1.
Ford Model T
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The Ford Model T is an automobile that was produced by Ford Motor Company from October 1,1908, to May 26,1927. The Ford Model T was named the most influential car of the 20th century in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, ahead of the BMC Mini, Citroën DS, and Volkswagen Type 1. With 16.5 million sold it stands eighth on the top ten list of most sold cars of all time as of 2012, although automobiles had already existed for decades, they were still mostly scarce and expensive at the Model Ts introduction in 1908. Positioned as reliable, easily maintained mass market transportation, it was a runaway success, in a matter of days after the release,15,000 orders were placed. The first production Model T was produced on August 12,1908 and left the factory on September 27,1908, at the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant in Detroit, Michigan. On May 26,1927, Henry Ford watched the 15 millionth Model T Ford roll off the line at his factory in Highland Park. There were several cars produced or prototyped by Henry Ford from the founding of the company in 1903 until the Model T was introduced, although he started with the Model A, there were not 19 production models, some were only prototypes. The production model immediately before the Model T was the Model S, a version of the companys largest success to that point. The follow-up was the Ford Model A, the company publicity said this was because the new car was such a departure from the old that Henry wanted to start all over again with the letter A. The Model T was Fords first automobile mass-produced on moving assembly lines with completely interchangeable parts, Henry Ford said of the vehicle, I will build a car for the great multitude. It will be enough for the family, but small enough for the individual to run. It will be constructed of the best materials, by the best men to be hired, after the simplest designs that modern engineering can devise. But it will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one –, although credit for the development of the assembly line belongs to Ransom E. The Model T was designed by Childe Harold Wills, and Hungarian immigrants Joseph A. Galamb, Henry Love, C. J. Smith, Gus Degner and Peter E. Martin were also part of the team. Production of the Model T began in the quarter of 1908. Collectors today sometimes classify Model Ts by build years and refer to these as model years and this is a retroactive classification scheme, the concept of model years as we conceive it today did not exist at the time. The nominal model designation was Model T, although design revisions did occur during the two decades of production. The Model T had a front-mounted 177-cubic-inch inline four-cylinder engine, producing 20 hp, according to Ford Motor Company, the Model T had fuel economy on the order of 13–21 mpg‑US
2.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
3.
Antique
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An antique is a collectable item, at least 100 years old. It is collected or desirable because of its age, beauty, rarity, condition, utility, personal emotional connection and it is an object that represents a previous era or time period in human society. It is common practice to define antique as applying to objects at least 100 years old, antiques are usually objects that show some degree of craftsmanship—or a certain attention to design, such as a desk or an early automobile. They are bought at shops, estate sales, auction houses, online auctions. Antique dealers often belong to trade associations, many of which belong to CINOA. Motor vehicles are an exception to the 100-year rule, the customary definition of antique requires that an item be at least 100 years old and in original condition. In the United States, the 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act defined antiques as,1830 was the approximate beginning of mass production in the United States. These definitions were intended to allow people of that time to distinguish between genuine antique pieces, vintage items, and collectible objects, commonly refers to the remains of ancient art and everyday items from antiquity, which themselves are often archaeological artifacts. An antiquarian is a person who collects and studies antiquities or things of the past, traditionally, Chinese antiques are marked by a red seal, known as a chop, placed there by an owner. Experts can identify previous owners of an antique by reading the chops, the pre-revolution Chinese government tried to assist collectors of Chinese antiques by requiring their Department of Antiquities to provide a governmental chop on the bottom of a Chinese antique. This chop is visible as a piece of red sealing wax that bears the government chop to verify the date of the antique, the government of the Peoples Republic of China has its own definitions of what it considers antique. As of the Cultural Revolution and Chinas opening trade to other countries, antiquing is the act of shopping, identifying, negotiating, or bargaining for antiques. People buy items for use, gifts, or profit. Sources for antiquing include garage sales and yard sales, estate sales, resort towns, antique districts, collectives, note that antiquing also means the craft of making an object appear antique through distressing or applying an antique-looking paint applications. Often, individuals get confused between these handmade distressed vintage or modern items and true antiques, if you can not tell the difference between the two, you may find yourself paying a high amount of money for something that has little value in the antiquing industry. Antique furniture is an area of antiques because furniture has obvious practical uses as well as collector value. Many collectors use pieces in their homes, and care for them with the hope that they hold their value or appreciate and this is in contrast to buying new furniture, which typically depreciates from the moment of purchase. Antique furniture includes dining tables, chairs, bureaus, chests etc, the most common woods are mahogany, oak, pine, walnut, and rosewood
4.
Antique vehicle registration
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Antique vehicle registration is a special form of motor vehicle registration for vehicles that are considered antique, classic, vintage, or historic. Both the specific term used and the definition of a vehicle vary from country to country. Typically, a vehicle is defined by its age at the time at which antique vehicle registration is sought. Antique vehicle registration may provide benefits, such as a reduced or waived registration fee, exemption from vehicle inspection. However, the privilege of driving the vehicle may be significantly curtailed. Commuting to and from work is forbidden in Virginia. As of 2009, Tennessee allows transfer of an existing antique tag from a vehicle by the selling owner to another antique vehicle owned by the same owner. Connecticut has no driving or registration restrictions on autos so registered, in Sweden there are no specific limits and the requirement for a yearly vehicle inspection is reduced to a bi-annual. The special license plate may take the form of a newly manufactured license plate with a such as Antique, Historic, Early American. The license plate has a number sequence from ordinary license plates. Virginia has two series of plates, one of which is designed to look old. Alternatively, under circumstances, the special license plate may be an authentic license plate from the same year as the model year of the car. Virginia allows the use of such plates if they are embossed with the appropriate year, as of 2009 Tennessee allows the registration of an antique vehicle with age appropriate antique tag within certain guidelines and with use restrictions as above. While the YOM law allows vehicle owners to display the vehicles as they were when first produced, Antique motor vehicles and trailers, from the Virginia Department of Motor Vehicles
5.
History of the automobile
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The early history of the automobile can be divided into a number of eras, based on the prevalent means of propulsion. Later periods were defined by trends in exterior styling, size, in 1807 François Isaac de Rivaz designed the first car powered by an internal combustion engine fueled by hydrogen. Marcus created the two-cycle combustion engine, the cars second incarnation in 1880 introduced a four-cycle, gasoline-powered engine, an ingenious carburetor design and magneto ignition. He created an additional two models further refining his design with steering, a clutch and brakes, the four-stroke petrol internal combustion engine that still constitutes the most prevalent form of modern automotive propulsion was patented by Nikolaus Otto. The similar four-stroke diesel engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel, the hydrogen fuel cell, one of the technologies hailed as a replacement for gasoline as an energy source for cars, was discovered in principle by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838. The battery electric car owes its beginnings to Ányos Jedlik, one of the inventors of the motor, and Gaston Planté. In 1886, Karl Benz developed a petrol or gasoline powered automobile and this is also considered to be the first production vehicle as Benz made several other identical copies. The automobile was powered by a single two stroke engine. The early history of the automobile was concentrated on the search for a portable power unit to propel the vehicle. Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China and it was small scale and could not carry a driver but it was, quite possibly, the first working steam-powered vehicle. Steam-powered self-propelled vehicles large enough to people and cargo were first devised in the late 18th century. Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à vapeur, an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor, as Cugnots design proved to be impractical, his invention was not developed in his native France. The center of innovation shifted to Great Britain, by 1784, William Murdoch had built a working model of a steam carriage in Redruth and in 1801 Richard Trevithick was running a full-sized vehicle on the roads in Camborne. The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789, during the 19th century attempts were made to introduce practical steam powered vehicles. Innovations such as brakes, multi-speed transmissions and better steering developed. This effectively halted road auto development in the UK for most of the rest of the 19th century, the law was not repealed until 1896, although the need for the red flag was removed in 1878. In 1816, a professor at Prague Polytechnic, Josef Bozek, walter Hancock, builder and operator of London steam buses, in 1838 built a four-seat steam phaeton. In 1867, Canadian jeweller Henry Seth Taylor demonstrated his 4-wheeled steam buggy at the Stanstead Fair in Stanstead, Quebec, the basis of the buggy, which he began building in 1865, was a high-wheeled carriage with bracing to support a two-cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor
6.
