1.
Spanish naming customs
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Spanish naming customs are historical traditions for naming children practised in Spain. According to these customs, a persons name consists of a name followed by two family names. The first surname is usually the fathers first surname, and the second the mothers first surname, in recent years, the order of the surnames can be reversed at birth if it is so decided by the parents. Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name, a composite given name comprises two single names, for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families, traditionally, a persons first surname is the fathers first surname, and the second one is the mothers first surname. From 2013, if the parents of a child are unable to agree on order of surnames, the law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. Each surname can also be composite, the parts usually linked by the y or e. For example, a name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias, consisting of a forename, a paternal surname. There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, for example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under Arbó, assuming that Sebastiá and Juan were both given names. However, Juan was actually his first surname, to resolve questions like this, which typically involve very common names, one must consult the person involved, or legal documents. A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be addressed as José Antonio, José, Pepe, Antonio, or Toño Jose, Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín, Antoñito, Tonín or Nono. Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific as don José Antonio or don José, colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez is sometimes incorrectly referred to in English media as Mr. Márquez, when it should be Mr. García Márquez or, simply, Mr. García. It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, for example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mothers family, since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, as these peoples paternal names are very common, they are often called with their maternal names. It would nonetheless be a mistake to index José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero under Z as Zapatero, a practical option to spare an explanation is using a single surname composed of two separate words. Parents choose their childs name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name, common sources of names are the parents taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina, legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian and typical Spanish names
2.
President of Bolivia
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The President of the Plurinational State of Bolivia or President of Bolivia, is head of state and head of government of Bolivia. According to the current Constitution, the president is elected by vote to a five-year term. In 2016, in a referendum the country voted to maintain term limits, since 2009, if no candidate wins a majority, the top two candidates advance to a runoff election. Prior to 2009, if no candidate won half the popular vote, the current President of Bolivia is Evo Morales, since 22 January 2006. He was elected in 2005, and reelected in 2009 and again in 2014, on October 17,2015, Morales surpassed Andrés de Santa Cruzs nine years, eight months, and twenty-four days in office to become the president with the longest unbroken term in office. Víctor Paz Estenssoro is the president with just over 12 years in office. Also, the history of the presidency has involved civil wars, more than 190 coups, different titles have been used, such as Liberator of Bolivia, and Supreme Protector. The following table contains a list of the individuals who have served as President of Bolivia, in 1983, a poll was taken by the newspaper Última Hora to determine which seven historical presidents were regarded as most significant. The winners were Antonio José de Sucre, Andrés de Santa Cruz, Manuel Isidoro Belzu, Mariano Melgarejo, Aniceto Arce, Ismael Montes, in the event of the death or permanent incapacity of the President, the Vice President of Bolivia would assume the office. The President of the Senate and the President of the Chamber of Deputies are third, in the 2005 political crisis, with all of these positions exhausted, Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé, the Chief Justice of the Bolivian Supreme Court, assumed the presidency. Under the 2009 Constitution, however, the assumption of power by the President of the Chamber of Deputies automatically precipitates an election within 90 days. In the case of incapacity or absence from the country. In September 2012, Senate President Gabriela Montaño became the first woman to assume this office since the presidency of Lidia Gueiler Tejada, history of Bolivia Politics of Bolivia Gallery of Presidents of Bolivia
3.
Captaincy General of Venezuela
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It established a unified government in political, military, fiscal and judicial affairs. Its creation was part of the Bourbon Reforms and laid the groundwork for the nation of Venezuela. The Bourbon dynasty had taken steps towards reorganizing their overseas possessions and Venezuela. The 18th century also marked a period of marked economic growth for Venezuela, cocoa plantations were established along the littoral valleys, which resulted in large importations of slaves. The growth of the economy was fomented by the Real Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas. The Companys second largest export was tobacco and this growth was not experienced evenly, and the monopoly hurt small farmers, who continued to sell most of their product in the contraband trade. Resentment of the Company exploded in revolt in 1749 headed by Canarian immigrant Juan Francisco de León. The first step was the creation of the Intendancy of Caracas, by Minister of the Indies, the new intendancy covered the provinces of Venezuela, Cumaná, Guayana, Maracaibo, Trinidad and Margarita. Up to this point Maracaibo, Guayana and Trinidads governance had been supervised by the Bogotá Audiencia. The following year a joint governorship-captaincy general with powers over military, regional governors and military commanders were subordinated to the governor-captain general of Caracas. The Audiencia was composed of a regent judge, three judges and a crown attorney, the governor-captain general served as its president. It was to carry out justice and to watch over the action of royal officials in the area of its jurisdiction, a consulado was established in 1793 to oversee the new captaincy generals trade. In religious matters all of the provinces were placed under the direction of the new archdiocese of Caracas in 1803. Two new dioceses, Mérida and Guayana were created, as well, previously areas of the new diocese of Mérida had been part of the archdiocese of Bogotá, and Guayana had been part of the diocese of Puerto Rico. Control of the Province of Trinidad was lost to the British in 1797, the Royal Decree establishing the Captaincy General, The King. Given in San Ildefonso on the eighth of September of 1777. —I the King, the independence movement for Venezuela began with the establishment of the Caracas Junta in 1810. The provinces of Maracaibo and Guayana, along with the city of Coro, rejected the republic, and after a year of war against the royalists, this First Republic collapsed. The provinces that had created the Venezuelan Republic were reconquered by Frigate Captain Domingo de Monteverde, because of this the Cádiz Cortes erected the Province of Maracaibo into a separate Captaincy General with Miyares at its head, but did ratify Monteverde as Captain General of the smaller Venezuela
4.
