduct, examples could include hacker communities, bands of thieves, and street gangs. The Jewish Written Torah and Oral Torah comprise the earliest and best preserved ethical code, adapted to every field of actual day-to-day life for thousands of years, Jewish Halakha is the oldest collective body of religious laws, laws and jurisdictions still in use
9.
Jack Kerouac
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Jack Kerouac was an American novelist and poet. He is considered a literary iconoclast and, alongside William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg, Kerouac is recognized for his method of spontaneous prose. Thematically, his work covers such as Catholic spirituality, jazz, promiscuity, Buddhism, drugs, poverty. He became a celebrity and, with other beats, a progenitor of the hippie movement. In 1969, aged 47, Kerouac died from bleeding due to long-term alcohol abuse. Since his death, Kerouacs literary prestige has grown, and several previously unseen works have been published, Jack Kerouac was born on March 12,1922 in Lowell, Massachusetts, to French Canadian parents, Léo-Alcide Kéroack and Gabrielle-Ange Lévesque. There is some confusion surrounding his name, partly because of variations on the spelling of Kerouac and his reason for that statement seems to be linked to an old family legend that the Kerouacs had descended from Baron François Louis Alexandre Lebris de Kerouac. Kerouacs baptism certificate lists his name simply as Jean Louis Kirouac, Kerouacs father Leo had been born into a family of potato farmers in the village of Saint-Hubert-de-Rivière-du-Loup, Quebec. Jack also had stories on the etymology of his surname, usually tracing it to Irish, Breton. In one interview he claimed it was from the name of the Cornish language, another version was that the Kerouacs had come to Cornwall from Ireland before the time of Christ and the name meant language of the house. In still another interview he said it was an Irish word for language of the water, Kerouac, derived from Kervoach, is the name of a town in Brittany in Lanmeur, near Morlaix. Jack Kerouac later referred to 34 Beaulieu Street as sad Beaulieu, the Kerouac family was living there in 1926 when Jacks older brother Gerard died of rheumatic fever, aged nine. This deeply affected four-year-old Jack, who would say that Gerard followed him in life as a guardian angel. This is the Gerard of Kerouacs novel Visions of Gerard and he had one other sibling, an older sister named Caroline. Kerouac was referred to as Ti Jean or little John around the house during his childhood, Kerouac spoke French until he learned English at age six, he did not speak English confidently until his late teens. He was a child who was devoted to his mother. She was a devout Catholic, who instilled this deep faith into both her sons, Kerouac would later say that his mother was the only woman he ever loved. After Gerard died, his mother sought solace in her faith, while his father abandoned it, wallowing in drinking, gambling, and smoking
10.
Beat Generation
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The Beat Generation is a literary movement started by a group of authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in the post-World War II era. The bulk of their work was published and popularized throughout the 1950s, Allen Ginsbergs Howl, William S. Burroughss Naked Lunch and Jack Kerouacs On the Road are among the best known examples of Beat literature. Both Howl and Naked Lunch were the focus of obscenity trials that helped to liberalize publishing in the United States. The members of the Beat Generation developed a reputation as new bohemian hedonists, later, in the mid-1950s, the central figures ended up together in San Francisco where they met and became friends of figures associated with the San Francisco Renaissance. In the 1960s, elements of the expanding Beat movement were incorporated into the hippie, Neal Cassady, the driver for Ken Keseys bus Further, was the primary bridge between these two generations. Allen Ginsbergs work also became an element of early 1960s hippie culture. Jack Kerouac introduced the phrase Beat Generation in 1948 to characterize a perceived underground, the name arose in a conversation with writer John Clellon Holmes. Kerouac allows that it was street hustler Herbert Huncke who originally used the phrase beat, the origins of the Beat Generation can be traced to Columbia University and the meeting of Kerouac, Ginsberg, Lucien Carr, Hal Chase and others. Jack Kerouac attended Columbia on a football scholarship, though the beats are usually regarded as anti-academic, many of their ideas were formed in response to professors like Lionel Trilling and Mark Van Doren. Classmates Carr and Ginsberg discussed the need for a New Vision, to counteract what they perceived as their teachers conservative, Burroughs had an interest in criminal behavior and got involved in dealing stolen goods and narcotics. He was soon addicted to opiates, Burroughs guide to the criminal underworld was small-time criminal and drug-addict Herbert Huncke. The Beats were drawn to Huncke, who started to write himself. The police attempted to pull Ginsberg over while he was driving with Huncke, Ginsberg crashed the car while trying to flee and escaped on foot, but left incriminating notebooks behind. He was given the option to plead insanity to avoid a term, and was committed for 90 days to Bellevue Hospital. Carl Solomon was arguably more eccentric than psychotic, a fan of Antonin Artaud, he indulged in self-consciously crazy behavior, like throwing potato salad at a college lecturer on Dadaism. Solomon was given shock treatments at Bellevue, this one of the main themes of Ginsbergs Howl. Solomon later became the contact who agreed to publish Burroughs first novel Junky in 1953. Beat writers and artists flocked to Greenwich Village in New York City in the late 1950s because of low rent, folksongs, readings and discussions often took place in Washington Square Park
11.
Homer
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Homer is the name ascribed by the ancient Greeks to the semi-legendary author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems which are the central works of Greek literature. The Odyssey focuses on the home of Odysseus, king of Ithaca. Many accounts of Homers life circulated in classical antiquity, the most widespread being that he was a bard from Ionia. The modern scholarly consensus is that these traditions do not have any historical value, the Homeric question - by whom, when, where and under what circumstances were the Iliad and Odyssey composed - continues to be debated. Broadly speaking, modern scholarly opinion on the authorship question falls into two camps, one group holds that most of the Iliad and the Odyssey is the work of a single poet of genius. The other considers the Homeric poems to be the crystallization of a process of working and re-working by many contributors and it is generally accepted that the poems were composed at some point around the late eighth or early seventh century B. C. Most researchers believe that the poems were transmitted orally. The Homeric epics were the greatest influence on ancient Greek culture and education, to Plato, the chronological period of Homer depends on the meaning to be assigned to the word Homer. Was Homer a single person, an imaginary person representing a group of poets and this information is often called the world of Homer. The Homeric period would in that cover a number of historical periods, especially the Mycenaean Age. Considered word-for-word, the texts as we know them are the product of the scholars of the last three centuries. Each edition of the Iliad or Odyssey is a different, as the editors rely on different manuscripts and fragments. The term accuracy reveals a belief in an original uniform text. The manuscripts of the work currently available date to no earlier than the 10th century. These are at the end of a missing thousand-year chain of copies made as each generation of manuscripts disintegrated or were lost or destroyed and these numerous manuscripts are so similar that a single original can be postulated. The time gap in the chain is bridged by the scholia, or notes, on the existing manuscripts, librarian of the Library of Alexandria, he had noticed a wide divergence in the works attributed to Homer, and was trying to restore a more authentic copy. He had collected several manuscripts, which he named, the Sinopic, the one he selected for correction was the koine, which Murray translates as the Vulgate. Aristarchus was known for his selection of material
12.
Thersites
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In Greek mythology, Thersites was a soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan War. In the Iliad, he not have a fathers name. However, a quotation from another lost epic in the Trojan cycle, Homer described him in detail in the Iliad, Book II, even though he plays only a minor role in the story. He is said to be bow-legged and lame, to have shoulders that cave inward, vulgar, obscene, and somewhat dull-witted, Thersites disrupts the rallying of the Greek army, He got up in the assembly and attacked Agamemnon in the words of Achilles. There must be a figuration of wickedness as self-evident as Thersites-- the ugliest man who came to Troy-- who says what everyone else is thinking and this was a way of letting these remarks, along with Odysseus brutal act of suppression, remain in the record. Thersites is also mentioned in Platos Gorgias as an example of a soul that can be cured in the afterlife, according to E. R. Dodds, There he is not so much the typical petty criminal as the typical buffoon, and so Lucian describes him. He begins as Ajaxs slave, telling Ajax, I would thou didst itch from head to foot and I had the scratching of thee, Thersites soon leaves Ajax and puts himself into the service of Achilles, who appreciates his bitter, caustic humor. Shakespeare mentions Thersites again in his later play Cymbeline, when Guiderius says, laurence Sterne writes of Thersites in the last volume of his Tristram Shandy chapter 14, declaring him to be the exemplar of abusive satire, as black as the ink it is written with. In Part Two of Goethes Faust, Act One, during the Masquerade, Thersites appears briefly and he says, When some lofty thing is done / I gird at once my harness on. The role of Thersites as a social critic has been advanced by several philosophers and literary critics, including Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Nietzsche, Edward Said, but the objection should be voiced in a way that the same breath disposes of it. A perfect example of this stratagem is the role of Thersites in the Iliad, for any Greeks who were likely to resent the stupidity of the Trojan War, the text itself provided a spokesman who voiced their resistance. And he was other than the abominable Thersites, for whom no right-minded member of the Greek audience was likely to feel sympathy. As early as Hegel, however, his role was beginning to be questioned. Consider, for instance, these remarks in the introduction to Hegels Lectures on the Philosophy of History and he does not get in every age. The blows that he gets in Homer, but his envy, his egotism, is the thorn which he has to carry in his flesh. And the undying worm that gnaws him is the consideration that his excellent views. But our satisfaction at the fate of Thersitism may also have its sinister side, Thersites also appears in the writings of Karl Marx and those of later Marxist literature in Soviet times much in the spirit of Hegels construal. Heiner Müller casts Thersites in the role of Shepherd who also shears his sheep reflecting the contradictions broached by Hegel, then asked the pupils, What is it with this Thersites, Master
13.