Brass Era car
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The Brass Era is an American term for the early period of automotive manufacturing, named for the prominent brass fittings used during this time for such things as lights and radiators. It is generally considered to encompass 1896 through 1915, a time when vehicles were often referred to as horseless carriages. Within the 20 years that make up this era, the experimental designs. This system specified front-engined, rear-wheel drive internal combustion engined cars with a sliding gear transmission, in the early part of this period steam car development had advanced, and they were among the fastest road vehicles in that period. Electric cars also held a market throughout the era. Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the worlds attention, key developments included the electric ignition system, independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes. Leaf springs were used for suspension, though many other systems were still in use. Safety glass also made its debut, patented by John Wood in England in 1905, angle steel took over from armored wood as the frame material of choice, and in 1912, Hupp pioneered the use of all-steel bodies, joined in 1914 by Dodge. In January,1904, Frank Leslies Popular Monthly magazine catalogued the entire range of available to the mass market in the United States. In both instances, however, the great majority faded out of the once the industry had become firmly established. As late as 1917, there were 127 different makes of American automobiles on the market, a great many more names, including Brush, Duryea, Alco, Speedwell, and Waverly, had already disappeared from the scene by 1917. Sixty Years with Men and Machines, New York and London, McGraw-Hill, available as a reprint from Lindsay Publications. Csere, Csaba,10 Best Engineering Breakthroughs, Car and Driver,33, cars, 1886–1930, New York, Beekman House, distributed by Crown, ISBN 0-517-48073-5
7.
Vintage car
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A vintage car is, in the most general sense, an old automobile, and in the narrower senses of car enthusiasts and collectors, it is a car from the period of 1919 to 1930. Such enthusiasts have categorization schemes for ages of cars that enforce distinctions between antique cars, vintage cars, classic cars, and so on, the classification criteria vary, but consensus within any country is often maintained by major car clubs. The vintage era in the world was a time of transition. The car started off in 1919 as still something of a rarity, in fact, automobile production at the end of this period was not matched again until the 1950s. In todays terms, a car is defined the same as a classic. Cars became much more practical, convenient and comfortable during this period, car heating was introduced, as was the in-car radio. Four-wheel braking from a foot pedal was introduced, as was the use of hydraulically actuated brakes. Towards the end of the era, the system of octane rating of fuel was introduced. Alfred P. Sloan and Harley Earl of General Motors, Chrysler capitalized on advertising the automobile’s role in the life of the consumer for more than just the utilitarian value compared with the horse. The stock market crash of 1929 started the layoff of workers and many new companies went bankrupt. The Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 was the first federal highway act, war and lack of funding hampered any positive results of this act. The Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 started a 50/50 matching fund to states for road building and resulted in the creation of new, during this period as well as the car adapting to society, there were better roads, and society began to adapt to the car. From 1919 to 1929, many changes took place. General Motors went into a crisis that lasted until after Alfred Sloan became president in 1923. Hudson produced the Essex in 1919 that, by 1925, had propelled the company to third in sales behind Ford. Ford was in the process of building a new plant, buying back stock, in 1921 Maxwell failed and Walter P. Chrysler, formerly of General Motors, was brought in to reorganize it and, in 1925, the Chrysler Corporation was formed. There were other automakers that made it past the 1920-1921 depression only to fail during the Great Depression, Antique automobiles and early to middle era classic cars do not have the safety features that are standard on modern cars. The most rudimentary of safety features, front wheel brakes and hydraulic brakes, for the average person car collecting is a hobby
8.
Classic car
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A classic car is an older automobile, the exact definition varies around the world. The common theme is of a car with enough historical interest to be collectable. Cars 100 years and older typically fall into the antique class, organizations such as the Classic Car Club of America and the Antique Automobile Club of America maintain a list of eligible unmodified cars that are called classic. These are described as fine or distinctive automobile, either American or foreign built, in the UK, classic cars range from veteran, to vintage, to post-vintage. Post–Second World War classic cars are not precisely defined and the term is applied to any older vehicle. The classic term is applied loosely by owners to any car. Legally, most states have time-based rules for the definition of historic or classic for purposes such as vehicle registration. Despite this, at many American classic car shows, automobiles typically range from the 1920s to the 1970s, recently, many 1980s and even early 1990s cars are considered being classic automobiles. Examples of cars at such shows include the Chevrolet Bel-Air, Ford Model T, Dodge Charger, Ford Deuce Coupe, meanwhile, the Concours dElegance car shows feature prestigious automobiles such as the Cadillac V16 or pre-1940 Rolls-Royce models. There are also terms as modern customs, exotics, or collectibles that cover such as the AMC Gremlin or Ford Pinto. There are differences in the identification of a classic car. Division by separate eras include, horseless carriages, antique cars, some also include muscle cars, with the 1974 model year as the cutoff. The Classic Car Club of America describes a CCCA Classic as a fine or distinctive automobile, either American or foreign built, the CCCA is dedicated to the preservation and enjoyment of select cars that are distinguished by their respective fine design, high engineering standards and superior workmanship. The cars on their list represent the pinnacle of engineering, styling, any CCCA member may petition for a vehicle to join the list. Such applications are carefully scrutinized, but rarely is a new vehicle type admitted, moreover, no commercial vehicles such as hearses, ambulances, or race cars are accepted as a Full Classic. The CCCA maintains this definition of car and uses terms such as CCCA Classic or the trademarked Full Classic. The CCCA has estimated that 1,366,843 American Classics were built, judging by the AACA evaluates such vehicles to be in historic or that have been restored to the same state as the dealer could have prepared the vehicle for delivery to the customer. Specified AACA classic vehicles include fine or unusual domestic or foreign automobiles primarily built between and including the years 1925 and 1942, there is no fixed definition of a classic car
9.
Christmas
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In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar and this is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse, the date is exactly nine months following Annunciation, when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, the economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world. Christmas is a form of Christs mass. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, crīst is from Greek Khrīstos, a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ, Messiah, meaning anointed, and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal, it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. In addition to Christmas, the holiday has been known by other names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as midwinter, or, more rarely, Nativity, meaning birth, is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola referred to the corresponding to December and January. Noel entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis, the canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census and it says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels, the first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, the feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day
10.
Richard Trevithick
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Richard Trevithick was a British inventor and mining engineer from Cornwall, England. The son of a captain, and born in the mining heartland of Cornwall. He performed poorly in school, but went on to be a pioneer of steam-powered road. His most significant contribution was the development of the first high-pressure steam engine and he also built the first full-scale working railway steam locomotive. Turning his interests abroad, Trevithick also worked as a consultant in Peru. Throughout his professional career, he went through ups and downs. During the prime of his career, he was a well-respected and known figure in mining and engineering, Richard Trevithick was born at Tregajorran, between Camborne and Redruth, in the heart of one of the rich mineral mining areas of Cornwall. He was the child and the only boy in a family of six children. He was very tall for the era at 6 ft 2in, as well as athletic, an exception was arithmetic, for which he had an aptitude, but arrived at the correct answers by unconventional means. Trevithick was the son of mine captain Richard Trevithick and of miners daughter Ann Teague, as a child he would watch steam engines pump water from the deep tin and copper mines in Cornwall. For a time he was a neighbour to William Murdoch, the steam carriage pioneer, Trevithick first went to work at the age of 19 at the East Stray Park Mine. He was enthusiastic and quickly gained the status as a consultant and he was popular with the miners because of the respect they had for his father. In 1797, Trevithick married Jane Harvey of Hayle and his company became famous worldwide for building huge stationary beam engines for pumping water, usually from mines, based on Newcomens and Watts engines. Until this time, such engines were of the condensing or atmospheric type, originally invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Trevithick became engineer at the Ding Dong Mine in 1797, and he worked on building and modifying steam engines to avoid the royalties due to Watt on the separate condenser patent. He also experimented with the pump, a type of pump – with a beam engine – used widely in Cornwalls tin mines. He was not the first to think of so-called strong steam, William Murdoch had developed and demonstrated a model steam carriage, starting in 1784, and demonstrated it to Trevithick at his request in 1794. In fact, Trevithick lived next door to Murdoch in Redruth in 1797 and 1798, Oliver Evans in the U. S. had also concerned himself with the concept, but there is no indication that his ideas had ever come to Trevithicks attention
11.
Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot
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Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot was a French inventor who built the first working self-propelled land-based mechanical vehicle, the worlds first automobile. Cugnot was born in Void-Vacon, Lorraine, France and he trained as a military engineer. In 1765 he began experimenting with working models of steam-engine-powered vehicles for the French Army, French Army Captain Cugnot was one of the first to successfully employ a device for converting the reciprocating motion of a steam piston into a rotary motion by means of a ratchet arrangement. A small version of his three-wheeled fardier à vapeur was made, in 1770, a full-size version of the fardier à vapeur was built, specified to be able to carry four tons and cover two lieues in one hour, a performance it never achieved in practice. The vehicle weighed about 2.5 tonnes tare, and had two wheels at the rear and one in the front where the horses would normally have been, the front wheel supported a steam boiler and driving mechanism. The power unit was articulated to the trailer, and was steered from there by means of a double handle arrangement, one source states that it seated four passengers and moved at a speed of 2.25 miles per hour. The vehicle was reported to have very unstable due to poor weight distribution. This would have been a disadvantage since the fardier was intended to be able to traverse rough terrain. In 1771 the second vehicle is said to have out of control and knocked down part of the Arsenal walls. However, according to Georges Ageon, the earliest mention of this occurrence was thirty years later, in 1801, in addition to the weight distribution problem, boiler performance was also particularly poor, even by the standards of the day. The vehicles fire needed to be relit, and its steam raised again, every quarter of an hour or so, after running a small number of trials, variously described as being between Paris and Vincennes and at Meudon, the project was abandoned. This ended the French Armys first experiment with mechanical vehicles, even so, in 1772, King Louis XV granted Cugnot a pension of 600 livres a year for his innovative work, and the experiment was judged interesting enough for the fardier to be kept at the Arsenal. In 1800 it was transferred to the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers,241 years later, in 2010, a copy of the fardier de Cugnot was built by pupils at the Arts et Métiers ParisTech, a French Grande école, and the city of Void-Vacon. This replica worked perfectly, proving that the concept was viable and verifying the truth and this replica was exhibited at the 2010 Paris Motor Show. It is now exhibited by an organization in the native village of Cugnot, at Void-Vacon. With the French Revolution, Cugnots pension was withdrawn in 1789, and the inventor went into exile in Brussels, shortly before his death he was invited back to France by Napoleon Bonaparte, and eventually returned to Paris, where he died on 2 October 1804. History of steam road vehicles Max J. B, biography of Cugnot from World of Invention
12.
Karl Benz
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Karl Friedrich Benz was a German engine designer and automobile engineer. His Benz Patent Motorcar from 1885 is considered the first practical motorcar and he received a patent for the Motorcar on 29 January 1886. According to German law, the acquired the name Benz by legal marriage of his parents Benz. When he was two old, his father died of pneumonia, and his name was changed to Karl Friedrich Benz in remembrance of his father. Despite living in poverty, his mother strove to give him a good education. Benz attended the local Grammar School in Karlsruhe and was a prodigious student, in 1853, at the age of nine he started at the scientifically oriented Lyceum. Next he studied at the Poly-Technical University under the instruction of Ferdinand Redtenbacher, Benz had originally focused his studies on locksmithing, but he eventually followed his fathers steps toward locomotive engineering. On 30 September 1860, at age 15, he passed the exam for mechanical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe. Benz graduated 9 July 1864 aged 19, during these years, while riding his bicycle, he started to envision concepts for a vehicle that would eventually become the horseless carriage. Following his formal education, Benz had seven years of training in several companies. The training started in Karlsruhe with two years of varied jobs in an engineering company. He then moved to Mannheim to work as a draftsman and designer in a scales factory, in 1868 he went to Pforzheim to work for a bridge building company Gebrüder Benckiser Eisenwerke und Maschinenfabrik. Finally, he went to Vienna for a period to work at an iron construction company. In 1871, at the age of twenty-seven, Karl Benz joined August Ritter in launching the Iron Foundry and Mechanical Workshop in Mannheim, the enterprises first year went very badly. Ritter turned out to be unreliable, and the tools were impounded. The difficulty was overcome when Benzs fiancée, Bertha Ringer, bought out Ritters share in the company using her dowry, on 20 July 1872, Karl Benz and Bertha Ringer married. They had five children, Eugen, Richard, Clara, Thilde, despite the business misfortunes, Karl Benz led in the development of new engines in the early factory he and his wife owned. To get more revenues, in 1878 he began to work on new patents, first, he concentrated all his efforts on creating a reliable petrol two-stroke engine
13.
Charles Duryea
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Charles Edgar Duryea was the engineer of the first-ever working American gasoline-powered car and co-founder of Duryea Motor Wagon Company. It was in Springfield that Charles and his brother, Frank and he was born on December 15,1861 near Canton, Illinois to George Washington Duryea and Louisa Melvina Turner. Generally speaking, Charles engineered the automobiles, while Frank built, on September 20,1893, the Duryea Brothers road-tested the first-ever, working American gasoline-powered automobile in a portion of Springfield, Massachusetts that is now located in another town. The Duryeas motor wagon was a horse drawn buggy that the brothers had purchased for $70 and into which they had installed a 4 HP. The car had a transmission, spray carburetor and low tension ignition. Frank Duryea test drove it again on November 10 — this time in a prominent location, the next day it was reported by The Republican newspaper with great fanfare. This particular car was put into storage in 1894 and stayed there until 1920 and he was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1973. On November 28,1895 in Chicago, their vehicle, driven by brother Frank, had won Americas first car race and it ran to Evanston, Illinois and back. The only other finisher was one of three Benz cars mostly made in Germany, after Frank won, demand grew for the Duryea Motor Wagon. For the history of the company and its cars, see Duryea Motor Wagon Company, Charles Duryea sought out investors and buyers while his brother, Frank Duryea, primarily handled the mechanical side of the business. A Duryea car was involved in the worlds first known auto accident, New York City motorist Henry Wells hit a bicyclist with his new Duryea. The rider suffered a leg, Wells spent a night in jail. Due to low production and extraordinarily pricey cars, e. g. in 1913, George Vanderbilt purchased and drove a Stevens-Duryea and his 1913 Duryea is Vanderbilts only original car kept at his Biltmore Estate. Charles Duryea died of an attack in Philadelphia on September 28,1938 and was buried in Ivy Hill Cemetery. The annual Duryea Hillclimb is named in his honor, elwood Haynes, also credited with first gasoline automobile Duryea, Charles, Homans, James E. The Automoble Book Sturgis & Walton, New York, at Open Library, Charles Duryea at Find a Grave
14.
Elwood Haynes
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Elwood Haynes was an American inventor, metallurgist, automotive pioneer, entrepreneur and industrialist. He invented the metal alloys stellite and martensitic stainless steel and designed one of the earliest automobiles made in the United States and he made many advances in the automotive industry. Early in his career, while serving as a superintendent at gas and oil companies during Indianas gas boom. In 1912, he formed Haynes Stellite Company to produce one of the new alloys and received lucrative contracts during World War I, making Haynes a millionaire in 1916. He sold his patent for stainless steel to the American Stainless Steel Company in exchange for stock to gain a seat at the companys board of directors. He merged the Haynes Stellite company with Union Carbide in 1920, and after passing through different owners, Haynes returned his focus to his automotive company, but in the economic recession of the 1920s the business went bankrupt and was liquidated. An outspoken advocate of prohibition, he made donations to the Prohibition Party. Haynes ran an campaign in Indiana for the U. S. Senate in 1916 as a prohibition candidate. Later, he became a philanthropist and served two terms as president of the YMCA, five years on the Indiana Board of Education, and was an active member of the Presbyterian church. Haynes was born on October 14,1857, in Portland, Indiana and his family was of English descent, he was a ninth-generation descendant of Walter Haynes who immigrated from Wiltshire, England to Sudbury, Massachusetts in 1638. His father was Jay Countys school commissioner, a lawyer, Whig politician, both of Haynes parents were dedicated Presbyterians and outspoken prohibitionists and educated their children from a young age to avoid liquor. His mother was the founder of a local Womens Temperance Movement Union and his paternal grandfather Henry Haynes was a gunsmith and mechanic, and tutored Haynes about metallurgy. In 1866, the family moved from their house in Portland into the countryside outside of town where they purchased a larger home to better accommodate their growing number of children. At age 12, Haynes built his first vehicle from scrap car parts. The local railroad foreman did not approve and later seized the vehicle, as a child, Haynes had an interest in chemistry and metallurgy and when he was 15 he built a smelting furnace and began working with copper, bronze, and iron. Haynes was also interested in nature and spent considerable time in the forest cataloging and observing plants, insects, because he spent so much time there, his family nicknamed him Wood, a nickname they used for most of his life. As he grew older, he became a reader of books, including Principles of Natural Philosophy. His early experiments and studies interested him in the properties of matter
15.