Venezuela
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Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a federal republic located on the northern coast of South America. It is bordered by Colombia on the west, Brazil on the south, Guyana on the east, Venezuela covers 916,445 km2 and has an estimated population of 31775371. The territory now known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522 amid resistance from indigenous peoples and it gained full independence as a separate country in 1830. During the 19th century, Venezuela suffered political turmoil and autocracy, since 1958, the country has had a series of democratic governments. This new constitution changed the name of the country to República Bolivariana de Venezuela. Venezuela is a presidential republic consisting of 23 states, the Capital District. Venezuela also claims all Guyanese territory west of the Essequibo River, oil was discovered in the early 20th century, and Venezuela has the worlds largest known oil reserves and has been one of the worlds leading exporters of oil. Previously an underdeveloped exporter of commodities such as coffee and cocoa, oil quickly came to dominate exports. The recovery of oil prices in the early 2000s gave Venezuela oil funds not seen since the 1980s, the Venezuelan government then established populist policies that initially boosted the Venezuelan economy and increased social spending, significantly reducing economic inequality and poverty. However, such policies later became controversial since they destabilized the economy, resulting in hyperinflation, an economic depression. According to the most popular and accepted version, in 1499, the stilt houses in the area of Lake Maracaibo reminded the navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, of the city of Venice, so he named the region Veneziola Piccola Venezia. The name acquired its current spelling as a result of Spanish influence, where the suffix -uela is used as a term, thus. The German language 16th century-term for the area, Klein-Venedig, also means little Venice, however, Martín Fernández de Enciso, a member of the Vespucci and Ojeda crew, gave a different account. In his work Summa de geografía, he states that they found people who called themselves the Veneciuela. Thus, the name Venezuela may have evolved from the native word and it is not known how many people lived in Venezuela before the Spanish conquest, it has been estimated at around one million. In addition to indigenous peoples known today, the population included historic groups such as the Kalina, Auaké, Caquetio, Mariche, the Timoto-Cuica culture was the most complex society in Pre-Columbian Venezuela, with pre-planned permanent villages, surrounded by irrigated, terraced fields. They also stored water in tanks and their houses were made primarily of stone and wood with thatched roofs. They were peaceful, for the most part, and depended on growing crops, regional crops included potatoes and ullucos
5.
Pasto, Colombia
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Pasto, officially San Juan de Pasto, is the capital of the department of Nariño, located in southern Colombia. The city is located in the Atriz Valley, on the Andes cordillera, at the foot of the Galeras volcano, the city has a population of approximately 500,000 inhabitants. Pasto was founded in 1537 by the Spanish conquistador Sebastián de Belalcázar, in 1539 another Spanish conquistador Lorenzo de Aldana moved the city to its current location, and established it under the name San Juan de Pasto. Pasto is a reference to the name of the people who inhabited the region at the arrival of the conquerors. However, the Atriz Valley was inhabited by the Quillacingas, a major contributor to the economy and expansion of Pasto was a man of Italian origin named Guido Bucheli. It has been an administrative, cultural and religious center of the region since colonial times, because of this, the city is known as the theological city of Colombia. During the Independence Wars against Spain Pasto was a royalist city, partly due to this political stance, and because of its geographical location, after independence Pasto remained isolated for a long time from the rest of the Colombia. Under the Köppen climate classification, Pasto features a subtropical climate with relatively consistent temperatures throughout the course of the year. Pasto averages roughly 800 mm of precipitation annually, in the municipality 11. 1% of establishments are dedicated to industry,56. 0% to trade,28. 9% to services and 4. 1% to other activities. In urban areas, the economic activities are trade and service industries with some small businesses. The larger companies in Nariño are located in Pasto, and are involved with food, beverages. For the development of trade, mainly with the country of Ecuador. The Pasto Chamber of Commerce was established in 1918 and according to the 2008 yearbook had 14,066 commercial establishments of which 58. 5% were engaged in trade, in the rural areas there is predominantly farming and cattle ranching, in addition there is a small-scale mining industry. By means of the Pasto Sanitation Company the urban area has a 93% provision of water, in the rural area 74% have mains water and 33% have plumbed sanitation. Pasto is connected northwards by land with Popayán and south,78 km away with Ipiales on the border with the Republic of Ecuador by the Pan-American Highway. The distance from Pasto to the capital of the republic, Bogotá, on the Panamerican Highway is 798 km with a travel time of about 18 hours. To the west the city is connected to the port of Tumaco on the Pacific coast, by a road of 284 km. For national intercity land transport there is a used by the principal transport operating companies
6.
Republic of New Granada
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The Republic of New Granada was a centralist republic consisting primarily of present-day Colombia and Panama with smaller portions of today’s Ecuador, and Venezuela. It was created after the dissolution in 1830 of Gran Colombia, in November 1831, those departments created the Republic of Nueva Granada, but nothing was established about symbols. Old symbols were confirmed provisional by the National Convention of 17 December 1831 and it is not clear what flag it was, Restrepo believes that it is the flag with two cornucopias of Great Colombia. While new symbols were discussed, some proposals were issued, on 9 May 1834, the national flag was adopted and was used until 26 November 1861, with the Great Colombian colors in Veles arrangement. The merchant ensign had the star in white. One of the features of the political climate of the republic was the position of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1839, a dispute arose over the shutting down of monasteries by the Congress of New Granada and this soon escalated into the War of the Supremes, which raged for the next two years and transformed into a conflict about regional autonomy. New Granada was transformed in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation as an answer to demands for a decentralized country, the territory of the Republic was divided into provinces. Each province was composed of one or more cantons, each canton was divided into districts parish. Likewise, the Republic covered some territories in the peripheries of the country
7.
Colombia
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Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and it shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments, the territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples including the Muisca, the Quimbaya and the Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and colonization ultimately creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada, independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 the Gran Colombia Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada, the new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation, and then the United States of Colombia, before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Since the 1960s the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict, Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. Cultural diversity has also influenced by Colombias varied geography. The urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains. Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines, ecologically, it is one of the worlds 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a power and a regional actor with the fourth-largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is an accessing member to the OECD. Colombia has an economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run. The name Colombia is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus and it was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819. When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was changed, this time to United States of Colombia. To refer to country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia. Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica, the oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 km southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period, at Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period have been found
8.