Theatre of ancient Greece
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The ancient Greek drama, is a theatrical culture that flourished in ancient Greece from c.700 BC. Tragedy, comedy, and the play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a cultural identity. The word τραγῳδία, from which the tragedy is derived, is a compound of two Greek words, τράγος or goat and ᾠδή meaning song, from ἀείδειν, to sing. This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults and it is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy. The classical Greeks valued the power of word, and it was their main method of communication. Bahn and Bahn write, To Greeks the spoken word was a living thing, socrates himself believed that once something was written down, it lost its ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece. Greek tragedy as we know it was created in Athens around the time of 532 BC, being a winner of the first theatrical contest held in Athens, he was the exarchon, or leader, of the dithyrambs performed in and around Attica, especially at the rural Dionysia. By Thespis time, the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots, under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and the innovations of the poet Arion, it had become a narrative, ballad-like genre. Thus, Thespiss true contribution to drama is unclear at best, the dramatic performances were important to the Athenians – this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy competition and festival in the City Dionysia. This was organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of Attica, the festival was created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts exist from the sixth century BC, we do know the names of three competitors besides Thespis, Choerilus, Pratinas, and Phrynichus, each is credited with different innovations in the field. He won his first competition between 511 BC and 508 BC and he produced tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the golden age such as the Danaids, Phoenician Women and Alcestis. He was the first poet we know of to use a historical subject – his Fall of Miletus, produced in 493-2 and he is also thought to be the first to use female characters. This century is regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The centre-piece of the annual Dionysia, which took place once in winter, each submitted three tragedies, plus a satyr play. Beginning in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submitted a comedy, aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added the second actor, and that Sophocles introduced the third
14.
Don Quixote
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Don Quixote, fully titled The history of the valorous and wittie Knight-Errant Don-Quixote of the Mancha, is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. Published in two volumes, in 1605 and 1615, Don Quixote is considered the most influential work of literature from the Spanish Golden Age, the story follows the adventures of an hidalgo named Mr. He recruits a simple farmer, Sancho Panza, as his squire, Don Quixote, in the first part of the book, does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story. Throughout the novel, Cervantes uses such techniques as realism, metatheatre. Arthur Schopenhauer cited Don Quixote as one of the four greatest novels written, along with Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse. Cervantes wrote that the first chapters were taken from The Archive of La Mancha, and this metafictional trick appears to give a greater credibility to the text, implying that Don Quixote is a real character and that the story truly occurred several decades back. However, it was common practice in that era for fictional works to make some pretense of being factual. As a result, he is given to anger and believes every word of these fictional books of chivalry to be true. Imitating the protagonists of these books, he decides to become a knight-errant in search of adventure. He spends the night holding vigil over his armor and becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him, and sends him on his way. Don Quixote next frees a young boy tied to a tree and beaten by his master, and makes his master swear to treat the boy fairly, Don Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo, who insult the imaginary Dulcinea. He attacks them, only to be beaten and left on the side of the road. While Don Quixote is unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, a large part of this section consists of the priest deciding which books deserve to be burned and which to be saved. This gives an occasion for many comments on books Cervantes liked and disliked, for example, Cervantes own pastoral novel La Galatea is saved, while the rather unbelievable romance Felixmarte de Hyrcania is burned. After the books are dealt with, they seal up the room contained the library. After a short period of feigning health, Don Quixote requests his neighbor, Sancho Panza, to be his squire, Sancho, who is both greedy and unintelligent, agrees to the offer and sneaks away with Don Quixote in the early dawn. It is here that their famous adventures begin, starting with Don Quixotes attack on windmills that he believes to be ferocious giants, the two next encounter a group of friars accompanying a lady in a carriage
15.
Picaresque
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The picaresque novel is a genre of prose fiction that depicts the adventures of a roguish hero/heroine of low social class who lives by his or her wits in a corrupt society. Picaresque novels typically adopt a style, with elements of comedy. This style of novel originated in 16th-century Spain and flourished throughout Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries and it continues to influence modern literature. The main character is often of low character or social class and he or she gets by with wit and rarely deigns to hold a job. The story is told in a series of loosely connected adventures or episodes, there is little if any character development in the main character. Once a picaro, always a picaro and his or her circumstances may change but they rarely result in a change of heart. The picaros story is told with a plainness of language or realism, satire is sometimes a prominent element. The behavior of a hero or heroine stops just short of criminality. Carefree or immoral rascality positions the picaresque hero as a sympathetic outsider, however, scholars interested in how genre functions have questioned Thrall and Hibbards thesis. The word picaro first starts to appear in Spain with the current meaning in 1545, the word picaro does not appear in Lazarillo de Tormes, the novella credited by modern scholars with founding the genre. The expression picaresque novel was coined in 1810, there is an unending campaign within Hispanic studies about what the term means, or meant, and which works were, or should be, so called. The only work clearly called picaresque by its contemporaries was Mateo Alemáns Guzmán de Alfarache and it is variously considered either the first picaresque novel or at least the antecedent of the genre. The protagonist, Lázaro, lives by his wits in an effort to survive, as a picaro character, he is an alienated outsider, whose ability to expose and ridicule individuals compromised with society gives him a revolutionary stance. Lázaro states that the motivation for his writing is to communicate his experiences of overcoming deception, hypocrisy, the character type draws on elements of characterization already present in Roman literature, especially Petronius Satyricon. Lázaro shares some of the traits of the figure of Encolpius. From the comedies of Plautus, Lazarillo borrows the figure of the parasite, other traits are taken from Apuleiuss The Golden Ass. The Golden Ass and Satyricon are rare surviving samples of the Milesian tale, a genre in the classical world. The principal episodes of Lazarillo are based on Arabic folktales that were well-known to the Moorish inhabitants of Spain, the Arabic influence may account for the negative portrayal of priests and other church officials in Lazarillo
16.
Rameau's Nephew
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Rameaus Nephew, or the Second Satire is an imaginary philosophical conversation by Denis Diderot, written predominantly in 1761-2 and revised in 1773-4. It was first published in 1805 in German translation by Goethe, the German version was translated back into French by de Saur and Saint-Geniès and published in 1821. The first published version based on French manuscript appeared in 1823 in the Brière edition of Diderots works, monval published his edition of the manuscript in 1891. Subsequently, the manuscript was bought by the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York and it is unclear why Diderot never had it published in his time. Given the satirical tone of the work, it has suggested that the author prudently refrained from giving offence. Recurring themes in the include the Querelle des Bouffons, education of children. The often rambling conversation pokes fun at numerous prominent figures of the time, effectively being a provocateur, Lui seemingly extols the virtues of crime and theft, raising love of gold to the level of a religion. Moi appears initially to have a role, while the nephew succeeds in conveying a cynical, if perhaps immoral. Michel Foucault, in his Madness and Civilization, saw in the figure of Rameaus nephew a kind of exemplar of a uniquely modern incarnation of the Buffoon. The narrator has made his way to his usual haunt on a day, the Café de la Régence, Frances chess mecca. He is accosted by a figure, I do not esteem such originals. Others make them their familiars, even their friends, when in company, he works as a pinch of leaven, causing fermentation and restoring each to his natural bend. One feels shaken and moved, prompted to approve or blame, he causes truth to shine forth, good men to stand out, then will the wise man listen and get to know those about him. The dialogue form allows Diderot to examine issues from different perspectives. The character of Rameau is presented as extremely unreliable, ironical and self-contradicting, the impression is that of nuggets of truth artfully embedded in trivia. A parasite in a family, Rameau has recently been kicked out because he refused to compromise with the truth. Now he will not humble himself by apologizing, and yet, rather than starve, shouldnt one live at the expense of rich fools and knaves as he once did, pimping for a lord. The poor genius is left with but two options, to crawl and flatter or to dupe and cheat, either being repugnant to the sensitive mind
17.
Byronic hero
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The Byronic hero is a variant of the Romantic hero as a type of character, named after the English Romantic poet Lord Byron. Although there are traits and characteristics that exemplify the type, both Byrons own persona as well as characters from his writings are considered to provide defining features, the Byronic hero first appears in Byrons semi-autobiographical epic narrative poem Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. The actual circumstances of his death from disease in Greece were unglamourous in the extreme, in his period as the talk of London, Byron was characterized by Lady Caroline Lamb, later a lover of his, as being mad, bad, and dangerous to know. Admiration of Byron continued to be fervent in the following his death. Notable fans included Alfred Lord Tennyson and he was fourteen at the time of Byrons death, and so grieved at the poets passing he carved the words Byron is dead on a rock near his home in Somerby, declaring the world had darkened for him. However, the admiration of Byron as a character led some fans to emulate characteristics of the Byronic hero, foremost was Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, who took the Byron cult to remarkable extremes. Byrons influence is manifest in many authors and artists of the Romantic movement, Lord Byron was the model for the title character of Glenarvon by Byrons erstwhile lover Lady Caroline Lamb, and for Lord Ruthven in The Vampyre by Byrons personal physician, Polidori. In later Victorian literature, the Byronic character only seemed to survive as a solitary figure, however, Dickens representation of the character is more complex than that. Steerforth in David Copperfield manifests the concept of the fallen angel aspect of the Byronic hero, his violent temper and seduction of Emily should turn the reader and he still retains a fascination, as David admits in the aftermath of discovering what Steerforth has done to Emily. He may have done wrong, but David cannot bring himself to hate him, steerforths occasional outbreaks of remorse reveal a tortured character, echoing a Byronic remorse. Harvey concludes that Steerforth is a blend of both villain and hero, and exploration of both sides of the Byronic character. Scholars have also drawn parallels between the Byronic hero and the solipsist heroes of Russian literature, the first stages of Pushkins poetic novel Eugene Onegin appeared twelve years after Byrons Childe Harolds Pilgrimage, and Byron was of obvious influence. The Byronic hero is also featured in contemporary novels. Dark and brooding in expression, of a cold and cynical veneer, above all enigmatic, there are also suggestions of the potential of a Byronic heroine in Byron’s works. Charles J. Clancy claims that Aurora Raby in Don Juan possesses many of the typical of a Byronic hero. Described as “silent, lone” in the poem, her life has indeed been an isolated one - she has been orphaned from birth and she validates Thorslev’s assertion that Byronic heroes are “invariably solitaries”. Yet, like her counterpart, she evokes an interest from those around her. Again, this is not dissimilar to the description of the fascination that Byron himself encountered wherever he went and her apparent mournful nature is also reminiscent of the regretful mien of the Byronic hero
18.