Ransom E. Olds
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Ransom Eli Olds was a pioneer of the American automotive industry, for whom both the Oldsmobile and REO brands were named. He claimed to have built his first steam car as early as 1894, the modern assembly line and its basic concept is credited to Olds, who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash, beginning in 1901. Olds was born in Geneva, Ohio, the youngest son of blacksmith and pattern-maker Pliny Fiske Olds and his wife and his parents moved the family to Cleveland, Ohio, when Olds was still a boy. He eventually settled in Lansing, Michigan, where he married Metta Ursula Woodward on June 5,1889 and he was of English ancestry with the first paternal line coming from Dorset, England in 1667. He founded the Olds Motor Vehicle Company in Lansing, Michigan, the company was bought by a copper and lumber magnate named Samuel L. Smith in 1899 and renamed Olds Motor Works. The new company was relocated from Lansing to Detroit, Smith became President while Olds became vice president and general manager. By 1901 Olds had built 11 prototype vehicles, including at least one of each mode, steam, electricity. He was the only American automotive pioneer to produce and sell at least one of each mode of automobile, on March 9,1901, the Olds Motor Works factory burned to the ground. Only one model, the little Curved Dash runabout, was saved from the flames, Ransom Olds claimed it was the fire that made him select the runabout, from among his many other models, to put into production. His biographer questions the veracity of this story and he points to an Olds advertising blitz that had already led to more than 300 Curved Dash orders even before the fire took place. Olds did not need the one rescued car from which to reconstruct the plans and patterns for the runabout, later that year, Olds had his companys test driver, Roy Chapin, drive a Curved Dash runabout to the second annual New York Automobile Show. Along the way, Chapin opted to drive up onto the Erie Canal tow path to escape the mire of New York state roads, after eight days of driving, he reached the Waldorf Astoria hotel but was turned away at the door. His mud-spattered attire was so disreputable that he was sent to the entrance in back. During the auto show his employer, Ransom Olds, pushed hard to make sales, when one dealer offered to purchase 500, Olds retorted, I would like to see you make this order for a thousand cars. Then the public would drop its jaw and take notice, the deal was signed, and though the dealer ended up selling only 750 to the public, it was the original number that everyone remembered. The Curved Dash Oldsmobile sold for $650, equal to $18,712 today, about 600 were sold in 1901, about 3,000 in 1902 and at least 4,000 in 1904. It was this car, rather than Henry Fords Model T and he went on to form the R. E. Its name was changed to REO Motor Car Company to avoid a lawsuit from the Olds Motor Works
16.
Charles Brady King
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Charles Brady King was an American engineer and entrepreneur remembered as an automotive pioneer, artist, etcher, musician, poet, architect, mystic, industrialist and inventor. King was the first person in Detroit to design, build, the Detroit Journal of March 7,1896, reports that King drove his motor-powered vehicle down Woodward Avenue – being the first person in Detroit to build and drive such a vehicle. The Journal also reports King made and sold the first complete automobile in Detroit, King was born February 2,1868, at Camp Reynolds on Angel Island, California. His father was a Civil War Union Army general, General John Haskell King, davenport, from the New England family line of Davenports that settled in Detroit. King was first sent to Trinity College in Port Hope for two years, then went to Cascadilla School in Ithaca, New York, for preparation for entrance to Cornell University, then in 1887 he entered Cornell, but was only there for two years. He moved to Detroit around 1888 or 1889 at the age of 20 and his first full-time job was as a draftsman at Michigan Car Company in Detroit. King started designing and building his first car from the time of the Chicago Worlds Fair of 1893 and he test drove his first car in Detroit in front of hundreds of spectators on March 6,1896, at speeds up to seven miles per hour. It was powered by a Sintz engine, the time was just before 11 P. M. The route that King did started from a building on St. Antoine Street, when he arrived at Jefferson Avenue he turned right. After passing by several businesses he arrived at Woodward Avenue and he turned right again onto that street. He again passed by several businesses and then stopped for a time at Cadillac Square at the Russell House hotel. Henry Ford was present when King demonstrated his horseless carriage, riding a bicycle behind, King showed to the Detroit public his car, which probably was the first in Michigan, however not the first in the world nor even the first in the United States. King served as a mentor to Henry Ford, Ransom E. Olds and their gasoline powered automobiles came out months later. He did secret road tests in 1895, prior to public display. King joined the Olds Motor Works around 1900, but resigned after their plant burned down and he then joined the Northern Manufacturing Company in 1902 and in 1903 became their chief engineer until 1908. One well known car he designed was the two-cylinder Silent Northern – the automobile with the first integrated motor and transmission assembly, the 1907 Northern car model also had three-point engine suspension, air brakes, an air-controlled clutch and other innovations new to the auto industry of the time. King went to Europe for two years to study design in 1908. When he came back in 1910 he started the King Motor Car Company with the knowledge he acquired and he was the first automaker to make cars with left-hand steering
17.
Henry Ford
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Henry Ford was an American industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, and the sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production. Although Ford invented neither the nor the assembly line, he developed and manufactured the first automobile that many middle class Americans could afford. In doing so, Ford converted the automobile from an expensive curiosity into a practical conveyance that would impact the landscape of the 20th Century. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry, as the owner of the Ford Motor Company, he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with Fordism, mass production of inexpensive goods coupled with high wages for workers, Ford had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the Ford Foundation, Ford was also widely known for his pacifism during the first years of World War I, and for promoting antisemitism through his newspaper The Dearborn Independent and the book The International Jew. Henry Ford was born July 30,1863, on a farm in Greenfield Township, Henry Fords siblings were Margaret Ford, Jane Ford, William Ford and Robert Ford. His father gave him a watch in his early teens. At 15, Ford dismantled and reassembled the timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times, at twenty, Ford walked four miles to their Episcopal church every Sunday. Ford was devastated when his mother died in 1876 and his father expected him to eventually take over the family farm, but he despised farm work. He later wrote, I never had any love for the farm—it was the mother on the farm I loved. In 1879, Ford left home to work as an apprentice machinist in Detroit, flower & Bros. and later with the Detroit Dry Dock Co. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and he was later hired by Westinghouse to service their steam engines. During this period Ford also studied bookkeeping at Goldsmith, Bryant & Stratton Business College in Detroit, Ford married Clara Jane Bryant on April 11,1888 and supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had one child, Edsel Ford, in 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company. After his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and these experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of a self-propelled vehicle which he named the Ford Quadricycle. He test-drove it on June 4, after various test drives, Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle. Also in 1896, Ford attended a meeting of Edison executives, Edison approved of Fords automobile experimentation
18.
Makarska
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Makarska is a small city on the Adriatic coastline of Croatia, about 60 km southeast of Split and 140 km northwest of Dubrovnik. It has a population of 13,834 residents, administratively Makarska has the status of a city and it is part of the Split-Dalmatia County. Makarska is a tourist centre, located on a horseshoe shaped bay between the Biokovo mountains and the Adriatic Sea, the city is noted for its palm-fringed promenade, where cafes, bars and boutiques overlook the harbour. Adjacent to the beach are several large capacity hotels as well as a camping ground, Makarska is the center of the Makarska Riviera, a popular tourist destination under the Biokovo mountain. It stretches for 60 km between the towns of Brela and Gradac, Makarska experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. Winters are warm and wet, while Summers are hot and dry, Makarska is one of the warmest cities in Croatia. Vegetation is of the evergreen Mediterranean type, and subtropical flora grow in the city, near present-day Makarska, there was a settlement as early as the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. It is thought that it was a point used by the Cretans on their way up to the Adriatic, however it was only one of the ports with links with the wider Mediterranean, as shown by a copper tablet with Cretan and Egyptian systems of measurement. A similar tablet was found in the Egyptian pyramids, in the Illyrian era this region was part of the broader alliance of tribes, led by the Ardaeans, founded in the third century BC in the Cetina area down to the River Vjosë in present-day Albania. Although the Romans became rulers of the Adriatic by defeating the Ardiaei in 228, the Romans sent their veteran soldiers to settle in Makarska. After the division of the Empire in 395, this part of the Adriatic became part of the Eastern Roman Empire and it appears on the acts of the Salonan Synod of 4 May 533 AD held in Salona, when also the towns diocese was created. During the Migration Period, in 548, Muccurum was destroyed by the army of the Ostrogoth king Totila, the byzantine Emperor expelled the Eastern Goths. In the 7th century the region between the Cetina and Neretva was occupied by the Narentines, with Mokro, located in todays Makarska, the principality was annexed to the Kingdom of Croatia in the 12th century, and was conquered by the Republic of Venice a century later. Making use of the rivalry between the Croatian leaders and their struggles, the Bosnian Ban Stjepan II Kotromanić annexed the Makarska coastal area. There were many changes of rulers here, from the Croatian and Bosnian feudal lords, in the eventful 15th century the Ottomans conquered the Balkans. In order to protect his territory from the Turks, Duke Stjepan Vukčić Kosača handed the region to the Venetians in 1452, the Makarska coastal area fell to the Turks in 1499. Under the Ottoman rule, the city was surrounded with walls that had three towers, the name Makarska was cited for the first time in a 1502 document telling how nuns from Makarska were permitted to repair their church. The Turks had links with all parts of the Adriatic via Makarska, in 1568 they built a fortress as defence against the Venetians
19.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
20.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
21.