Cathedral of Quito
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The Metropolitan Cathedral of Quito, known simply as la Catedral, is the Catholic cathedral in Quito, Ecuador. Located on the side of the Plaza de la Independencia. In 1995, it was elevated to the Cathedral of Ecuador, the Cathedral is a striking white-painted monumental church with a single high belltower offset to the right of the main entrance. Built on a plan comprising three longitudinal naves surmounted by semi-ogival arches on pillars, the basic spatial structure of the Cathedral is typical of the 16th century. It certainly has Gothic features in the arches of its naves. The axis has a southeast-northwest orientation due to the topography, 16th century ravines prevented the main facade from facing the plaza. The elaborate arched side-entrance and its semi-circular staircase facing the Plaza were an early 19th century addition, known as the Carondelet Arch, this portal is the main interface between Cathedral and square. Three attractive domes dressed in glazed green ceramic rise atop the transept, the altar. The transept dome is surmounted by an iron rooster weather vane. The next five name the five founders of the city, finally, Cathedral, Main church construction, 16th century, Restoration, 17th-18th & 20th centuries. Inside, the three naves are supported by pointed arches, which in turn are supported by pillars with square bases, the central nave has cedar panelling betraying Moorish influences. An extraordinary wooden coffered ceiling is supported by a golden frieze, the right nave opens into several chapels along the wall, each surmounted by domes with skylights. The chapels, in order, are, All Souls, Calvary, The Denial of Peter, Saint Peter, First Pope of the Church, The Sacred Family. Here also is a wooden carved door, in a semi-circular arch, leading to La Iglesia de El Sagrario. Works by artists of the Quito School of Art, based in the nearby Church and Convent of St. Francis, the side reredos, covered with goldleaf, were carved by the early masters of that school and in their niches are placed images of saints and martyrs. The large painting of the Assumption of the Virgin, located in the choir, is the work of Manuel de Samaniego. The altarpiece of the Chapel of All Souls has the notable sculptural group known as The Denial of St. Peter, the high altar, said to be entirely of gold, shows both Baroque and Moorish patterns. Soon after the founding of the city of San Francisco de Quito, the first temporary building, raised in the same year by Father Juan Rodriguez — first pastor of the fledgling town — was of adobe with wood frame and thatch roof
9.
Marshal
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Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, during the last few centuries, it has been used for elevated offices, such as in military rank and civilian law enforcement. Marshal is an ancient loanword from Old French, which in turn is borrowed from Old Frankish *marhskalk, being still evident in Middle Dutch maerscalc, marscal and it is cognate with Old High German mar-scalc id. modern German Marschall. It originally and literally meant horse servant, from Germanic *marha- horse and this horse servant origin is retained in the current French name for farrier, maréchal-ferrant. The late Roman and Byzantine title of comes stabuli was adopted as a Latin analogue, which has become the French connétable and, derived from the French, finally, in Byzantium a marshal with elevated authority, notably a borderlands military command, is also known as an Exarch. In many countries, the rank of marshal, cf. field marshal, is the highest army rank, the equivalent navy rank is often admiral of the fleet. Marshals are typically, but not exclusively, appointed only in wartime, in many countries, especially in Europe, the special symbol of a marshal is a baton, and their insignia often incorporate batons. In some countries, the marshal is used instead of general in the higher air force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are marshal of the Royal Air Force, air marshal, air marshal. The five-star rank of marshal of the Air Force is used by some Commonwealth, in the French Army and most National Armies modeled upon the French system, maréchal des logis is a cavalry term equivalent to sergeant. Some historical rulers have used special marshal titles to reward certain subjects, though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders, such as the famous grand marshal of Ayacucho Antonio José de Sucre. Most famous are the Marshals of France, not least under Napoléon I, in England during the First Barons War the title Marshal of the Army of God was bestowed upon Robert Fitzwalter by election. Both the Soviet Union and Russia have army general as well as marshal in their rank system, the relationships between them is unresolved. Marshal of the Soviet Union Chief marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm was used in five Soviet military branches – the air force, artillery, armoured troops, engineer troops. Marshal of an arm is considered equivalent to the rank general of the army, which was used in the infantry. The function of the Marshal of the Court varies according to national tradition, often, the charge includes also the honorary privilege as chief of the protocol to announce formally the arrival of VIP guests at audiences, state dinners, and conferences in the monarchs premises. This office was made hereditary in the high nobility, e. g. the English Earl Marshal
10.
Ayacucho
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Ayacucho, is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru. Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for year of Jesus life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter and these celebrations include horse races featuring Peruvian Caballos de Paso and the traditional running of the bulls, known locally as the jalatoro or pascuatoro. The jalatoro is similar to the Spanish encierro, except that the bulls are led by horses of the Morochucos, the name is derived from the Quechua words aya and kuchu, referring to a major battle for independence. Another possible interpretation is soul or spirit corner, in reference to the devotion of its people. Vestiges of human settlements more than 15,000 years old have been found in the site of Pikimachay, from 500 to 900, the region became occupied by the Wari culture, which became known as the first expansionist empire based in the Andes before the Inca Empire. The Ayacucho region was inhabited by varying indigenous cultures for thousands of years, including the Wari, Chanka people, the Spanish colonial founding of Ayacucho was led by conqueror Francisco Pizarro on April 25,1540, who named it San Juan de la Frontera de Huamanga. On May 17,1544, by Royal decree, Ayacucho was titled La Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Huamanga, the citys main University was founded on July 3,1677 as San Cristóbal of Huamanga University. On February 15,1825, Simón Bolívar changed the name to Ayacucho. The city is named after the historical Battle of Ayacucho, upon seeing so many casualties on the battlefield, citizens called the area Ayakuchu, aya meaning dead and kuchu meaning corner in Ayacucho Quechua. The Battle of Ayacucho was the last armed clash between Spanish armies and patriots during the Peruvian War of Independence, the battle developed in the nearby pampas of La Quinua on December 9,1824. Independentist forces were led by Antonio José de Sucre, Simón Bolívars lieutenant, viceroy José de la Serna e Hinojosa was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the final capitulation of the Royalist army. The patriot victory sealed the independence of Peru and South America, La Paz, now the seat of government of Bolivia, was similarly renamed La Paz de Ayacucho following this battle. The citys economy is based on agriculture and light manufacturing, including textiles, pottery, leather goods, and filigree ware. It is a tourism destination, known for its 33 churches built in the colonial period, and for the nearby battlefield of La Quinua. In 1980, the insurgent organization known as the Shining Path used Ayachucho as its base for its campaign against the Peruvian government, the campaign faded after the leader Abimael Guzmán Reynoso was captured in 1992 and put in prison. The region headed by Ayacucho is rural and one of the poorest of all the country, with the peace of the last 15 years, the citizens work hard to improve the living conditions and attract jobs. María Parado de Bellido, heroine in War of Independence, efraín Morote Best, anthropologist and university president
11.