Romanticism
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Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of all the past and nature, preferring the medieval rather than the classical. It was embodied most strongly in the arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography, education. It elevated folk art and ancient custom to something noble, Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of heroic individualists and artists, whose examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society. It also promoted the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art, there was a strong recourse to historical and natural inevitability, a Zeitgeist, in the representation of its ideas. In the second half of the 19th century, Realism was offered as a polar opposite to Romanticism, the decline of Romanticism during this time was associated with multiple processes, including social and political changes and the spread of nationalism. Defining the nature of Romanticism may be approached from the point of the primary importance of the free expression of the feelings of the artist. The importance the Romantics placed on emotion is summed up in the remark of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich that the feeling is his law. Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others believed there were laws that the imagination—at least of a good creative artist—would unconsciously follow through artistic inspiration if left alone. As well as rules, the influence of models from other works was considered to impede the creators own imagination, so that originality was essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own work through this process of creation from nothingness, is key to Romanticism. This idea is called romantic originality. Not essential to Romanticism, but so widespread as to be normative, was a strong belief, however, this is particularly in the effect of nature upon the artist when he is surrounded by it, preferably alone. Romantic art addressed its audiences with what was intended to be felt as the voice of the artist. So, in literature, much of romantic poetry invited the reader to identify the protagonists with the poets themselves. In both French and German the closeness of the adjective to roman, meaning the new literary form of the novel, had some effect on the sense of the word in those languages. It is only from the 1820s that Romanticism certainly knew itself by its name, the period typically called Romantic varies greatly between different countries and different artistic media or areas of thought. Margaret Drabble described it in literature as taking place roughly between 1770 and 1848, and few dates much earlier than 1770 will be found. In English literature, M. H. Abrams placed it between 1789, or 1798, this latter a very typical view, and about 1830, however, in most fields the Romantic Period is said to be over by about 1850, or earlier
19.
Fyodor Dostoyevsky
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Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, sometimes transliterated Dostoevsky, was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist, journalist and philosopher. He began writing in his 20s, and his first novel and his most acclaimed works include Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, Demons and The Brothers Karamazov. Dostoyevskys oeuvre consists of 11 novels, three novellas,17 short stories and numerous other works, many literary critics rate him as one of the greatest psychologists in world literature. His 1864 novella Notes from Underground is considered to be one of the first works of existentialist literature, born in Moscow in 1821, Dostoyevsky was introduced to literature at an early age through fairy tales and legends, and through books by Russian and foreign authors. His mother died in 1837 when he was 15, and around the time he left school to enter the Nikolayev Military Engineering Institute. After graduating, he worked as an engineer and briefly enjoyed a lavish lifestyle, in the mid-1840s he wrote his first novel, Poor Folk, which gained him entry into St. Petersburgs literary circles. Arrested in 1849 for belonging to a group that discussed banned books critical of Tsarist Russia, he was sentenced to death. He spent four years in a Siberian prison camp, followed by six years of military service in exile. In the following years, Dostoyevsky worked as a journalist, publishing and editing several magazines of his own and later A Writers Diary and he began to travel around western Europe and developed a gambling addiction, which led to financial hardship. For a time, he had to beg for money, but he became one of the most widely read. His books have been translated more than 170 languages. Dostoyevskys parents were part of a multi-ethnic and multi-denominational Lithuanian noble family from the Pinsk region, branches of the family included Russian Orthodox Christians, Roman Catholics and Eastern Catholics. Dostoyevskys immediate ancestors on his mothers side were merchants, the line on his fathers side were priests. His father, Mikhail, was expected to join the clergy but instead ran away from home, in 1809, the 20-year-old Mikhail Dostoyevsky enrolled in Moscows Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy. From there he was assigned to a Moscow hospital, where he served as military doctor, in 1819 he married Maria Nechayeva. The following year, he took up a post at the Mariinsky Hospital for the poor, Dostoyevskys parents subsequently had six more children, Varvara, Andrei, Lyubov, Vera, Nikolai and Aleksandra. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, born on 11 November 1821, was the child of Dr. Mikhail Dostoyevsky. He was raised in the home in the grounds of the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor
20.
Notes from Underground
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Notes from Underground, also translated as Notes from the Underground or Letters from the Underworld, is an 1864 novella by Fyodor Dostoyevsky. Notes is considered by many to be one of the first existentialist novels and it presents itself as an excerpt from the rambling memoirs of a bitter, isolated, unnamed narrator who is a retired civil servant living in St. Petersburg. The first part of the story is told in form, or the underground mans diary. The novel is divided into two parts, serving as an introduction into the perplexing mind of the narrator, this part is split into nine chapters. The introduction to the chapters propounds a number of whose meanings are further developed as the narration continues. Chapters 2,3 and 4 deal with suffering and the pleasure of suffering. Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the moral and intellectual fluctuation the narrator feels along with his conscious insecurities regarding inertia—inaction, chapters 7,8 and 9 cover theories of reason and logic, closing with the last two chapters as a summary and transition into Part 2. The narrators desire for happiness is exemplified by his liver pain, the narrator mentions that utopian society removes suffering and pain, but man desires both things and needs them to be happy. According to the narrator, removing pain and suffering in society takes away a mans freedom and this parallels Raskolnikovs behavior in Dostoyevskys later novel, Crime and Punishment. He says that the cruelty of society makes human beings moan about pain only to spread their suffering to others and he builds up his own paranoia to the point that he is incapable of looking his co-workers in the eye. The main issue for the Underground Man is that he has reached a point of ennui and he feels that others like him exist, but he continuously concentrates on his spitefulness instead of on actions that would avoid the problems that so many concern him. He even admits that he would rather be out of laziness. To the reader, the Underground Man has a contradictory personality because he gives the reader concepts that are commendable and he states that despite humanitys attempt to create the Crystal Palace, a reference to a famous symbol of utopianism in Nikolai Chernyshevskys What Is to Be Done. The Underground Man ridicules the type of enlightened self-interest that Chernyshevsky proposes as the foundation of Utopian society, the concept of cultural and legislative systems relying on this rational egoism is what the protagonist despises. The Underground embraces this ideal in praxis, and he seems to blame it for his current state of unhappiness, Notes from Underground marks the starting point of Dostoevskys move from psychological and sociological themed novels to novels based on existential and general human experience in crisis. The second part is the story and consists of three main segments that lead to a furthering of the Underground Mans consciousness. The first is his obsession with an officer who frequently passes by him on the street and he sees the officer on the street and thinks of ways to take revenge, eventually borrowing money to buy a higher class overcoat and bumping into the officer to assert his equality. To the Underground Mans surprise however, the officer does not seem to notice that it even happened
21.
Foil (literature)
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In fiction, a foil is a character who contrasts with another character —usually the protagonist— in order to highlight particular qualities of the other character. In some cases, a subplot can be used as a foil to the main plot and this is especially true in the case of metafiction and the story within a story motif. The word foil comes from the old practice of backing gems with foil in order to make them shine more brightly, a foil usually either differs dramatically or is extremely similar but with a key difference setting them apart. The concept of a foil is also widely applied to any comparison that is made to contrast a difference between two things. In Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley, the two characters, Dr. Frankenstein and his creature are both together literary foils, functioning to compare one to the other. In Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice, Marys absorption in her studies places her as a foil to her sister Lydia Bennets lively, similarly, in Shakespeares play Julius Caesar, the character Brutus has foils in the two characters Cassius and Mark Antony
22.