Evanston, Illinois
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It is one of the North Shore communities that adjoin Lake Michigan and is the home of Northwestern University. The boundaries of the city of Evanston are coterminous with those of the former Evanston Township, prior to the 1830s, the area now occupied by Evanston was mainly uninhabited, consisting largely of wetlands and swampy forest. However, Potawatomi Indians used trails along higher lying ridges that ran in a general direction through the area. French explorers referred to the area as Grosse Pointe after a point of land jutting into Lake Michigan about 13 miles north of the mouth of the Chicago River. The area remained sparsely settled, supporting some farming and lumber activity on some of the higher ground. The 1850 census shows a few hundred settlers in this township, in 1851, a group of Methodist business leaders founded Northwestern University and Garrett Biblical Institute. They chose a bluffed and wooded site along the lake as Northwesterns home, purchasing several hundred acres of land from Dr. John Foster, a Chicago farm owner. In 1854, the founders of Northwestern submitted to the county judge their plans for a city to be named Evanston after John Evans, in 1857, the request was granted. The township of Evanston was split off from Ridgeville Township, at approximately the same time, the nine founders, including John Evans, Orrington Lunt, and Andrew Brown, hoped their university would attain high standards of intellectual excellence. Today these hopes have been fulfilled, as Northwestern consistently ranks with the best of the nations universities, Evanston was formally incorporated as a town on December 29,1863, but declined in 1869 to become a city despite the Illinois legislature passing a bill for that purpose. Evanston expanded after the Civil War with the annexation of the village of North Evanston, finally, in early 1892, following the annexation of the village of South Evanston, voters elected to organize as a city. The 1892 boundaries are largely those that exist today, during the 1960s, Northwestern University changed the citys shoreline by adding a 74-acre lakefill. In 1939, Evanston hosted the first NCAA basketball championship final at Northwestern Universitys Patten Gymnasium, in August 1954, Evanston hosted the second assembly of the World Council of Churches, still the only WCC assembly to have been held in the United States. President Dwight Eisenhower welcomed the delegates, and Dag Hammarskjöld, secretary-general of the United Nations, Evanston first received power in April 1893. Many people lined the streets on Emerson St. where the first appearance of lights were lined and turned on. Evanston is the birthplace of Tinkertoys, and Evanston, along with Ithaca, New York, Two Rivers, Wisconsin, Evanston was the home of the Clayton Mark and Company, which for many years supplied the most jobs. Evanston was a dry community from 1858 until 1972, when the City Council voted to allow restaurants, in 1984, the Council voted to allow retail liquor outlets within the city limits. According to the 2010 census, Evanston has an area of 7.802 square miles
22.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
23.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
24.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
25.
Edwardian era
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The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the end of the Victorian era. The new king Edward VII was already the leader of an elite that set a style influenced by the art. The Liberals returned to power in 1906 and made significant reforms, below the upper class, the era was marked by significant shifts in politics among sections of society that had been largely excluded from wielding power in the past, such as common labourers. The Edwardian period is sometimes imagined as a golden age of long summer afternoons and garden parties. This perception was created in the 1920s and later by those who remembered the Edwardian age with nostalgia, the Edwardian age was also seen as a mediocre period of pleasure between the great achievements of the preceding Victorian age and the catastrophe of the following war. Recent assessments emphasise the differences between the wealthy and the poor during the Edwardian era and describe the age as heralding great changes in political and social life. Robert Tressells popular novel The Ragged-Trousered Philanthropists is an example of the eras social critique. Despite this, this type of perception has been challenged more recently by modern historians, the British historian Lawrence James has argued that, during the early 20th century, the British felt increasingly threatened by rival powers such as Germany, Russia, and the United States. There was a political awareness of the working class, leading to a rise in trade unions. The aristocracy remained in control of top government offices, the Conservatives – at the time called Unionists – were dominant from the 1890s to 1906. The party had many strengths, appealing to voters supportive of imperialism, tariffs, the Church of England, a powerful Royal Navy, and traditional hierarchical society. There was a powerful leadership base in the aristocracy and landed gentry in rural England, plus strong support from the Church of England. Historians have used election returns to demonstrate that Conservatives did surprisingly well in working-class districts and they had an appeal as well to the better-off element of traditional working class Britons in the larger cities. Nevertheless, the weaknesses were accumulating, and proved so overwhelming in 1906 that they did not return to power until 1922. The Conservative Party was losing its drive and enthusiasm, especially after the retirement of the charismatic Joseph Chamberlain, there was a bitter split on tariff reform, that drove many of the free traders over to the Liberal camp. Tariff reform was an issue that the Conservative leadership inexplicably clung to. Support among the top tier of the class, and in lower middle class weakened. The 1906 election was a landslide for the opposition, which saw its total vote jump 25 percent, the Liberal Party lacked a unified ideological base in 1906
26.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
27.
Preservation and restoration of automobiles
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Automobile restoration is the process of repairing the degraded aspect of an automobile to return it to an overall authentic condition. Restorations should be accurate as a representative example of the production model. In the U. S. a non-original restored car may be termed a restomod, a vehicle restoration is the process of reconditioning it from a used condition in an effort to return it to like-new condition. Can be refurbished using either original or reproduction parts and techniques, the objective is to preserve the historical aspects of the vehicle, its components, and assembly. Restoration is sometimes confused with the term restomod, a restomod has portions of the car as they were when the car was first offered for sale as well as significant changes. If any part of the car is updated, the car has been restomodded, and not restored, such as a nearly stock-appearing vehicle that has been fitted with late-model chassis, drivetrain, and conveniences. An original restoration puts a car in the condition as when it was first offered for sale. Another process is the re-creation, a vehicle that has modified to appear like another car or truck entirely. Examples include taking a popular model and restoring it to a more desirable, high demand for some special automobiles has also led to sophisticated fake replica versions. Repairs are made to correct problems, as well as for cosmetic reasons. Pressure treatment with preservative may be considered to safeguard against future wood rot, chrome and trim may require stripping and repair/refinishing. Fasteners with tool marks, damaged threads, or corrosion need re-plating or replacement-unless the car was sold that way. The frame must be cleaned and repaired if necessary. Abrasive blasting using less abrasive soda or crushed walnut shells is less likely than sandblasting to cause damage to fragile items, the interior of the vehicle should be examined and repaired or replaced to match those that were available from the factory. The seats must be repaired before being re-upholstered and the coil springs repaired, replaced, developments in technology have made it possible to salvage the original automobiles interior by various restoration processes. Examples of this include leather seat, dash, console, steering wheel, door panel, as part of the automotive restoration process, repair of the cars frame is important since in serves as the foundation for the entire car. Any problems must be repaired, which can be a costly process, for many popular cars, replacement frames can be purchased from parts suppliers specializing in that make of vehicle. This is often a better option than investing money into a severely damaged frame, depending on the frame construction, mud and water can make their way inside the frame and cause rusting from the inside out, so it can be seriously weakened with little or no external sign
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Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
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Microcar
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A microcar is the smallest automobile classification, usually applied to very small cars. Such small cars were referred to as cyclecars until the 1940s. More recent models are called bubble cars due to their bubble-shaped appearance. The definition of a microcar has varied considerably in different countries, since there are usually tax and/or licensing advantages to the classification, multiple restrictions are often imposed, starting with engine size. The Bruce Weiner Microcar Museum says Engine sizes of 700cc and less and 2 doors or less, may have all gears operable in reverse as well as in forward gear such as the Messerschmitt KR200. Fitted with lifting bodywork instead of doors, less than 85 cubic feet/2400 litres interior volume. There are also a variety of trucks, usually of the forward control or van style to provide more cargo room. These might be used for local deliveries on narrow streets where standard small pickup trucks would be inconvenient, a motorised quadricycle is a four-wheeled vehicle that can be registered as a motorcycle. They are analogous to mopeds or light motorcycles rather than cars, consequently, they can be driven by underage drivers or in some cases even without a license, and they are free of car taxes. Their speed is limited to ca.45 km/h either through a speed or power limit. The economy of operating such a car has also often been helped by three-wheeled microcars or cars with very small engines being treated as motorcycles for tax. In some countries, drivers of microcars are exempt from licensing conditions, the microcars may have a special category or may be considered motorcycles and therefore no car driving licence is needed. This assures a certain market among people who do not want to stand for, or who cannot pass an auto drivers licence test. More negatively, at least in Austria, Belgium and France, also, motorized quadricycles may be forbidden from motorways. In some European countries, taxes formerly depended on engine displacement and this has given rise to names of such cars as Citroën 2CV and Renault 4CV. Reduced global warming from carbon dioxide emission has now added to this list. In the UK before October 2000, a person who passed a motorcycle test was automatically granted a full sub-category B1 licence as an additional entitlement with the full Category A licence, since 2000 a provisional car licence has to be requested. Another advantage is the ease of parking, some microcars can be parked perpendicular, where other cars park parallel, or lifted by hand, like a motor scooter, to get into a tight spot