Venezuelans
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Venezuelan people are from a multiethnic nation in South America called Venezuela. Venezuelans are predominantly Roman Catholic and speak Spanish, the majority of Venezuelans are the result of a mixture of Europeans, Africans and Amerindians. 51. 6% of the population are Mestizos of mixed European, African and Amerindian ancestry and 43. 6% of Venezuelans consider themselves European or Middle Eastern, an additional 3. 6% identify as Black/African-descendants, while 3. 2% identify as Amerindians. However, archaeological excavations are the evidences that establish certain periods that were taking place on the continent, there are four periods of diversity that develop in the current Venezuela, which also entering a new period, it did not mean the end of the previous. The first migrations to the continent were probably from East Asia to 15,000 years and these early migrants came at first to be located in North America, later moving to the territory of present Venezuela. Now for their offspring, it was clear verify the Asian features on their faces that will adapt to the climate and lifestyle. On August 2,1498, Christopher Columbus, and the Spanish colonizers ships, landed for the first time in American mainland and did so in the current Venezuelan territory. Another group of whites who were born in Venezuela were originally called Creole, representing 20% of the population, they were mostly from the Canary Islands, the other two smaller groups were the original inhabitants and indigenous blacks brought from Africa, they were about 5% of the population. This process is responsible for the majority of Venezuelans who are of mestizo mixed race. The country has a population that reflects its rich history. Many of the peoples were absorbed by the mestizo population. Small numbers are descendants of French, English and Polish, as they emigrated during World War II, black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly coastal lowlands, beginning early in the sixteenth century and continuing into the nineteenth century. Currently, according to the critic DAmbrosio and other academics, about 51. 6% of Venezuelans are mestizos, 45% are white, 2% are black and 1% Indians. Notably, according to scholars, is the fact that virtually there are no pure blacks in Venezuela, including those with the darkest skin. Most of which being limited to black Venezuelans who descend from recent immigrants, the only Venezuelan town where there is a consistent number of them is Colonia Tovar. The population of approximately 28 million people made Venezuela the sixth-most populous country in Latin America, approximately more than one million are living in other countries. More than ninety percent of the Venezuelans live in urban areas – a figure higher than the world average. The literacy rate in Venezuela is also well above the average
12.
President of Peru
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The President of the Republic of Peru, is the head of state and head of government of Peru and represents the republic in official international matters. The presidential term is five years, with no immediate reelection, a former president can run again after being out of office for a full term. The change of government takes place on July 28, which is the date of independence from Spain, the current President of Peru is Pedro Pablo Kuczynski, since 28 July 2016. Also, the history of the presidency has involved civil wars, coups, more than once, several individuals claimed the right to be president at the same time. Different titles have used, such as Protector of Peru. The following table contains a list of the individuals who have served as President of Peru, in 1836, the south of the country declared itself independent by creating the Republic of South Peru, while the north of the country became the Republic of North Peru. The two states were confederated with the Republic of Bolivia to form the Peru–Bolivian Confederation on October 28,1836, marshal Andrés de Santa Cruz served as the Supreme Protector of the Confederation. Simultaneously, the control of each Republic remained in the hands of their respective presidents. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation dissolved on August 25,1839, the President of the Republic of Peru is the Head of the Peruvian State, Head of the Peruvian Government and the Supreme Commander of the Peruvian Armed Forces
13.
Bolivia
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Bolivia, officially known as the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in western-central South America. It is bordered to the north and east by Brazil, to the southeast by Paraguay, to the south by Argentina, to the southwest by Chile, and to the northwest by Peru. One-third of the country is the Andean mountain range, with one of its largest cities and principal economic centers, El Alto, Bolivia is one of two landlocked countries that lie outside Afro-Eurasia. Bolivia is geographically the largest landlocked country in the Americas, but remains a small country in economic. Before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of Bolivia was part of the Inca Empire, Spanish conquistadors arriving from Cuzco and Asunción took control of the region in the 16th century. During the Spanish colonial period Bolivia was administered by the Royal Audiencia of Charcas, spain built its empire in great part upon the silver that was extracted from Bolivias mines. After the first call for independence in 1809,16 years of war followed before the establishment of the Republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on 6 August 1825. Since independence, Bolivia has endured periods of political and economic instability, including the loss of peripheral territories to its neighbors, such as Acre. The countrys population, estimated at 11 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Mestizos, the racial and social segregation that arose from Spanish colonialism has continued to the modern era. Spanish is the official and predominant language, although 36 indigenous languages also have official status, of which the most commonly spoken are Guarani, Aymara, modern Bolivia is constitutionally a unitary state, divided into nine departments. Its geography varies from the peaks of the Andes in the West, to the Eastern Lowlands and it is a developing country, with a medium ranking in the Human Development Index and a poverty level of 53 percent. Its main economic activities include agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and manufacturing such as textiles, clothing, refined metals. Bolivia is very wealthy in minerals, especially tin, Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a leader in the Spanish American wars of independence. Sucre opted to create a new nation and, with local support. The original name was Republic of Bolívar, some days later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed, If from Romulus comes Rome, then from Bolívar comes Bolivia. The name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825, the region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived. However, present-day Aymara associate themselves with the ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku culture which had its capital at Tiwanaku, the capital city of Tiwanaku dates from as early as 1500 BC when it was a small, agriculturally based village. The community grew to urban proportions between AD600 and AD800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes
14.
Sucre
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Sucre is the constitutional capital of Bolivia, the capital of the Chuquisaca Department, and the 6th most populated city in Bolivia. Located in the part of the country, Sucre lies at an elevation of 2,810 meters. This relative high altitude gives the city a temperate climate year-round. On November 30,1538, Sucre was founded under the name Ciudad de la Plata de la Nueva Toledo by Pedro Anzures, Marqués de Campo Redondo. The Audiencia de Charcas was a subdivision of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1776, in 1601 the Recoleta Monastery was founded by the Franciscans and in 1609 an archbishopric was founded in the city. In 1624 St Francis Xavier University of Chuquisaca was founded, Sucre remains the seat of the Roman Catholic Church in Bolivia, and a common sight is members of religious orders dressed in traditional costume. For much of its history, Sucres temperate climate was preferred by the Spanish royalty. Testament to this is the Glorieta Castle, Sucres University is one of the oldest universities in the new world. On May 25,1809 the Bolivian independence movement was started with the ringing of the bell of the Basilica of Saint Francisco. This bell was rung to the point of breakage, but it can still be found in the Basilica today, until the 19th century, La Plata was the judicial, religious and cultural centre of the region. It was proclaimed capital of the newly independent Alto Peru in July 1826. On July 12,1839, President José Miguel de Velasco proclaimed a law naming the city as the capital of Bolivia, Sucre, after the economic decline of Potosí and its silver industry, saw the Bolivian seat of government move to La Paz in 1898. Many argue Sucre was the location of the beginning of the Latin American independence movement against Spain, the first Grito Libertario in any Western Hemisphere Spanish colony is said to have taken place in Sucre in 1809. Ironically from that point of view, Bolivia was the last Spanish imperial territory in South America to gain its independence, in 1991 Sucre became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city attracts thousands of tourists every year due to its downtown with buildings from the 18th and 19th centuries. Most of these villagers are members of one of the indigenous ethnicities, many dress in clothing distinctive to their respective villages. Sucre is the capital of Chuquisaca department and one of the capitals of Bolivia, the government of the City of Sucre is divided into the executive and legislative branches. The Mayor of Sucre is the head of the city government, the legislative branch consists of the Municipal Council, which elects a President, Vice President and Secretary from a group of eleven members
15.