Northrop Frye
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Herman Northrop Frye CC FRSC was a Canadian literary critic and literary theorist, considered one of the most influential of the 20th century. Frye gained international fame with his first book, Fearful Symmetry, the American critic Harold Bloom commented at the time of its publication that Anatomy established Frye as the foremost living student of Western literature. Fryes contributions to cultural and social criticism spanned a long career during which he earned widespread recognition, born in Sherbrooke, Quebec but raised in Moncton, New Brunswick, Frye was the third child of Herman Edward Frye and of Catherine Maud Howard. His much older brother, Howard, died in World War I, he also had a sister and his first cousin was the scientist Alma Howard. Frye went to Toronto to compete in a typing contest in 1929. He studied for his degree at Victoria College in the University of Toronto. He then studied theology at Emmanuel College, after a brief stint as a student minister in Saskatchewan, he was ordained to the ministry of the United Church of Canada. He then studied at Merton College, Oxford, where he was a member and Secretary of the Bodley Club before returning to Victoria College, Frye rose to international prominence as a result of his first book, Fearful Symmetry, published in 1947. Until then, the poetry of William Blake had long been poorly understood. Frye found in it a system of metaphor derived from Paradise Lost and his study of Blakes poetry was a major contribution. Moreover, Frye outlined an innovative manner of studying literature that was to influence the study of literature in general. He was an influence on Harold Bloom, Margaret Atwood. In 1974–1975 Frye was the Norton professor at Harvard University, Northrop Frye did not have a Ph. D. Frye married Helen Kemp, an educator, editor and artist and she died in Australia while accompanying Frye on a lecture tour. Two years after her death in 1986, he married Elizabeth Brown and he died in 1991 and was interred in Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto, Ontario. The insights gained from his study of Blake set Frye on his path and shaped his contributions to literary criticism. He was the first critic to postulate a systematic theory of criticism, to out, in his own words. In so doing, he shaped the discipline of criticism, inspired by his work on Blake, Frye developed and articulated his unified theory ten years after Fearful Symmetry, in the Anatomy of Criticism
23.
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
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Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel by Mark Twain, first published in the United Kingdom in December 1884 and in the United States in February 1885. Commonly named among the Great American Novels, the work is among the first in major American literature to be written throughout in vernacular English and it is told in the first person by Huckleberry Huck Finn, a friend of Tom Sawyer and narrator of two other Twain novels. It is a sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. The book is noted for its description of people and places along the Mississippi River. Perennially popular with readers, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has also been the object of study by literary critics since its publication. In order of appearance, Huckleberry Finn is a boy about thirteen or fourteen or along there years old and he has been brought up by his father, the town drunk, and has a difficult time fitting into society. Widow Douglas is the woman who has taken Huck in after he helped save her from a violent home invasion. She tries her best to civilize Huck, believing it is her Christian duty, Miss Watson is the widows sister, a tough old spinster who also lives with them. She is fairly hard on Huck, causing him to resent her a good deal, Mark Twain may have drawn inspiration for this character from several people he knew in his life. Jim is Miss Watsons physically large but mild-mannered slave, Huck becomes very close to Jim when they reunite after Jim flees Miss Watsons household to seek refuge from slavery, and Huck and Jim become fellow travelers on the Mississippi River. Tom Sawyer is Hucks best friend and peer, the character of other Twain novels. He is the best fighter and the smartest kid in town, Pap Finn, Hucks father, a brutal alcoholic drifter. He resents Huck getting any kind of education and his only genuine interest in his son involves begging or extorting money to feed his alcohol addiction. The Grangerfords, an aristocratic Kentuckian family headed by the sexagenarian Colonel Saul Grangerford, Huck becomes close friends with the youngest male of the family, Buck Grangerford, who is Hucks age. By the time Huck meets them, the Grangerfords have been engaged in a blood feud with another local family. The Duke and the King are two otherwise unnamed con artists whom Huck and Jim take aboard their raft just before the start of their Arkansas adventures, doctor Robinson is the only man who recognizes that the King and Duke are phonies when they pretend to be British. He warns the town but they ignore him, mary Jane, Joanna, and Susan Wilks are the three young nieces of their wealthy guardian, Peter Wilks, who has recently died. The duke and the try to steal the inheritance left by Peter Wilks
24.
Existentialism
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While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher and he proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or authentically. Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology. The term is seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, Sartre posits the idea that what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, as scholar Frederick Copleston explains. Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism and this assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern, Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern, the second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term existential was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that Hegelians do not study philosophy existentially, on the other hand, the Norwegian historian Anne-Lise Seip is critical of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the Norwegian literary historian Cathrinus Bang. The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their true essence instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them, thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence - what Sartre would call bad faith, instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are defined only insofar as they act and that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity. This is as opposed to their genes, or human nature, as Sartre writes in his work Existentialism is a Humanism. Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards. Of course, the positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied, A person can choose to act in a different way. Here it is clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel or good, they are, in fact. Sartres definition of existentialism was based on Heideggers magnum opus Being and this way of living, Heidegger called average everydayness
25.
Franz Kafka
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Franz Kafka was a Prague German-language novelist and short story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His best known works include Die Verwandlung, Der Process, the term Kafkaesque has entered the English language to describe situations like those in his writing. Kafka was born into a middle-class, German-speaking Jewish family in Prague and he trained as a lawyer, and after completing his legal education he was employed with an insurance company, forcing him to relegate writing to his spare time. Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and he became engaged to several women but never married. He died in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis and his work went on to influence a vast range of writers, critics, artists, and philosophers during the 20th century. Kafka was born near the Old Town Square in Prague, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his family were middle-class Ashkenazi Jews. His father, Hermann Kafka, was the child of Jakob Kafka, a shochet or ritual slaughterer in Osek. Hermann brought the Kafka family to Prague, after working as a travelling sales representative, he eventually became a fancy goods and clothing retailer who employed up to 15 people and used the image of a jackdaw as his business logo. Kafkas mother, Julie, was the daughter of Jakob Löwy, a retail merchant in Poděbrady. Hermann and Julie had six children, of whom Franz was the eldest, franzs two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, died in infancy before Franz was seven, his three sisters were Gabriele, Valerie and Ottilie. They all died during the Holocaust of World War II, Valli was deported to the Łódź Ghetto in Poland in 1942, but that is the last documentation of her. On business days, both parents were absent from the home, with Julie Kafka working as many as 12 hours each day helping to manage the family business, consequently, Kafkas childhood was somewhat lonely, and the children were reared largely by a series of governesses and servants. The dominating figure of Kafkas father had a significant influence on Kafkas writing, the Kafka family had a servant girl living with them in a cramped apartment. In November 1913 the family moved into an apartment, although Ellie. In early August 1914, just after World War I began, both Ellie and Valli also had children. Franz at age 31 moved into Vallis former apartment, quiet by contrast, from 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the Deutsche Knabenschule German boys elementary school at the Masný trh/Fleischmarkt, now known as Masná Street. His Jewish education ended with his Bar Mitzvah celebration at the age of 13, Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year. German was the language of instruction, but Kafka also spoke and he studied the latter at the gymnasium for eight years, achieving good grades
26.
The Metamorphosis
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The Metamorphosis is a novella by Franz Kafka, first published in 1915. It has been called one of the works of fiction of the 20th century and is studied in colleges and universities across the Western world. The story begins with a salesman, Gregor Samsa, waking to find himself transformed into a large. The cause of Gregors transformation is never revealed, and Kafka himself never gave an explanation, one day, Gregor Samsa, a traveling salesman, wakes up to find himself transformed into a giant insect. He reflects on how life as a traveling salesman is. As he looks at the clock, he notices that he has overslept. He ponders the consequences of this delay, Gregor becomes annoyed at how his boss never accepts excuses or explanations from any of his employees no matter how hard-working they are, displaying an apparent lack of trusting abilities. Gregors mother knocks on the door, and he answers her and she is concerned for Gregor because he is late for work, which is unorthodox for him. Gregor answers his mother and realizes that his voice has changed and his sister, Grete, to whom he is very close, then whispers through the door and begs him to open it. He tries to get out of bed but is incapable of moving his body, while trying to move, he finds that his office manager, the chief clerk, has shown up to check on him. He finally rocks his body to the floor and calls out that he open the door shortly. Offended by Gregors delayed response in opening the door, the clerk warns him of the consequences of missing work and he adds that Gregors recent performance has been unsatisfactory. Gregor disagrees and tells him that he open the door shortly. Nobody on the side of the door has understood a single word he had uttered as Gregors voice has also transformed. Finally, Gregor manages to unlock and open the door with his mouth and he apologizes to the office manager for the delay. Horrified by Gregors appearance, his mother faints, and the manager out of the apartment. Gregor tries to catch up with him, but his father drives him back into the bedroom with a cane, Gregor injures himself squeezing back through the doorway, and his father slams the door shut. Gregor awakens and sees that someone has put milk and bread in his room, initially excited, he quickly discovers that he has no taste for milk, once one of his favorites
27.
Jean-Paul Sartre
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Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology and his work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. Sartre was also noted for his relationship with prominent feminist. Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringings, Sartres introduction to his philosophy is his work Existentialism and Humanism, originally presented as a lecture. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused it, saying that he always declined official honours, Jean-Paul Sartre was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie Schweitzer. His mother was of Alsatian origin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, when Sartre was two years old, his father died of a fever overseas. When he was twelve, Sartres mother remarried, and the moved to La Rochelle. As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergsons essay Time and Free Will and he attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school in Paris. It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, perhaps the most decisive influence on Sartres philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojèves seminars, which continued for a number of years. From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters, in 1927, his antimilitarist satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced the event on 25 May, thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike. The publics resultant outcry forced Lanson to resign, in 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous, the first time Sartre took the exam to become a college instructor, he failed. He took it a time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place in his class. Sartre was drafted into the French Army from 1929 to 1931 and he later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence. From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre, Laon, in 1932, Sartre discovered Voyage au bout de la nuit by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkable influence on him. In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français dAllemagne in Berlin where he studied Edmund Husserls phenomenological philosophy, Aron had already advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinass Théorie de l’intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl. The Neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a generation of French thinkers, including Sartre
28.