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City car
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A city car is a small car designed to be used primarily in urban areas and conurbations. The term is used along with terms for small cars including subcompact in North America. The Euro NCAP calls all small cars superminis, the European Commission refers to A-segment. In Japan, the kei car is a type of small car. The original concept for the city car came about as a result of the market for entry level vehicles in the 1920s and 1930s. The great depression caused the market for large, luxurious vehicles to collapse, as a result, manufactures had no choice but to build small, cheap vehicles that people could afford, similar to early 20th century runabouts. However, these vehicles were not specifically branded as vehicles to use in cities or congested areas and they were purely for use as peoples cars, cars designed to be cheap, sell a large number of units, and put people who had not owned cars on wheels. A number of small, cheap cars were sold before the war, including the 1920s Austin 7, 1930s Fiat 500 Topolino. However, these early microcars werent true city cars, most were designed, built, with the exception of a few examples, these were also not designed for specific use in cities. As the European economy improved, Fiat launched the new 500 in 1957 and in 1959, BMC would introduce its well-known city car, there were other new projects from 1969 through 1972. While many of these cars can be considered city cars today, exceptions are the smaller Fiats, especially the 1957 Fiat 500 and 126. They were in the region of 3.0 metres in length, in the 1970s the Citroën LNA and related three-door Peugeot 104 offered compact city sized cars of around 3.3 m, and the Fiat Panda followed in 1980. In Japan, regulations defining kei cars were established on 8 July 1949, production of compliant vehicles started around 1955–1958 by Daihatsu, Mitsubishi, Subaru, and Suzuki. In the late 1980s, superminis had physically grown so much that many buyers wanted even smaller four-seat cars, combined with an original exterior and interior design, it quickly became a best-seller, although it was not officially imported to right-hand drive markets including the United Kingdom. However, the Fiat Cinquecento, launched towards the end of 1991, was made for right-hand drive markets, in 1996, the Ford Ka was presented with its radical New Edge design. Its egg-shaped body did not leave much room in the rear seats and it was especially popular with British buyers. During the second half of the 1990s, South Korean brands Daewoo and Hyundai introduced their city car entries, both for the Asian and European markets. The Hyundai Atos, launched in 1997, was 3,500 millimetres long and 1,600 millimetres high and its boxy shape provoked mixed reactions
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Kei car
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Kei car, K-car, or kei jidōsha, is a Japanese category of small vehicles, including passenger cars, microvans, and pickup trucks. This especially advantaged class of cars was developed to popularize motorization in the postwar era, while successful in Japan, the genre is generally too specialized and too small to be profitable in export markets. The cars feature yellow license plates, earning them the name yellow-plate cars in English-speaking circles, because regulations only restrict physical size and engine displacement, manufacturers have been able to introduce many advanced technologies to the class. As a result, kei cars are available with forced-induction engines, automatic and CV transmissions, front-, rear-, and four-wheel drive, air conditioning, GPS. These standards originated in the following the end of the Second World War. To promote the growth of the car industry, as well as to offer a delivery method to small business and shop owners. Originally limited to a mere 150 cc in 1949, dimensions, in 1955, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry also set forth goals to develop a national car that was larger than kei cars produced at the time. This goal influenced Japanese automobile manufacturers to determine how best to focus their product development efforts for the kei cars. The small exterior dimensions and engine displacement reflected the driving environment in Japan, power outputs also kept climbing, reaching a peak in the 40 PS Daihatsu Fellow Max SS of July 1970. Sales increased steadily, reaching a peak of 750,000 in 1970, Honda and Mazda withdrew from the contracting passenger kei car market, in 1974 and 1976, respectively, although they both maintained a limited offering of commercial vehicles. Until 31 December 1974, kei cars used smaller license plates than regular cars, as of 1975, kei cars received the medium-sized standard plates. To set them apart from regular-sized cars, the plates were now yellow and black rather than white, sales had been steadily declining, reaching a low-water mark of 150,000 passenger cars in 1975, 80% less than 1970 sales. Many were beginning to doubt the existence of the kei car. The even stricter emissions standards which were to be introduced in 1975 as part of a program of cleaning the air proved problematic for kei car manufacturers. This was particularly hard for Daihatsu and Suzuki, which focused on two-stroke engines, tiny Suzuki was worse off, with the companys entire production consisting of two-stroke kei cars. Daihatsu, though, had both the engineering backing and powerful connections of their owner, Toyota, to aid them in meeting the new requirements. All manufacturers of kei cars were clamoring for relaxing the dimension conditions, in the end, the Japanese legislature relented, increasing the overall length and width restrictions by 200 mm and 100 mm, respectively. Engine size was increased to 550 cc, taking effect from January 1,1976, the new standards were announced on 26 August 1975, leaving very little time for manufacturers to update their offerings
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Subcompact car
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A subcompact car is the American term for an automobile with a class size smaller than a compact car, usually not exceeding 165 inches in length, but larger than a microcar. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, a car is classified as subcompact if it has between 85 cubic feet and 99 cu ft of interior volume. The subcompact segment equates roughly to A-segment and B-segment in Europe, or city car, in 2012, the New York Times described the differences, saying today’s small cars actually span three main segments in the global vehicle market. The tiny A-segment cars include the Chevrolet Spark and Smart Fortwo, they’re extremely short and very light. Slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevrolet Sonic, the A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts. Previously, cars in this size were variously categorized, including small automobile and this type of car has been around since the 1940s with the Crosley, and in the 1950s with the captive import, the Nash Metropolitan. A number of imported models, notably the Volkswagen Beetle and various small British cars, were marketed as economy cars during this time. The AMC Gremlin was described at its April 1970 introduction as the first American-built import, the Chevrolet Vega and Ford Pinto subcompacts were introduced in September 1970 for the 1971 model year. The Pontiac Astre, the Canadian-born re-badged Vega variant was released in the U. S, the Camaro was scheduled for cancellation, but sales stabilized with the end of the 1970s energy crisis. The Monza with its GM variants Pontiac Sunbird, Buick Skyhawk, Plymouth Turismo, Oldsmobile Starfire, at this time another segment started opening up below Gremlin, Pinto and Vega that became the new subcompact segment. The Chevrolet Chevette was GMs new entry-level subcompact introduced as a 1976 model and it was an Americanized design from Opel, GMs German subsidiary. S. Renault Alliance, a version of the Renault 9, in Kenosha, Wisconsin, during the 1990s GM offered the Geo brand featuring the Suzuki-built Metro subcompact. Because of consumer demand for fuel-efficient cars during the late-2000s, sales of cars made it the fastest growing market category in the U. S. The Ford Fiesta is still only European subcompact car ever offered in North America, and there are even subcompact SUVs like the Jeep Renegade and the Mazda CX-3 Car classification Mini SUV Economy car Official US government car size class definitions
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Supermini
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Supermini is a class of automobile larger than a city car but smaller than a small family car. Superminis are usually available in hatchback body styles, the term subcompact car is used for similar cars in North America. The term supermini developed in the U. K. in the 1970s as car manufacturers sought a new design to surpass the influential Mini, launched in 1959, while manufacturers produced new designs, the term was adopted as an informal categorisation. By 1977, the term supermini was used regularly by the British newspaper The Times and that year, two modern superminis - the Ford Fiesta and Vauxhall Chevette - featured among Britains 10 best selling cars. A new British car launch that year was the Chrysler Sunbeam supermini, also selling well were the Fiat 127, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Polo, as well as the Japanese built Datsun Cherry and the Peugeot 206. In October 1984, the Consumers Association used the term in its annual Car Buying Guide and it gave an explanation at the start of a section entitled Small Hatchbacks. It said small hatchbacks were known popularly as superminis and while similar to the Mini they were more spacious inside and this definition made clear that a supermini was something larger than a Mini yet smaller than a typical car of the time. In its 1984 report, it included such cars as the Austin Metro, Vauxhall Nova, the Fiat Uno, launched during the first half of 1983, was widely praised for its high roof which set new standards for interior space and practicality in this size of car. The Peugeot 205, also launched in 1983, won plaudits for its styling and excellent ride. By the mid-80s, the term had become established as a car classification term. After the arrival of the hugely popular Fiat Uno and Peugeot 205 in 1983, launched as replacement for the strong-selling, long-running Renault 5. The Fiat Punto, which replaced the Uno at the beginning of 1994, both the Clio and Punto were European Car of the Year award winners. The Peugeot 205 was gradually phased out following the launch of the smaller 106 in 1991 and the larger 306 in 1993, finally ceasing production in 1998 on the launch of the Peugeot 206. The Mk2 Nissan Micra, built by the Japanese carmaker at its facility near Sunderland. The Fiat 500, launched in 2007 on the 50th anniversary of the original model, a-segment C-segment Economy car Kei car Micro car / Bubble car Mini MPV Mini SUV Vehicle size class