Sucre (state)
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Sucre State is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. Sucre State covers a surface area of 11,800 km² and. The most important river in the state is the Manzanares River, francisco del Valle Álvarez Agreda, singer. Eladio Lárez, TV host José Antonio Ramos Sucre, poet, irene Esser, Miss Universe 2012 2nd runner up. Wolfgang Larrazábal, rear admiral president of Venezuela States of Venezuela
16.
Sucre Department
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Sucre is a department in the Caribbean Region of Colombia. The department ranks 27th by area,10,670 km2 and it has a population of 772,010, Sucre is bordered by the Caribbean on the northwest, by Bolívar Department on the east and by Córdoba Department on the west. As of 2009, the Sucre Department has an population of 802,733, of which 234,886 are in the department capital Sincelejo. Before the Spanish Conquest, the land comprising the department of Sucre was mainly inhabited by two groups of indigenous people — the Zenú and the Turbacos, the Zenú language was perhaps part of the Chibchan language family by the Arhuacos branch. The Turbaco people were part of the Cariban language family and they controlled the adjacent to the Gulf of Morrosquillo. The area adjacent to the coast was inhabited by the Turbaco people and this specific part of the Caribs included the coasts of the present day departments of Magdalena, Atlántico and Bolívar. The first Spanish conquerors that sighted to the coastline of the present day Sucre Department were Alonso de Ojeda, Juan de la Cosa, Rodrigo de Bastidas and Francisco Cesar around 1499. The conquerors thought the territory to be rich in precious metals since and this situation led to the encomenderos to employ the indigenous workforce almost exclusively for cattle rising on the northern areas. In 1963, the Second Assembly of Municipalities created the Department of Sucre, people vouched for its creation after a campaign led by CorpoSucre. Sucre is subdivided into 5 regions or provinces, The Archipelago of San Bernardo is within the Sucre Department
17.
Flanders
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Flanders is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history. It is one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium, the demonym associated with Flanders is Fleming, while the corresponding adjective is Flemish. The official capital of Flanders is Brussels, although Brussels itself has an independent regional government, in historical contexts, Flanders originally refers to the County of Flanders, which around AD1000 stretched from the Strait of Dover to the Scheldt estuary. In accordance with late 20th century Belgian state reforms the area was made two political entities, the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. These entities were merged, although geographically the Flemish Community, which has a cultural mandate, covers Brussels. Flanders has figured prominently in European history, as a consequence, a very sophisticated culture developed, with impressive achievements in the arts and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Belgium was one of the centres of the 19th century industrial revolution, geographically, Flanders is generally flat, and has a small section of coast on the North Sea. Much of Flanders is agriculturally fertile and densely populated, with a density of almost 500 people per square kilometer. It touches France to the west near the coast, and borders the Netherlands to the north and east, the Brussels Capital Region is an enclave within the Flemish Region. Flanders has exclaves of its own, Voeren in the east is between Wallonia and the Netherlands and Baarle-Hertog in the consists of 22 exclaves surrounded by the Netherlands. It comprises 6.5 million Belgians who consider Dutch to be their mother tongue, the political subdivisions of Belgium, the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community. The first does not comprise Brussels, whereas the latter does comprise the Dutch-speaking inhabitants of Brussels, the political institutions that govern both subdivisions, the operative body Flemish Government and the legislative organ Flemish Parliament. The two westernmost provinces of the Flemish Region, West Flanders and East Flanders, forming the central portion of the historic County of Flanders, a feudal territory that existed from the 8th century until its absorption by the French First Republic. Until the 1600s, this county also extended over parts of France, one of the regions conquered by the French in Flanders, namely French Flanders in the Nord department. French Flanders can be divided into two regions, Walloon Flanders and Maritime Flanders. The first region was predominantly French-speaking already in the 1600s, the latter became so in the 20th century, the city of Lille identifies itself as Flemish, and this is reflected, for instance, in the name of its local railway station TGV Lille Flandres. The region conquered by the Dutch Republic in Flanders, now part of the Dutch province of Zeeland, the significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the part of the Low Countries
18.
Catalonia
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Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, located on the northeastern extremity of the Iberian Peninsula. It is designated as a nationality by its Statute of Autonomy, Catalonia consists of four provinces, Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. The capital and largest city is Barcelona, the second-most populated municipality in Spain, Catalonia comprises most of the territory of the former Principality of Catalonia. It is bordered by France and Andorra to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the east, the official languages are Catalan, Spanish, and the Aranese dialect of Occitan. The eastern counties of these marches were united under the rule of the Frankish vassal the Count of Barcelona, in the later Middle Ages Catalan literature flourished. Between 1469 and 1516, the King of Aragon and the Queen of Castile married and ruled their kingdoms together, retaining all their distinct institutions, Courts, and constitutions. During the Franco-Spanish War, Catalonia revolted against a large and burdensome presence of the Royal army in its territory, within a brief period France took full control of Catalonia, at a high economic cost for Catalonia, until it was largely reconquered by the Spanish army. In the nineteenth century, Catalonia was severely affected by the Napoleonic, in the second half of the century Catalonia experienced industrialisation. As wealth from the industrial expansion grew, Catalonia saw a cultural renaissance coupled with incipient nationalism while several workers movements appeared. In 1914, the four Catalan provinces formed a Commonwealth, and with the return of democracy during the Second Spanish Republic, after the Spanish Civil War, the Francoist dictatorship enacted repressive measures, abolishing Catalan institutions and banning the official use of the Catalan language again. Since the Spanish transition to democracy, Catalonia has regained some political and cultural autonomy and is now one of the most economically dynamic communities of Spain, the origin of the name Catalunya is subject to diverse interpretations because of a lack of evidence. During the Middle Ages, Byzantine chroniclers claimed that Catalania derives from the medley of Goths with Alans. Other less plausible theories suggest, Catalunya derives from the land of castles, having evolved from the term castlà or castlan. This theory therefore suggests that the names Catalunya and Castile have a common root, the source is of Celtic origin, meaning chiefs of battle. Although the area is not known to have been occupied by Celts, the Lacetani, an Iberian tribe that lived in the area and whose name, due to the Roman influence, could have evolved by metathesis to Katelans and then Catalans. In English, Catalonia is pronounced /kætəˈloʊniə/, the native name, Catalunya, is pronounced in Central Catalan, the most widely spoken variety whose pronunciation is considered standard. The Spanish name is Cataluña, and the Aranese name is Catalonha, the first known human settlements in what is now Catalonia were at the beginning of the Middle Palaeolithic. From the next era, the Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic, important remains survive
19.