Nausea (novel)
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Nausea is a philosophical novel by the existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, published in 1938. It is Sartres first novel and, in his opinion, one of his best works, French writer Simone de Beauvoir, Sartres lifelong partner, claims that La Nausée grants consciousness a remarkable independence and gives reality the full weight of its sense. It is one of the works of existentialism. Sartre was awarded, though he declined, the Nobel Prize for literature in 1964. The Nobel Foundation recognized him for his work which, rich in ideas and filled with the spirit of freedom, Sartre was one of the few people to have declined the award, referring to it as merely a function of a bourgeois institution. The novel has translated into English at least twice, by Lloyd Alexander as The Diary of Antoine Roquentin. Antoine Roquentin – The protagonist of the novel, Antoine is an adventurer who has been living in Bouville for three years. Antoine does not keep in touch with family, and has no friends and he is a loner at heart and often likes to listen to other peoples conversations and examine their actions. He settles in the fictional French seaport town of Bouville to finish his research on the life of an 18th-century political figure. Even though he at times admits to trying to some sort of solace in the presence of others, he also exhibits signs of boredom. He can afford not to work, but spends a lot of his writing a book about a French politician of the eighteenth century. Antoine does not think highly of himself, The faces of others have some sense, I cannot even decide whether it is handsome or ugly. I think it is ugly because I have been told so, when he starts suffering from the Nausea he feels the need to talk to Anny, but when he finally does, it makes no difference to his condition. He eventually starts to think he does not even exist, My existence was beginning to cause me some concern, was I a mere figment of the imagination. Anny – Anny is an English woman who was once Antoines lover, after meeting with him, Anny makes it clear that she has changed a considerable amount and must go on with her life. Antoine clings to the past, hoping that she may want to redefine their relationship, ogier P. generally referred to as the self-taught man or the Autodidact – An acquaintance of Antoines, he is a bailiffs clerk who lives for the pursuit of knowledge and love of humanity. Highly disciplined, he has spent hundreds of hours reading at the local library and he often speaks to Roquentin and confides in him that he is a socialist. At the end of the novel he is revealed to be a paedophile, like many Modernist novels, La Nausée is a city-novel, encapsulating experience within the city
29.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
30.
Albert Camus
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Albert Camus was a French philosopher, author, and journalist. His views contributed to the rise of the known as absurdism. He wrote in his essay The Rebel that his life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving deeply into individual freedom. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957, Camus did not consider himself to be an existentialist despite usually being classified as a follower of it, even in his lifetime. In a 1945 interview, Camus rejected any ideological associations, No, Sartre and I are always surprised to see our names linked. Camus was born in French Algeria to a Pied-Noir family and studied at the University of Algiers, in 1949, Camus founded the Group for International Liaisons to denounce two ideologies found in both the USSR and the USA. Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in Dréan in French Algeria and his mother was of Spanish descent and could only hear out of her left ear. His father, Lucien, an agricultural worker of Alsatian descent, was wounded in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during World War I. Lucien died from his wounds in an army hospital on 11 October. Camus and his mother, a house cleaner, lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. In 1923, Camus was accepted into the Lycée Bugeaud and eventually was admitted to the University of Algiers, after he contracted tuberculosis in 1930, he had to end his football activities, he had been a goalkeeper for a prominent Algerian university team. In addition, he was able to study part-time. To earn money, he took odd jobs, as a tutor, car parts clerk. Camus joined the French Communist Party in early 1935, seeing it as a way to fight inequalities between Europeans and natives in Algeria. He did not suggest he was a Marxist or that he had read Das Kapital, in 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party was founded. Camus joined the activities of the Algerian Peoples Party, which got him into trouble with his Communist party comrades, Camus then became associated with the French anarchist movement. The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought, Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire, La révolution Prolétarienne, and Solidaridad Obrera, the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT. Camus stood with the anarchists when they expressed support for the uprising of 1953 in East Germany and he again allied with the anarchists in 1956, first in support of the workers uprising in Poznań, Poland, and then later in the year with the Hungarian Revolution
31.
Boredom
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It is also understood by scholars as a modern phenomenon which has a cultural dimension. There is no accepted definition of boredom. But whatever it is, researchers argue, it is not simply another name for depression or apathy, in both conceptions, boredom has to do fundamentally with an experience of time and problems of meaning. The expression boredom means state of being bored,1852, from bore + -dom and it also has been employed in a sense bores as a class and practice of being a bore. The word bore as a noun meaning a thing which causes ennui or annoyance is attested to since 1778, the noun bore comes from the verb bore, which had the meaning be tiresome or dull first attested 1768, a vogue word c. 1780-81 according to Grose, possibly an extension of to move forward slowly and persistently. The French term for boredom, ennui, is used in English as well. The term ennui was first used as a French word in English, in the 1660s, the term ennui comes from French ennui, from Old French enui annoyance, back-formation from enoiier, anuier. Different scholars use different definitions of boredom, which complicates research, Boredom has been defined by Cynthia D. Mark Leary et al. describe boredom as an affective experience associated with cognitive attentional processes. In positive psychology, boredom is described as a response to a challenge for which the subject has more than enough skill. There are three types of boredom, all of which problems of engagement of attention. Boredom proneness is a tendency to experience boredom of all types and this is typically assessed by the Boredom Proneness Scale. Recent research has found that boredom proneness is clearly and consistently associated with failures of attention, Boredom and its proneness are both theoretically and empirically linked to depression and similar symptoms. Nonetheless, boredom proneness has been found to be as strongly correlated with attentional lapses as with depression. Although boredom is often viewed as a trivial and mild irritant, proneness to boredom has been linked to a diverse range of possible psychological, physical, educational. Absent-mindedness is where a person shows inattentive or forgetful behaviour, absent-mindedness is a mental condition in which the subject experiences low levels of attention and frequent distraction. Absent-mindedness is not a condition but rather a symptom of boredom. When suffering from absent-mindedness, people tend to show signs of memory lapse and this can usually be a result of a variety of other conditions often diagnosed by clinicians such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression
32.
Angst
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The word angst was introduced into English from the Danish, Norwegian and Dutch word angst and the German word Angst. It is attested since the 19th century in English translations of the works of Kierkegaard and it is used in English to describe an intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil. In common language, however, Angst is the word for fear. In other languages having the meaning of the Latin word pavor for fear, the word Angst has existed since the 8th century, from the Proto-Indo-European root *anghu-, restraint from which Old High German angust developed. It is pre-cognate with the Latin angustia, tensity, tightness and angor, choking, clogging, in Existentialist philosophy the term angst carries a specific conceptual meaning. The use of the term was first attributed to Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, in The Concept of Anxiety, Kierkegaard used the word Angest to describe a profound and deep-seated condition. Where animals are guided solely by instinct, said Kierkegaard, human beings enjoy a freedom of choice that we find both appealing and terrifying. Existential angst makes its appearance in musical composition in the early twentieth century as a result of both philosophical developments and as a reflection of the war-torn times. Angst began to be discussed in reference to music in the mid- to late 1950s amid widespread concerns over international tensions. Jeff Nuttalls book Bomb Culture traced angst in popular culture to Hiroshima, dread was expressed in works of folk rock such as Bob Dylans Masters of War and A Hard Rains a-Gonna Fall. The term often makes an appearance in reference to rock, grunge, nu metal. The dictionary definition of angst at Wiktionary
33.
Social alienation
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The term alienation has been used over the ages with varied and sometimes contradictory meanings. In ancient history it could mean a sense of achieving a higher state of contemplation, ecstasy or union—becoming alienated from a limited existence in the world. Examples of this usage have been traced to neoplatonic philosophers such as Plotinus, there have also long been religious concepts of being separated or cut off from God and the faithful, alienated in a negative sense. The New Testament mentions the term apallotrioomai in Greek—being alienated from, ideas of estrangement from a Golden Age, or due to a Fall of man, or approximate equivalents in differing cultures or religions, have also been described as concepts of alienation. A double positive and negative sense of alienation is shown in the spiritual beliefs referred to as Gnosticism. Alienation has also had a particular legal-political meaning since at least Ancient Roman times, the term alienation itself comes from the Latin alienus which meant of another place or person, which in turn came from alius, meaning other or another. An alienus in ancient Roman times could refer to someone elses slave, another usage of the term in Ancient Greco-Roman times was by physicians referring to disturbed, difficult or abnormal states of mind, generally attributed to imbalanced physiology. In Latin alienatio mentis, this usage has been dated to Asclepiades, once translations of such works had resurfaced in the West in the 17th century, physicians again began using the term, which is typically attributed to Felix Platter. In medieval times, a relationship between alienation and social order has been described, mediated in part by mysticism and monasticism, the Crusades and Witch-hunts have been described as forms of mass alienation. In the 18th century, Hutcheson introduced a distinction between alienable and unalienable rights in the sense of the term. In the same century a law of Alienation of affection was introduced for men to seek compensation from other men accused of taking away their woman. In the history of literature, the German Romantics appear to be the first group of writers, around the start of the 19th century, Hegel popularized a Christian and Idealist philosophy of alienation. Around the same time, Pinel was popularizing a new understanding of mental alienation and he argued that people could be disturbed by emotional states and social conditions, without necessarily having lost their reason, as had generally been assumed. Hegel praised Pinel for his moral treatment approach, and developed related theories, nevertheless, as Foucault would later write. Marx was initially in the Young Hegelian camp and, like Feuerbach, rejected the spiritual basis, marxs theory of alienation is articulated most clearly in the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts and The German Ideology. The young Marx wrote more often and directly of alienation than the mature Marx, marxs concepts of alienation have been classed into four types by Kostas Axelos, Economic and Social Alienation, Political Alienation, Human Alienation, and Ideological Alienation. In the concepts most prominent use, it refers to the economic and social aspect in which workers are disconnected from what they produce. Marx believed that alienation is a result of capitalism
34.