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Family car
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A family car is a car classification used in Europe to describe normally-sized cars. The name comes from the suitability of these cars to carry a whole family locally or on vacations, most family cars are hatchbacks or sedans, although there are MPVs, estates and cabriolets with the same structure as with the other body style. The term covers two types of family cars, small family cars are between 4.30 m and 4.45 m long if they are hatchbacks, or between 4.40 m and 4.70 m if they are saloon or estate models. Since the 1990s there have been multi-purpose vehicle based on them, called compact MPVs like the Citroën C4 Picasso/Xsara Picasso and the Renault Scénic. Large family cars were usually around 4.50 m in length by the early 1990s, examples of large family cars include the Ford Mondeo, Opel/Vauxhall Insignia, Peugeot 508, and Volkswagen Passat. Large family cars can also be such as the Citroen C5, Honda Accord, Mazda6, Mitsubishi Galant. Equivalently sized cars in North America are usually called mid-size cars, examples of cars in that class include the Ford Fusion, Chevrolet Malibu and the Toyota Camry
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Compact car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
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Mid-size car
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A mid-size car is the North American/Australian standard for an automobile with a size equal to or greater than that of a compact. In Europe mid-sizers are referred to as D-segment or large family cars, the automobile that defined this size in the United States was the Rambler Six that was introduced in 1956, although it was called compact car at that time. The mid-size class then grew out of the compacts of the early-1960s, for example, the Ford Fairlane was referred to at its introduction in 1962 as a compact intermediate because it was barely bigger than its close relative, the Falcon. General Motors first entries in the class, such as the Oldsmobile F-85, Pontiac Tempest, and Buick Special were not mechanically related to the compact Chevrolet Corvair, at that time vehicle classes were defined more by their wheelbase than interior passenger space and cargo capacity. The class began to rapidly, and for the next ten years each expansion in size in the full-size field was followed by a proportionate growth in the mid-size models. By the mid-1960s, they were as big as the cars of the mid-1950s. By the mid-1970s, they were nearly as big as the cars of the mid-1960s. During the 1970s, the class was generally defined as vehicles with wheelbases between 112 inches and 118 inches. A turning point occurred in the late 1970s, when rising costs and government fuel economy regulations caused all car classes to shrink. Automakers moved previously full-size nameplates to smaller platforms, new official size designations in the U. S. were introduced by the EPA, which defined market segments by passenger and cargo space. Formerly mid-sized cars that were built on the platform, like the AMC Matador sedan, had a combined passenger and cargo volume of 130 cubic feet. The situation was complicated when General Motors began to downsize its models about two years before everybody else, in 1978, the Chevrolet Malibu nameplate had been redesigned on a 108-inch wheelbase, while the Ford Granada moved to the 105-inch wheelbase of the Ford Fairmonts Fox platform in 1981. Both competed with the Chrysler standard and extended K-cars, often classified as compact, former mid-size platforms such as the Plymouth Satellite would be rebranded as full-size, rebodied, or dropped in the face of the downsized Chevrolet Caprice. Some were subsequently replaced by used to be large compacts. The Granada would be badged with the LTD moniker before being replaced by the class-defining Ford Taurus, similarly, import models such as the Honda Accord and Toyota Camry that had been classified by the EPA as compact in 1985 grew to the mid-size class by the 1990s. The Accord later grew even larger, its eighth North American sedan version was classified by the EPA as a full-size car, the current ninth generation North American sedan was slightly smaller than its immediate predecessor, putting it once again in the mid-size class. Mid-size vehicles today usually have wheelbases between 105 inches and 110 inches, another widely used definition is that of the EPA, which classifies cars between 110 cubic feet and 119 cubic feet of interior volume as mid-size. Mid-size cars are the most popular category of cars sold in the United States, in Japan, the term mid-size car probably does not have the intermediate sense that it does in other markets
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Full-size car
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A full-size car is a marketing term used in North America for an automobile larger than a mid-size car. Traditional U. S. full-size passenger cars were designed to be comfortable for six occupants, the United States Environmental Protection Agency currently uses the term large car to denote full-size cars based on their combined interior passenger and luggage volume. The traditional full-size passenger cars that were built by the U. S. Full-size cars were also denoted for their length, nearing 4,953 mm in basic low-priced, family sedans. The luxury models often tended to reach 5,350 mm. Previously, the term first appeared in the early 1960s to distinguish what also became known as standard-size cars from the new compact and intermediate models then being introduced. The U. S. EPA defines large size as 120 ft³ or more of combined passenger, a majority of U. S. automakers manufactured full size automobiles were constructed using a body-on-frame platform. This platform was phased out in 2011 when the Ford Panther vehicles ended production, use of the term in North America became popular after the introduction of compacts by the U. S. Detroit Big Three for the 1960 model year, and then a few years later the introduction of what became known as mid-size cars. The term was most correctly applied to close to the width limit carrying nameplates of The Low Priced Three, Chevrolet, Ford. Manufacturers contributed to the lack of distinction by marketing models of their brands into the lower price ranges with what had previously been considered medium-priced brands. For 1977, General Motors downsized its cars, with overall width cut from approximately 80 in to the mid-70 inch range. Chevrolet, Pontiac, and the less expensive Oldsmobile and Buick models had a 116-inch wheelbase, more expensive Oldsmobile and Buick models, plus the Cadillac had a 119 in wheelbase, but no more width. Ford and Chrysler downsized for 1979, the latter even building its Chrysler R platform, by this time, a huge increase in gasoline prices had made it difficult to sell any large cars, downsized or not. Chrysler had the misfortune of introducing two consecutive new designs of its largest cars, in 1974 and 1979, during times when gasoline prices suddenly increased. The EPA interior volumes for passenger and cargo for the most part resulted in mid-size, full-size, the 1980s Chrysler M platform, classified as large cars at the time, were derived from the Dodge Aspen/Plymouth Volare platform, originally marketed as large compacts. While many modern cars are referred to as full-size, they do not qualify for the term as used in the 1960s and 1970s. Consumer acceptance of large SUVs approaching 80 inches in width shows interest remains in vehicles capable of seating with reasonable comfort. Police cars in the United States are almost always full-size cars and this is usually due to the amount of interior space for an arrestee as well as trunk volume for computer and electrical equipment. Interior space and trunk volume also make such vehicles popular for taxi use, since the discontinuation of the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor the de facto replacement has been a variation of the Ford Taurus
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Custom car
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Although the two are related, custom cars are distinct from hot rods. The extent of this difference has been the subject of debate among customizers and rodders for decades, additionally, a street rod can be considered a custom. A development of hot rodding, the change in name corresponded to the change in the design of the cars being modified, the first hot rods were pre-World War II cars, with running boards and simple fenders over the wheels. Early model cars were modified by removing the running boards and either removing the fenders entirely or replacing them with very light cycle fenders, later models usually had fender skirts installed. The firm was started by ex-employees of Howard Dutch Darrin, who had designed, strother MacMinn called the Yankee Doodle Roadster by Coachcraft the “first American custom sports car. Engine swaps were done, the object of which was to put the most powerful engine in the lightest possible frame, initially this involved lowering the rear end as much as possible with the use of lowering blocks on the rear springs. Later cars were given a job either adding a dropped front axle or heating front coil springs to make the front end of the car much lower than the rear. Much later some hot rods and custom cars swapped the old solid rear axle for an independent rear axle, sometimes the grille of one make of car replaced by another, the 1937 Buick grille was often used on a Ford. In the 1950s and 1960s, the swap of choice was the 1953 De Soto. With the change in design to encase the wheels in fenders and to extend the hood to the full width of the car. In addition, there was tremendous automotive advertising and subsequent public interest in the new models in the 1950s. Hence custom cars came into existence, swapping headlamp rings, grilles, bumpers, chrome side strips, and tail lights, as well as frenching and tunnelling head- and taillights. The bodies of the cars were changed by cutting through the metal, removing bits to make the car lower, welding it back together. By this means, chopping made the lower, sectioning made the body thinner from top to bottom. Channeling was cutting notches in the floorpan where the body touches the frame to lower the whole body, fins were often added from other cars, or made up from sheet steel. In the custom car culture, someone who changed the appearance without also substantially improving the performance was looked down upon. More recently, Juxtapoz Magazine, founded by the artist Robert Williams, has covered Kustom Kulture art, Custom cars are distinct from cars in stock condition. Builders may adopt the visual and performance characteristics of some relevant modification styles, there are now several different custom themes, including, Rat rod, imitates the unfinished and amateur-built appearance of hot rods of the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s Restomod - restored and modernized
41.