Cartagena, Colombia
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It is the fifth-largest city in Colombia and the second largest in the region, after Barranquilla. The urban area of Cartagena is also the fifth-largest urban area in the country, economic activities include the maritime and petrochemicals industries, as well as tourism. The city was founded on June 1,1533, and named after Cartagena, Spain, settlement in the region around Cartagena Bay by various indigenous people dates back to 4000 BC. During the Spanish colonial period Cartagena served a key role in administration and expansion of the Spanish empire and it was a center of political and economic activity due to the presence of royalty and wealthy viceroys. In 1984, Cartagenas colonial walled city and fortress were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, archaeologists estimate that around 4000 BC, the formative culture was located near the boundary between the present-day departments of Bolívar and Sucre. In this area, archaeologists have found the most ancient ceramic objects of the Americas, archaeological investigations date the decline of the Puerto Hormiga culture and its related settlements to around 3000 BC. The Monsú culture appears to have inherited the Puerto Hormiga cultures use of the art of pottery and also to have developed an economy of agriculture. The Monsú peoples diet was based mostly on shellfish and fresh, the development of the Sinú society in what is today the departments of Córdoba and Sucre, eclipsed these first developments around the Cartagena Bay area. Until the Spanish colonization, many derived from the Karib, Malibu. In the late pre-Columbian era, the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta was home to the Tayrona people, around 1500 the area was inhabited by different tribes of the Carib language family, more precisely the Mocanae sub-family. Among these, according to the earliest documents available, the Kalamari had preeminence, rodrigo de Bastidas traveled to the Pearl Coast and the Gulf of Uraba in 1500-01. On 14 Feb.1504, Ferdinand V contracted Juan de la Cosas voyage to Uraba, However, Juan de la Cosa died in 1510, after an armed confrontation with indigenous people, before he could get possession of the Gulf of Urabá area. They preferred the better known Hispaniola and Cuba, De Nicuesa and De Ojeda noted the existence of a big bay on the way from Santo Domingo to Urabá and the Panama isthmus, and that encouraged Bastidas to investigate. Under contract to Queen Joanna of Castile, Pedro de Heredia invaded the Bay of Cartagena with three ships,150 men, and 22 horses, on 14 Jan.1533 and he soon found the village of Calamari abandoned. Proceeding onwards to Turbaco, where Juan de la Cosa had been mortally wounded 13 years earlier, using India Catalina as a guide, Heredia embarked on a three month exploration expedition. He returned to Calamari in April 1533 with gold pieces, including a gold porcupine weighing 132 pounds. In later expeditions, Heredia raided the Sinú tombs and temples of gold and his rule as governor of Cartagena lasted 22 years, before perishing on his return to Spain in 1544. Cartagena was founded on June 1,1533 by the Spanish commander, Pedro de Heredia, the town was named after Cartagena, Spain, where most of Heredias sailors had resided
20.
Cuba
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Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is a country comprising the island of Cuba as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean where the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and it is south of both the U. S. state of Florida and the Bahamas, west of Haiti, and north of Jamaica. Havana is the largest city and capital, other cities include Santiago de Cuba. Cuba is the largest island in the Caribbean, with an area of 109,884 square kilometres, prior to Spanish colonization in the late 15th century, Cuba was inhabited by Amerindian tribes. It remained a colony of Spain until the Spanish–American War of 1898, as a fragile republic, Cuba attempted to strengthen its democratic system, but mounting political radicalization and social strife culminated in the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1952. Further unrest and instability led to Batistas ousting in January 1959 by the July 26 Movement, since 1965, the state has been governed by the Communist Party of Cuba. A point of contention during the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, a nuclear war broke out during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Culturally, Cuba is considered part of Latin America, Cuba is a Marxist–Leninist one-party republic, where the role of the vanguard Communist Party is enshrined in the Constitution. Independent observers have accused the Cuban government of human rights abuses. It is one of the worlds last planned economies and its economy is dominated by the exports of sugar, tobacco, coffee, according to the Human Development Index, Cuba is described as a country with high human development and is ranked the eighth highest in North America. It also ranks highly in some metrics of national performance, including health care, the name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant, authors who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by Columbus for the town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal. Before the arrival of the Spanish, Cuba was inhabited by three distinct tribes of indigenous peoples of the Americas, the Taíno, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney people. The ancestors of the Ciboney migrated from the mainland of South America, the Taíno arrived from Hispanola sometime in the 3rd century A. D. When Columbus arrived they were the dominant culture in Cuba, having a population of 150,000. The name Cuba comes from the native Taíno language and it is derived from either coabana meaning great place, or from cubao meaning where fertile land is abundant. The Taíno were farmers, while the Ciboney were farmers as well as fishers and hunter-gatherers, Columbus claimed the island for the new Kingdom of Spain and named it Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias. In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa, other towns soon followed, including San Cristobal de la Habana, founded in 1515, which later became the capital
21.
New Andalusia Province
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New Andalusia Province or Province of Cumaná was a province of the Spanish Empire, and later of Gran Colombia and Venezuela. It included the territory of present-day Venezuelan states Sucre, Anzoátegui and its most important cities were Cumaná and New Barcelona. Its provincial capital, Cumaná, was refounded in 1569 by explorer Diego Hernández de Serpa, the Province originally comprised what is now eastern Venezuela, western Guyana, and far northern Brazil. In the following centuries, its jurisdiction was reduced to Cumaná, early in its history, the conquistador Joan Orpí founded a new Province, of Nueva Cataluña, also known as New Barcelona after its capital, Barcelona, partly from territory belonging to New Andalusia. This lasted from 1637 to 1654, when it was incorporated into New Andalusia, Guayana Province provided a southern boundary, while Venezuela Province provided a western one. For most of its existence, the Royal Audience of Santo Domingo oversaw its administrative, in the late 18th century, it was incorporated into the newly created Captaincy General of Venezuela. Following the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence, the Province became one of the Provinces of Gran Colombia, cantones, Cumaná, Carupano, Cumanacoa, Maturín, Cariaco, Aragua Cumanés Río Caribes. Following Venezuelan independence in 1830, it became a Province of Venezuela, between 1810 and 1840 it lost the Canton Piacoa to Guayana Province, this later became the state of Delta Amacuro. Venezuela Together with the Southern Part of New Andalusia a map from 1630
22.