Norman Mailer
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Norman Kingsley Mailer was an American novelist, journalist, essayist, playwright, film-maker, actor, and political activist. His novel The Naked and the Dead was published in 1948 and his best-known work was widely considered to be The Executioners Song, which was published in 1979, and for which he won one of his two Pulitzer Prizes. In addition to the Pulitzer Prize, his book Armies of the Night was awarded the National Book Award, along with Truman Capote, Joan Didion, Hunter S. Mailer was also known for his essays, the most renowned of which was The White Negro. He was a commentator and critic, expressing his views through his novels, journalism, essays. In 1955, Mailer and three others founded The Village Voice, an arts- and politics-oriented weekly newspaper distributed in Greenwich Village, Mailer was born to a Jewish family in Long Branch, New Jersey. His father, Isaac Barnett Mailer, was an accountant born in South Africa, Mailers sister, Barbara, was born in 1927. Raised in Brooklyn, New York, Mailer graduated from Boys High School and entered Harvard University in 1939, as an undergraduate, he was a member of the Signet Society. At Harvard, he studied engineering, and became interested in writing. He published his first story at the age of 18, winning Story magazines college contest in 1941, after graduating in 1943, he was drafted into the U. S. Army. Hoping to gain a deferment from service, Mailer argued that he was writing an important literary work which pertained to the war and this deferral was denied, and Mailer was forced to enter the Army. After training at Fort Bragg, Mailer was stationed in the Philippines with the 112th Cavalry, during his time in the Philippines, Mailer worked as a cook and saw little combat. He participated in a patrol on the island of Leyte and this lesson inspired Mailer to write his first novel, The Naked and the Dead. Mailer wrote 12 novels over a 59-year span, in 1948, while continuing his studies at the University of Paris, Mailer published his first, The Naked and the Dead, based on his military service in World War II. A New York Times best seller for 62 weeks, it was hailed by many as one of the best American wartime novels and this book that made his reputation is rarely read today. The same newspaper described the book as, a hard read today, barbary Shore was mauled by the critics. It was a parable of Cold War leftist politics set in a Brooklyn rooming-house. His 1955 novel The Deer Park drew on his experiences working as a screenwriter in Hollywood in 1949–50 and it was initially rejected by seven publishers due to its purportedly sexual content before being published by Putnams. It was not a success, at one point Mailer took out an advertisement that defiantly quoted his many bad reviews
35.
Sixties counterculture
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Many key movements related to these issues were born or advanced within the counterculture of the 1960s. This embracing of creativity is particularly notable in the works of British Invasion bands such as the Beatles, in addition to the trendsetting Beatles, many other creative artists, authors, and thinkers, within and across many disciplines, helped define the counterculture movement. Several factors distinguished the counterculture of the 1960s from the movements of previous eras. Post-war affluence allowed many of the generation to move beyond a focus on the provision of the material necessities of life that had preoccupied their Depression-era parents. The counterculture era essentially commenced in earnest with the assassination of John F. Kennedy in November 1963, poor outcomes from some of these activities set the stage for disillusionment with, and distrust of, post-war governments. In the US, President Dwight D, the Partial Test Ban Treaty divided the establishment within the US along political and military lines. In the UK, the Profumo Affair also involved establishment leaders being caught in deception, leading to disillusionment and serving as a catalyst for liberal activism. The Cuban Missile Crisis, which brought the world to the brink of war in October 1962, was largely fomented by duplicitous speech. The assassination of US President John F. Kennedy in November 1963, many social issues fueled the growth of the larger counterculture movement. On college and university campuses, student activists fought for the right to exercise their constitutional rights, especially freedom of speech. The availability of new and more effective forms of control was a key underpinning of the sexual revolution. With this change in attitude, by the 1990s the ratio of children out of wedlock rose from 5% to 25% for Whites. The end of censorship resulted in a reformation of the western film industry. Communes, collectives, and intentional communities regained popularity during this era, Some of these self-sustaining communities have been credited with the birth and propagation of the international Green Movement. The emergence of an interest in expanded spiritual consciousness, yoga, occult practices, in 1957, 69% of US residents polled by Gallup said religion was increasing in influence. By the late 1960s, polls indicated less than 20% still held that belief, the Generation Gap, or the inevitable perceived divide in worldview between the old and young, was perhaps never greater than during the counterculture era. Ultimately, practical and comfortable casual apparel, namely updated forms of T-shirts, many began to live largely clandestine lives because of their choice to use such drugs and substances, fearing retribution from their governments. The confrontations between college students and law enforcement officials became one of the hallmarks of the era, many younger people began to show deep distrust of police, and terms such as fuzz and pig as derogatory epithets for police reappeared, and became key words within the counterculture lexicon
36.
Film noir
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Film noir is a cinematic term used primarily to describe stylish Hollywood crime dramas, particularly such that emphasize cynical attitudes and sexual motivations. Hollywoods classical film noir period is regarded as extending from the early 1940s to the late 1950s. Film noir of this era is associated with a low-key black-and-white visual style that has roots in German Expressionist cinematography. Many of the stories and much of the attitude of classic noir derive from the hardboiled school of crime fiction that emerged in the United States during the Great Depression. Cinema historians and critics defined the category retrospectively, before the notion was widely adopted in the 1970s, many of the classic films noir were referred to as melodramas. Whether film noir qualifies as a genre is a matter of ongoing debate among scholars. Although film noir was originally associated with American productions, films now so described have been made around the world, many pictures released from the 1960s onward share attributes with film noir of the classical period, and often treat its conventions self-referentially. Some refer to such works as neo-noir. The clichés of film noir have inspired parody since the mid-1940s, the questions of what defines film noir, and what sort of category it is, provoke continuing debate. They emphasize that not every film noir embodies all five attributes in equal measure—one might be more dreamlike, another, while many critics refer to film noir as a genre itself, others argue that it can be no such thing. Because of the diversity of noir, certain scholars in the field, such as film historian Thomas Schatz, treat it as not a genre but a style. Other critics treat film noir as a mood, characterize it as a series, there is no consensus on the matter. By 1931, Curtiz had already been in Hollywood for half a decade, the Universal horror that comes closest to noir, in story and sensibility is The Invisible Man, directed by Englishman James Whale and photographed by American Arthur Edeson. Edeson later photographed The Maltese Falcon, widely regarded as the first major film noir of the classic era, josef von Sternberg was directing in Hollywood at the same time. Films of his such as Shanghai Express and The Devil Is a Woman, with their hothouse eroticism and baroque visual style, the commercial and critical success of Sternbergs silent Underworld was largely responsible for spurring a trend of Hollywood gangster films. Successful films in that such as Little Caesar, The Public Enemy. An important, possibly influential, cinematic antecedent to classic noir was 1930s French poetic realism, with its romantic, fatalistic attitude, the movements sensibility is mirrored in the Warner Bros. drama I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang, a forerunner of noir. Among films not considered films noir, perhaps none had an effect on the development of the genre than Citizen Kane
37.
Double Indemnity (film)
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Double Indemnity is a 1944 film noir directed by Billy Wilder, co-written by Wilder and Raymond Chandler, and produced by Buddy DeSylva and Joseph Sistrom. The screenplay was based on James M. Cains 1943 novella of the same name, the term double indemnity refers to a clause in certain life insurance policies that doubles the payout in rare cases when death is caused accidentally, such as while riding a railway. Praised by many critics when first released, Double Indemnity was nominated for seven Academy Awards, widely regarded as a classic, it is often cited as a paradigmatic film noir and as having set the standard for the films that followed in that genre. Deemed culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant by the U. S, library of Congress in 1992, Double Indemnity was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry. In 1998, it was ranked #38 on the American Film Institutes list of the 100 best American films of all time, Walter Neff, a successful insurance salesman, returns to his office building in downtown Los Angeles late one night. Visibly in pain and sporting a gunshot wound on his shoulder, he begins dictating a confession into a Dictaphone for his friend and colleague, Barton Keyes, the story, told primarily in flashback, ensues. Neff first meets the alluring Phyllis Dietrichson during a house call to remind her husband that his automobile insurance policy is up for renewal. They flirt, until Phyllis asks how she could take out an accident policy on her husbands life without his knowledge, Neff deduces she is contemplating murder, and makes it clear he wants no part of it. However, he cannot get her out of his mind, after Dietrichson breaks his leg, Phyllis drives him to the train station for his trip to Palo Alto for a college reunion. Neff is hiding in the backseat and kills Dietrichson when Phyllis turns onto a side street. Then, Neff boards the train posing as Dietrichson and using his crutches and he makes his way to the last car, the observation car, and steps outside to the open platform to supposedly smoke a cigarette. A complication ensues when he meets a passenger named Jackson there, Neff then throws the crutches on the railway tracks, jumps off at a prearranged meeting spot with Phyllis, and drags Dietrichsons body onto the tracks by his crutches. Mr. Keyes does not suspect foul play at first, but his instincts, to which he refers as the man, pointing to his stomach. He wonders why Dietrichson did not file a claim for his broken leg, Keyes tells Neff of his theory outside Neffs apartment, while Phyllis hides behind the door. Keyes soon concludes that Phyllis and some unknown accomplice murdered Dietrichson for the insurance money, Keyes, however, is not Neffs only worry. The victims daughter, Lola, comes to him, convinced that stepmother Phyllis is behind her fathers death, lolas mother also died under suspicious circumstances, when Phyllis was her nurse. Neff begins seeing Lola, at first to keep her going to the police with her suspicions and then because he is plagued by guilt. Keyes brings Jackson to Los Angeles, suspecting that the man aboard the train had not been Dietrichson, after examining photographs of Dietrichson, Jackson is sure the man he met was not that old, but at least 10 years younger
38.