Hot rod
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Hot rods are typically old, classic American cars with large engines modified for linear speed. The origin of the hot rod is unclear. Some automotive historians say that the term originated with stolen vehicles being refitted with another engine, in the early days of automobile manufacturing there was no identical matching transmission, body frame, and engine numbers. It was possible to change engines and repaint the car or truck and in turn it into a different vehicle. The term hot was equivalent to being stolen, the term rod was equivalent to any motorized vehicle. Another possible origin includes replacement of the camshaft with a new version, roadsters were the cars of choice because they were light, easy to modify, and inexpensive. The term became commonplace in the 1930s or 1940s as the name of a car that had been hopped up by modifying the engine for higher performance, a term common in the early days was gow job. This has fallen into disuse except with historians, the term has broadened to apply to other items that are modified for a particular purpose, such as hot-rodded amplifier. The activity increased in popularity after World War II, particularly in California, many cars were prepared by bootleggers in response to Prohibition to enable them to avoid revenue agents, some police vehicles were also modified in response. The first hot rods were old cars, modified to reduce weight, speedster was a common name for the modified car. Wheels and tires were changed for improved traction and handling, Hot rod was sometimes a term used in the 1950s as a derogatory term for any car that did not fit into the mainstream. Hot rodders modifications were considered to improve the appearance as well, engine swaps often involved fitting the Ford flathead engine, or flatty, in a different chassis, the 60 horse in a Jeep was a popular choice in the 40s. In the 1950s, the block was often fitted with crankshafts of up to 4.125 in stroke. In addition, rodders in the 1950s routinely bored them out by 0.1875 in, due to the tendency of blocks to crack as a result of overheating, a perennial problem, in the 50s and 60s, the flatty was supplanted by the early hemi. By the 1970s, the small-block Chevy was the most common option, and since the 80s, after World War II there were many small military airports throughout the country that were either abandoned or rarely used that allowed hot rodders across the country to race on marked courses. Originally drag racing had tracks as long as one mile or more, as hot rodding became more popular in the 1950s, magazines and associations catering to hot rodders were started. These were led by Honk. and Car Craft, as some hot rodders also raced on the street, a need arose for an organization to promote safety, and to provide venues for safe racing. Hot rodders including Wally Parks created the National Hot Rod Association to bring racing off the streets and they created rules based on safety and entertainment, and allowed Hot Rodders of any caliber the ability to race
42.
Lead sled
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Auto body repair used to be achieved through the application of molten lead to damaged body panels, and the same techniques were adapted for aftermarket cosmetic modifications. Channeled, cutting the underside of the body to lower the body on the frame. French/Frenched/Frenching, recessing headlights, tail lights, license plates and radio antennas into the body for an exotic look, emblem removal, all original manufacturers emblems were removed as these were considered to detract from the vehicle. The thought was anything that produces a hiccup, a bulge or extrudes from the body is not aerodynamic, the object of the master craftsman is to make the body as smooth, sleek, and sexy as possible. Trim removal, all trim was removed as these dressings detracted from the lines of the car. Drip rail removal, rain drip rails were removed from the roof as they detracted from the smoothness of the vehicle, door handle and door lock removal, door handles and door locks were removed because these parts detracted from the smoothness of the vehicle. Electric solenoids and switches were installed in parts of the body, typically underneath the rocker panels. The entire process of removing badges, trim, and doorhandles was referred to as shaving, grill modifications, the original grill was heavily modified, or substituted with the grill from a completely different make, model, and year car. In the late 1940s and 1950s, plastic body filler and fiberglass did not exist, instead, bar lead was used as a body filler. A true craftsman pulled and pushed out dents with body spoons, hammers, any sheet metal that was still slightly wavy, the bodyman heated bars of lead and flowed the lead onto the body with an oxygen-acetylene torch similar to work done by a tin smith. The bars of lead were what we today call “solder” but were not the material we are familiar with today. The lead bars or strips ranged anywhere from a quarter of an inch to one inch in width, Lead craftsman call the process of melting the lead “running lead” and this is a highly specialized ancient trade passed from a master craftsman to an apprentice. An apprentice bodyman typically would remove the part from the car. In contrast, the master craftsman could control the heat of the lead in a position without having to remove the body part. An apprentice bodyman most likely would have to grind and hand file the lead to a finish for repainting. The master craftsman on the hand did not have to grind and only had to hand file. The true craftsman controlled the flow of lead with his torch, “Lead” referred to the body material used and the extra weight added by the repair material. Sled” referred to the lowering of the vehicle, giving these vehicles the appearance that they were “slip sliding” down the highway, as time progressed, plastics such as Bondo were introduced to the market
43.
Lowrider
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A lowrider is a class or style of customized vehicle. Given these specific characteristics, it is important to note that while a lowrider is always a lowered car, the term is used to describe a class of vehicle, not simply the height from ground to chassis. The term lowrider can also refer to the driver of the car and it began in the Mexican-American Barrios of Los Angeles California in the mid-to-late 1940s and during the post-war prosperity of the 1950s. Initially, some youths would place sandbags in the trunk of their cars in order to create a lowered effect. This method was replaced by lowering blocks, cut spring coils, z’ed frames, the aim of the lowriders is to cruise as slowly as possible, Low and Slow being their motto. In 1959, a customizer named Ron Aguirre developed a way of bypassing the law with the use of hydraulic Pesco pumps, the following year saw the emergence of the Chevrolet Impala, which featured an X-shaped frame that was perfectly suited for lowering and modification with hydraulics. Between 1960 and 1975, customizers adapted and refined GM X-frames, hydraulics, today, the lowriding scene is diverse with many different participating cultures, vehicle makes and visual styles. Essentially all the options available to todays custom automobile creator are also available to the lowrider builder, and lowrider style varies greatly from region to region
44.
T-bucket
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A T-bucket is a hot rod, based on a Ford Model T of the 1915 to 1927 era, but extensively modified. Model Ts were hot-rodded and customized from the 1920s on, and this car was named Lightning Bug, better known as the Kookie Kar, after being redesigned by Grabowski and appearing in the TV show 77 Sunset Strip, driven by character Gerald Kookie Kookson. The exposure it gained led to numerous copies being built, a genuine T-bucket has the two-seater body of a Model T roadster, this bucket-shaped body shell giving the cars their name. A Model T-style radiator is fitted, and even these can sometimes be barely up to the task of cooling the large engines fitted. Windshields, when fitted, are vertical glass like the original Model T. Today, T-buckets remain common. They generally feature an engine for the size and weight of the car, generally a V8, along with tough drivetrains to handle the power. The front wheels are much narrower than the rear wheels. Since the last Model Ts were built in 1927, most modern T-buckets use replica fiberglass bodies, of the only two or three bodies built by Diablo, one was purchased by Southern California hot rod builder Buzz Pitzen and became the worlds first fiberglass T-bucket. Most are built purely for street or show use, and the big engines are more for show than for need — many are more powerful than the vehicles can make use of. Although the body shell is original in appearance, engines of a variety of makes are commonly used. The small-block Chevrolet is a choice, since it is relatively small, light, easy to obtain and to improve. Four-cylinder engines are also, especially if the car is used regularly. Many install blowers on their engines, and people use modern fuel-injected engines