Battle of Pichincha
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The Battle of Pichincha took place on 24 May 1822, on the slopes of the Pichincha volcano,3,500 meters above sea-level, right next to the city of Quito, in modern Ecuador. There were three attempts to liberate the territory of the Real Audiencia. By February 1821, Guayaquil began to receive reinforcements, weapons and supplies, sent by Simón Bolívar, President of the fledgling Republic of Colombia. In May of that year, Brigadier General Antonio José de Sucre, Commander in Chief of the Southern Division of the Colombian Army and Bolívars most trusted military subordinate, came to Guayaquil. He was to take command of the new Patriot army, and begin operations aimed at the liberation of Quito. Time was of the essence, as it was vital to force the issue before General José de San Martín, still fighting in Perú, Sucres advance up the Andes began in July,1821. As had happened in the first campaign, after initial successes, Sucre was defeated by the Royalist army on September 12,1821. This second campaign came to an end with the signing of an armistice between the Patriots and the Spanish on November 19,1821. Retaking Cuenca would cut all communications between Quito and Lima, and would allow Sucre to wait for the reinforcements that in the meantime San Martín had promised would come from Perú. Also, a progressive and slower advance from the lowlands up the Andes into the southern highlands would allow for a gradual adaptation of the troops to the physiological effects of the altitude. Moreover, it was the way to avoid another direct clash in unfavorable conditions with the Royalist forces coming down from Quito. At the beginning of January 1822, Sucre opened the new campaign and his army consisted now of approximately 1,700 men, including veterans from the previous campaigns as well as raw recruits. On January 18,1822, the Patriot army marched on Machala, in the southern lowlands. On February 9,1822, having crossed the Andes, Sucre entered the town of Saraguro, where he was joined by the 1,200 men of the Peruvian Division and this force was mostly Peruvian recruits, with Argentinian and Chilean officers. Facing a multinational force numbering around 3,000 men, the 900-strong Royalist cavalry detachment covering Cuenca withdrew to the north, Cuenca was thus retaken by Sucre on February 21,1822, without a shot being fired. During March and April, the Royalists continued to march northwards, nevertheless, on April 21,1822, a ferocious cavalry encounter did take place at Tapi, near Riobamba. At the end of the day, the Royalists abandoned the field, while the body of Sucres army proceeded to take Riobamba, staying there until April 28. By May 2,1822, Sucres main force had reached the city of Latacunga,90 km south of Quito, Aymerich had meanwhile set up strongpoints and artillery positions on the main mountain passes leading to the Quito basin
23.
Pichincha Volcano
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Pichincha is an active stratovolcano in the country of Ecuador, whose capital Quito wraps around its eastern slopes. The two highest peaks of the mountain are Wawa Pichincha and Ruku Pichincha, the active caldera is in Wawa Pichincha on the western side of the mountain. Both peaks are visible from the city of Quito and both are popular acclimatization climbs, Wawa Pichincha is usually accessed from the village of Lloa outside of Quito. Ruku is typically accessed from the TelefériQo on the side of Quito. In October 1999, the volcano erupted and covered the city with several inches of ash, prior to that, the last major eruptions were in 1553 and in 1660, when about 30 cm of ash fell on the city. The province in which it is located takes its name from the mountain, the engagement, known as the Battle of Pichincha, secured the independence of the territories of present-day Ecuador
24.
Quito
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It is located in the Guayllabamba river basin, on the eastern slopes of Pichincha, an active stratovolcano in the Andes mountains. With a population of 2,671,191 according to the last census, Quito is the second most populous city in Ecuador and it is also the capital of the Pichincha province and the seat of the Metropolitan District of Quito. The canton recorded a population of 2,239,191 residents in the 2010 national census, in 2008, the city was designated as the headquarters of the Union of South American Nations. The historic center of Quito has one of the largest, least-altered and best-preserved historic centers in the Americas, Quito and Kraków, Poland, were the first World Cultural Heritage Sites declared by UNESCO, in 1978. The central square of Quito is located about 25 kilometres south of the equator, a monument and museum marking the general location of the equator is known locally as la mitad del mundo, to avoid confusion, as the word ecuador is Spanish for equator. Quitos origins date back to the first millennium, when the Quitu tribe occupied the area, according to Juan de Velascos 1767 book Historia del Reino de Quito, the Quitu were conquered by the Caras tribe, who founded the Kingdom of Quito about 980 AD. For more than four centuries, Quito was ruled under the kings, Caras and their allies were narrowly defeated in the epic battles of Tiocajas and Tixán in 1462, by an army of 250,000 led by Túpac Inca, the son of the Emperor of the Incas. After several decades of consolidation, the Kingdom of Quito became integrated into the Incan Empire, in 1534, the Caras/Quitu people were conquered by the Spanish. Rumiñahui was then executed on January 10,1535, on March 14,1541, Quito was declared a city and on February 14,1556, was given the title Muy Noble y Muy Leal Ciudad de San Francisco de Quito, starting at this point its urban evolution. In 1563, Quito became the seat of a Real Audiencia of Spain and became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and its administration on both Viceroyalties remained to Quito. As with other places colonized by the Spanish, the colonizers promptly established Roman Catholicism in Quito, the first church was in fact built even before the city had been officially founded. In January 1535, the San Francisco Convent was constructed, the first of about 20 churches, the Spanish converted the indigenous population to Christianity and used them as labor for construction. In 1743, after nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, Quito was a city of about 10,000 inhabitants, on August 10,1809, an independence movement from Spanish domination started in Quito. On that date, a plan for government was established that placed Juan Pío Montúfar as president with various prominent figures in other positions of government. However, this movement was ultimately defeated on August 2,1810. A chain of conflicts concluded on May 24,1822, when Antonio José de Sucre, under the command of Simón Bolívar and their victory marked the independence of Quito and the surrounding areas. In 1833, members of the Society of Free Inhabitants of Quito were assassinated by the government after they conspired against it, and on March 6,1845, later, in 1875, the countrys president, Gabriel García Moreno, was assassinated in Quito. Two years later, in 1877, Archbishop José Ignacio Checa y Barba was killed by poisoning while he was celebrating Mass, in 1882, insurgents arose against the regime of dictator Ignacio de Veintimilla
25.