Night and the City
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Night and the City is a 1950 film noir directed by Jules Dassin and starring Richard Widmark, Gene Tierney and Googie Withers. It is based on the novel of the name by Gerald Kersh. Shot on location in London and at Shepperton Studios, the plot revolves around an ambitious hustler whose plans keep going wrong, director Dassin later confessed that he never read the novel the movie is based upon. The films British version was five minutes longer, with an upbeat ending and featuring a completely different film score. Dassin endorsed the American version as closer to his vision, Harry Fabian is an ambitious American hustler and con man operating in London, always looking for a better deal. He maintains a relationship with the honest Mary Bristol, nightclub owner and businessman Phil Nosseross, and Helen. After denouncing Kristos event as tasteless exhibitionism that shames the sports Greco-Roman traditions, Gregorius leaves with Nikolas, a fellow wrestler. Fabian catches up with the two and befriends them, having realised that he can host wrestling in London without interference from Kristo if he can persuade his father to support the enterprise, Fabian approaches Phil and Helen with his proposal, then asks for an investment. Incredulous, Phil offers to provide half of the required £400, desperate, Fabian asks Figler, a panhandler and unofficial head of an informal society of street criminals, Googin, a forger, and Anna, a Thameside smuggler, but none can offer any help. Fabian agrees, but tricks Helen by having Googin forge the licence, meanwhile, Phil is visited by associates of Kristo, who warn him to keep Fabian away from Londons wrestling scene. Already suspecting Helen of duplicity, Phil neglects to warn Fabian, who proceeds to open his own gym with Gregorius and Nikolas as the stars, a furious Kristo visits the gym, only to discover that his father is supporting Fabians endeavour. Meeting with Phil, the two plot to kill Fabian, but realise that they can only do so if Gregorius leaves Fabian, finding The Stranglers manager, Mickey Beer, Fabian convinces him to support the fight, and taunts The Strangler into confronting Gregorius and Nikolas. Gregorius agrees to the fight, convinced by Fabian that it prove that his style of wrestling is superior. Beer asks Fabian for £200 to cover his fee, so Fabian asks Phil for the money, instead, Phil calls Kristo, informing him that The Strangler is in Fabians gym. Betrayed, Fabian steals the money from Mary, and returns to the gym, however, The Strangler goads Gregorius into a prolonged and brutal fight, during which Nikolas wrist is broken. Gregorius eventually defeats The Strangler in the ring as Kristo arrives, seeing that both his business and protection are lost, Fabian flees. In revenge of his fathers death, Kristo puts a £1,000 bounty on Fabians head, Fabian is hunted through the night, first by Kristos men, then by Figler, who attempts to trap Fabian for the reward. Convinced that her licence is authentic, Helen leaves Phil, only to discover that the work is a worthless forgery and she returns to Phil in desperation, only to discover that he has committed suicide, leaving everything to Molly, the clubs elderly cleaner and flower stand operator
39.
Gangster film
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Mob films — or gangster films — are a subgenre of crime films dealing with organized crime, often specifically with the Mafia. Especially in early mob films, there is overlap with film noir. The American movie The Black Hand is thought to be the earliest surviving gangster film. In 1912, D. W. Griffith directed The Musketeers of Pig Alley, critics have also cited Regeneration as an early crime film. Though mob films had their roots in such silent films, the genre in its most durable form was defined in the early 1930s and it owed its innovations to the social and economic instability occasioned by the Great Depression, which galvanized the organized crime subculture in the United States. The years 1931 and 1932 saw the genre produce three enduring classics, Warner Bros and those suffering from the Depression were able to relate to the gangster character who worked hard to earn his place and success in the world, only to have it all taken away from him. As the appeal and attraction of gangster movie stars such as Cagney, Robinson, Muni, during the early years of crime film, Scarface, arguably the most violent of gangster films created during the entire decade, particularly was the subject of criticism. This is illustrated by James Cagneys role as a law officer in the 1935 movie G Men and these pictures demonstrate the growing acceptance of crime films during the 1930s as long as criminals were not portrayed in a flattering light. It was now the law officers that the films attempted to glamorize, politics combined with the social and economic climate of the time to influence how crime films were made and how the characters were portrayed. Many of the films imply that criminals are the creation of society, rather than its rebel, the institution of Prohibition in 1920 led to an explosion in crime, and the depiction of bootlegging is a frequent occurrence in many mob films. However, as the 1930s progressed, Hollywood also experimented with the stories of the criminals and bank robbers, such as John Dillinger, Baby Face Nelson. However, as the FBI increased in power there was also a shift to favour the stories of the FBI agents hunting the criminals instead of focusing on the criminal characters. In fact, in 1935 at the height of the hunt for Dillinger, many of the 1930s crime films also dealt with class and ethnic conflict, notably the earliest films, reflecting doubts about how well the American system was working. As stated, many films pushed the message that criminals were the result of a moral and economic society. In the 1970s there was a revival of mob films, notably with The Godfather and it was followed by two sequels, The Godfather Part II and The Godfather Part III. It also inspired other mob films such as The Valachi Papers, the 1983 remake of Scarface was not particularly well received at the time of its release, but over time it has come to be seen as a classic of the mob film genre. It went on to films such as King of New York. On the other hand, Sergio Leone shot an epic drama film Once Upon a Time in America, starring Robert De Niro
40.
The Godfather
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The Godfather is a 1972 American crime film directed by Francis Ford Coppola and produced by Albert S. Ruddy, based on Mario Puzos best-selling novel of the same name. It stars Marlon Brando and Al Pacino as the leaders of a fictional New York crime family, the story, spanning 1945 to 1955, chronicles the family under the patriarch Vito Corleone, focusing on the transformation of Michael Corleone from reluctant family outsider to ruthless mafia boss. Paramount Pictures obtained the rights to the novel for the price of $80,000, Studio executives had trouble finding a director, as their first few candidates turned down the position. They and Coppola disagreed over who would play characters, in particular Vito. Filming was done on location and completed earlier than scheduled, the musical score was composed primarily by Nino Rota with additional pieces by Carmine Coppola. The film was the film of 1972 and was for a time the highest-grossing film ever made. It won the Oscars for Best Picture, Best Actor and Best Adapted Screenplay and its seven other Oscar nominations included Pacino, James Caan, and Robert Duvall for Best Supporting Actor and Coppola for Best Director. It was followed by sequels The Godfather Part II and The Godfather Part III, the Godfather is widely regarded as one of the greatest films in world cinema and one of the most influential, especially in the gangster genre. It was selected for preservation in the U. S, in 1945, at his daughter Connies wedding, Vito Corleone hears requests in his role as the Godfather, the Don of a New York crime family. Vitos youngest son, Michael, who was a Marine during World War II, introduces his girlfriend, Kay Adams, Woltz refuses until he wakes up in bed with the severed head of his prized stallion. Wary of involvement in a new trade that risks alienating political insiders. Suspicious, Vito sends his enforcer, Luca Brasi, to spy on them, however, a Tattaglia button man garrotes Brasi during Brasis first meeting with Bruno Tattaglia and Sollozzo. Later Sollozzo has Vito gunned down in the street, then kidnaps Hagen, with Corleone first-born Sonny in command, Hagen is pressured to persuade Sonny to accept Sollozzos deal, then released. The family receives fish wrapped in Brasis bullet-proof vest, indicating that Luca sleeps with the fishes, Vito survives, and at the hospital Michael thwarts another attempt on his father, Michaels jaw is broken by NYPD Captain Marc McCluskey, Sollozzos bodyguard. Sonny retaliates with a hit on Tattaglias son, Michael plots to murder Sollozzo and McCluskey, on the pretext of settling the dispute, Michael agrees to meet them in a Bronx restaurant. There, retrieving a planted handgun, he kills both men, despite a clampdown by the authorities, the Five Families erupt in open warfare and Vitos sons fear for their safety. Michael takes refuge in Sicily, and his brother, Fredo, is sheltered by the Corleones Las Vegas casino partner, Sonny attacks his brother-in-law Carlo on the street for abusing his sister and threatens to kill him if it happens again. When it does, Sonny speeds to their home, but is ambushed at a toll booth
41.
Goodfellas
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Goodfellas is a 1990 American biographical crime film directed by Martin Scorsese. It is an adaptation of the 1986 non-fiction book Wiseguy by Nicholas Pileggi, the film narrates the rise and fall of mob associate Henry Hill and his friends over a period from 1955 to 1980. Scorsese initially named the film Wise Guy and postponed making it, later, he, to prepare for their roles in the film, Robert De Niro, Joe Pesci, and Ray Liotta often spoke with Pileggi, who shared research material left over from writing the book. According to Pesci, improvisation and ad-libbing came out of rehearsals wherein Scorsese gave the actors freedom to do whatever they wanted. The director made transcripts of these sessions, took the lines he liked best, and put them into a revised script, made on a budget of $25 million, Goodfellas grossed $46.8 million. It received positive reviews critics and was nominated for six Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director. The film won five awards from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts, including Best Film, additionally, Goodfellas was named the years best film by various critics groups. Goodfellas is widely regarded as one of the greatest films in the crime genre, in 2000, it was deemed culturally, historically, and aesthetically significant and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress. Its content and style have been emulated in other films. In April 1967, they commit the Air France robbery, enjoying the perks of their criminal life, they spend most of their nights at the Copacabana nightclub carousing with women. Henry meets and later marries Karen, a Jewish woman from the Five Towns area of Long Island, Karen is initially troubled by Henrys criminal activities but is soon seduced by his glamorous lifestyle. On June 11,1970, Billy Batts, a mobster in the Gambino crime family, enraged, Tommy and Jimmy attack and kill him. Knowing their murder of a man would mean retribution from the Gambino crime family, which could possibly include Paulie being ordered to kill them, Jimmy, Henry. They transport the body in the trunk of Henrys car and bury it in upstate New York, six months later, Jimmy learns that the burial site is slated for development, forcing them to exhume the decomposing corpse and move it. Henry sets up his mistress, Janice Rossi, in an apartment, when Karen finds out about their relationship, she tries to confront Janice and then threatens Henry at gunpoint. Henry moves out to live with Janice, but Paulie gets involved, Henry and Jimmy are sent to collect a debt from a gambler in Florida, but they are arrested after being turned in by the gamblers sister, a typist for the FBI. Jimmy and Henry receive ten-year prison sentences, in prison, Henry sells drugs smuggled in by Karen to support his family on the outside. After his early release in 1978, Henry further establishes himself in the trade, ignoring Paulies ban on drug trafficking
42.
Western (genre)
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Cowboys and gunslingers typically wear Stetson hats, bandannas, spurs, cowboy boots and buckskins. Other characters include Native Americans, bandits, lawmen, bounty hunters, outlaws, mounted cavalry, settlers, Westerns often stress the harshness of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape of deserts and mountains. Often, the vast landscape plays an important role, presenting a. mythic vision of the plains, specific settings include ranches, small frontier towns, saloons, railways and isolated military forts of the Wild West. Many Westerns use a plot of depicting a crime, then showing the pursuit of the wrongdoer, ending in revenge and retribution. The Western was the most popular Hollywood genre, from the early 20th century to the 1960s, Western films first became well-attended in the 1930s. John Fords landmark Western adventure Stagecoach became one of the biggest hits in 1939, Westerns were very popular throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Many of the most acclaimed Westerns were released during this time – including High Noon, Shane, The Searchers, the Western depicts a society organized around codes of honor and personal, direct or private justice–frontier justice–dispensed by gunfights. These honor codes are played out through depictions of feuds or individuals seeking personal revenge or retribution against someone who has wronged them. The popular perception of the Western is a story that centers on the life of a semi-nomadic wanderer, a showdown or duel at high noon featuring two or more gunfighters is a stereotypical scene in the popular conception of Westerns. In some ways, such protagonists may be considered the descendants of the knight errant which stood at the center of earlier extensive genres such as the Arthurian Romances. And like knights errant, the heroes of Westerns frequently rescue damsels in distress, similarly, the wandering protagonists of Westerns share many characteristics with the ronin in modern Japanese culture. The Western typically takes these elements and uses them to tell simple morality tales, Westerns often stress the harshness and isolation of the wilderness and frequently set the action in an arid, desolate landscape. Apart from the wilderness, it is usually the saloon that emphasizes that this is the Wild West, it is the place to go for music, women, gambling, drinking, brawling and shooting. The American Film Institute defines western films as those set in the American West that embodies the spirit, the struggle, the term Western, used to describe a narrative film genre, appears to have originated with a July 1912 article in Motion Picture World Magazine. Most of the characteristics of Western films were part of 19th century popular Western fiction and were firmly in place before film became an art form. Protagonists ride between dusty towns and cattle ranches on their trusty steeds, Western films were enormously popular in the silent film era. With the advent of sound in 1927-28, the major Hollywood studios rapidly abandoned Westerns, leaving the genre to smaller studios and these smaller organizations churned out countless low-budget features and serials in the 1930s. Released through United Artists, Stagecoach made John Wayne a mainstream star in the wake of a decade of headlining B westerns
43.
For a Few Dollars More
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For a Few Dollars More is a 1965 Italian Spaghetti Western film directed by Sergio Leone and starring Clint Eastwood, Lee Van Cleef, and Gian Maria Volontè. German actor Klaus Kinski also plays a role as a secondary villain. These three films catapulted Eastwood into stardom, director Alex Cox considered the church scene to be the most horrible deaths of any Western, describing Volontès Indio as the most diabolical Western villain of all time. The Man with No Name—Monco/Manco— and Colonel Douglas Mortimer—the Man in Black—are two bounty killers in pursuit of El Indio, one of the most wanted fugitives in the Wild West, El Indio is ruthless, clever, and brutal. He has a musical pocketwatch that he plays before engaging in gun duels, When the chimes finish, begin, flashbacks reveal that El Indio took the watch from a young woman whom he found with her lover. He killed the lover and raped the woman, during which she killed herself, there is a photograph of the woman inside the cover of the watch. After collecting a bounty of $1,000, Mortimer inquires about Red Baby Cavanagh and he learns that Cavanagh has already been targeted by Manco. Manco rides into White Rocks and finds Cavanagh in a saloon playing five-card draw poker, Manco kills him and his men and collects the bounty. Meanwhile, El Indios gang, led by his right-hand man Niño, break into the prison where Indio is being held and free him, killing the warden, El Indios next target is the Bank of El Paso and its disguised safe containing almost a million dollars. The two bounty hunters arrive separately in El Paso, learn about each other and, after butting heads, decide to team up to take down El Indio, Mortimer persuades a reluctant Manco to join El Indios gang for the robbery in order to get him between two fires. Manco breaks one of Indios friends out of prison and is admitted to the gang, Mortimer is revealed to have a pocket-watch similar to El Indios that plays the same tune. El Indios plan includes Manco and some of El Indios gang providing a distraction by robbing another bank in another town, but Manco guns down the gang members and sends a false telegraphic alarm. Once the El Paso sheriff and his leave, El Indio and the rest of his gang invade the bank and steal the safe. They ride to the border town of Agua Caliente, where they see Mortimer. One of El Indios men, the hunchback Wild, recognizes Mortimer from an encounter in which Mortimer had deliberately insulted him. He forces a showdown and Mortimer kills him, Mortimer then proves his worth to El Indio by cracking open the safe without using explosives. El Indio says that he wait a month before dividing the loot, to allow the furore over the bank robbery to die down. Manco and Mortimer attempt to steal the money from El Indio, El Indios men severely beat them and tie them up
44.
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
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The Good, the Bad and the Ugly is a 1966 Italian epic Spaghetti Western film directed by Sergio Leone, starring Clint Eastwood, Lee Van Cleef, and Eli Wallach in the title roles respectively. The screenplay was written by Age & Scarpelli, Luciano Vincenzoni, director of photography Tonino Delli Colli was responsible for the films sweeping widescreen cinematography and Ennio Morricone composed the films score, including its main theme. It was a co-production between companies in Italy, Spain, West Germany, and the United States, the film is known for Leones use of long shots and close-up cinematography, as well as his distinctive use of violence, tension, and stylistic gunfights. The film was the collaboration between Leone and Clint Eastwood, and the second with Lee Van Cleef. The Good, the Bad and the Ugly was marketed as the third and final installment in the Dollars Trilogy, following A Fistful of Dollars, the film was a financial success, grossing over $25 million at the box office, and is credited with catapulting Eastwood into stardom. Due to general disapproval of the Spaghetti Western genre at the time, critical reception of the film following its release was mixed, but it gained critical acclaim in later years. The Good, the Bad and the Ugly is now seen as an influential example of the Western film genre. Stevens offers Angel Eyes $1,000 to kill Baker, Angel Eyess employer, Angel Eyes accepts the contract, and kills Stevens as he leaves. Angel Eyes returns to Baker for his fee, then shoots Baker, meanwhile, Mexican bandit Tuco Ramírez is rescued from three bounty hunters by Blondie, who delivers him to the local sheriff to collect his $2,000 bounty. As Tuco is about to be hanged, Blondie severs Tucos noose by shooting it, the two escape on horseback and split the bounty in a lucrative money-making scheme. They repeat the process in another town for more reward money, Blondie grows weary of Tucos complaints, and abandons him penniless in the desert. A vengeful Tuco tracks Blondie to a town being abandoned by Confederate troops, as he prepares to have Blondie hang himself, Union forces shell the town, allowing Blondie to escape. Following an arduous search, Tuco recaptures Blondie and force-marches him across a desert until Blondie collapses from dehydration, as Tuco prepares to shoot him, he sees a runaway carriage. Inside is a delirious Bill Carson, who promises Tuco $200,000 in Confederate gold, Tuco demands to know the name on the grave, but Carson collapses from thirst before answering. When Tuco returns with water, Carson has died and Blondie, slumped next to him, reveals that Carson recovered, Tuco, who now has strong motivation to keep Blondie alive, gives him water and takes him to a nearby frontier mission to recover. After Blondies recovery, the two leave in Confederate uniforms from Carsons carriage, only to be captured by Union soldiers, at roll call, Tuco answers for Bill Carson, getting the attention of Angel Eyes, now a disguised Union sergeant at the camp. Angel Eyes tortures Tuco, who reveals the name of the cemetery, realizing that Blondie will not yield to torture, Angel Eyes offers him an equal share of the gold and a partnership. Blondie agrees and rides out with Angel Eyes and his gang, Tuco is packed on a train to be executed, but escapes