Ecuador
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Ecuador also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometres west of the mainland. What is now Ecuador was home to a variety of Amerindian groups that were incorporated into the Inca Empire during the 15th century. The territory was colonized by Spain during the 16th century, achieving independence in 1820 as part of Gran Colombia, Spanish is the official language and is spoken by a majority of the population, though 13 Amerindian languages are also recognized, including Quichua and Shuar. The capital city is Quito, while the largest city is Guayaquil, in reflection of the countrys rich cultural heritage, the historical center of Quito was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978. Cuenca, the third-largest city, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999 as an outstanding example of a planned. Ecuador has an economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum. The country is classified as a medium-income country, Ecuador is a democratic presidential republic. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, Ecuador is also known for its rich ecology, hosting many endemic plants and animals, such as those of the Galápagos Islands. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries in the world, various peoples had settled in the area of the future Ecuador before the arrival of the Incas. They developed different languages while emerging as unique ethnic groups, even though their languages were unrelated, these groups developed similar groups of cultures, each based in different environments. Over time these groups began to interact and intermingle with each other so that groups of families in one area became one community or tribe, with a similar language and culture. Many civilizations arose in Ecuador, such as the Valdivia Culture and Machalilla Culture on the coast, the Quitus, each civilization developed its own distinctive architecture, pottery, and religious interests. Eventually, through wars and marriage alliances of their leaders, a group of nations formed confederations, one region consolidated under a confederation called the Shyris, which exercised organized trading and bartering between the different regions. Its political and military came under the rule of the Duchicela blood-line. The native confederations that gave them the most problems were deported to distant areas of Peru, Bolivia, similarly, a number of loyal Inca subjects from Peru and Bolivia were brought to Ecuador to prevent rebellion. Thus, the region of highland Ecuador became part of the Inca Empire in 1463 sharing the same language, in contrast, when the Incas made incursions into coastal Ecuador and the eastern Amazon jungles of Ecuador, they found both the environment and indigenous people more hostile. Moreover, when the Incas tried to subdue them, these indigenous people withdrew to the interior, as a result, Inca expansion into the Amazon basin and the Pacific coast of Ecuador was hampered. The indigenous people of the Amazon jungle and coastal Ecuador remained relatively autonomous until the Spanish soldiers, the Amazonian people and the Cayapas of Coastal Ecuador were the only groups to resist Inca and Spanish domination, maintaining their language and culture well into the 21st century
26.
Spanish American wars of independence
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These conflicts started in 1809 with short-lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito opposing the composition of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. When the Central Junta fell to the French invasion, in 1810, Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish–American War in 1898. The new republics from the abolished the formal system of racial classification and hierarchy, casta system, the Inquisition. Slavery was not abolished immediately, but ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century, criollos and mestizos replaced Spanish-born appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a structure which retained some of its traditional features culturally. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions, both armies originated from Spanish colonial troops of Americas. The events in Spanish America were related to the wars of independence in former French colony of St-Domingue, Haiti, a more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this period. Political independence was not necessarily the outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. There was little interest in outright independence, humphreys and John Lynch note, it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution. Since by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened, because Spanish American independence did occur, there are a number of factors that have been identified. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from kingdoms with independent standing with the crown to colonies and this meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crowns upending long-standing practices of creole access to office holding. The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church, the crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. In the economic sphere, the sought to gain control over church revenues. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo, in some areas—such as Cuba, Río de la Plata and New Spain—the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government. Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions, the Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire, the political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors
27.
Real Audiencia of Quito
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It was created by Royal Decree on 29 August 1563 by Philip II of Spain in the city of Guadalajara. It ended in 1822 with the incorporation of the area into the Republic of Gran Colombia, the Audiencia was effectively autonomous because the Viceroyal government was too far away to administer its territories effectively. Initially the Audiencia of Quito formed part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, later the Audiencia was part of a newly created Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada. This Viceroyalty was temporarily suppressed by the King of Spain in 1723, in 1739, the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada was re-established and the Audiencia of Quito was returned to it until it declared itself independent from Spain. A year later the King of Spain passed the Real Cedula of 1740 where the borders of the Audiencia of Quito would be closer to 4° south of the Equator. The Audiencia of Quito briefly became independent for 3 years after it staged the Quito revolution in 1809, was annexed again to the Spanish Empire in 1812. The Audiencia of Quito was liberated again in 1822 and formerly joined the territories of what is today Venezuela, Colombia and Panama to form the Republic of Colombia. As part of Gran Colombia, the territories of Quito were divided up into districts, departments, the Audiencia de Quito was divided into 4 departments, Ecuador Department, Guayaquil Department, Azuay Department, and Cauca Department. The departments of Ecuador, Guayaquil, and Azuay united to form the Distrito del Sur, the Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth Century, Bureaucratic Politics in the Spanish Empire. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press,1967
28.
Royalist (Spanish American independence)
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The creation of juntas in Spanish America in 1810 was a direct reaction to developments in Spain during the previous two years. In 1808 Ferdinand VII had been convinced to abdicate by Napoleon in his favor, the Supreme Central Junta had led a resistance to Josephs government and the French occupation of Spain, but suffered a series of reverses resulting in the loss of the northern half of the country. On February 1,1810, French troops took Seville and gained control of most of Andalusia, the Supreme Junta retreated to Cadiz and dissolved itself in favor of a Regency Council of Spain and the Indies. As news of this arrived throughout Spanish America during the three weeks to nine months—depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain—political fault lines appeared. It is important to note that, at first, the claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king. Juntas were successfully established in Venezuela, Río de la Plata and New Granada, in the months following the establishment of the Regency, it became clear that Spain was not lost, and furthermore the government was effectively reconstituting itself. The Regency successfully convened the Cortes Generales, the parliament of the Spanish Monarchy. The Regency and Cortes began issuing orders to, and appointing and those who supported the new government came to be called royalists. Those that supported the idea of maintaining independent juntas called themselves patriots, as the Cortes instituted liberal reforms and worked on drafting a constitution, a new division appeared among royalists. Conservatives did not want to see any innovations in government, while liberals supported them and these differences would become more acute after the restoration of Ferdinand VII, because the king opted to support the conservative position. Regional rivalry also played an important role in the wars that broke out in Spanish America as a result of the juntas. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority—and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority —initiated a prolonged period of balkanization in many regions of Spanish America. It was not clear which political units which should replace the empire, more often than not, juntas sought to maintain a provinces independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general, as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of some provinces were to be subordinate to others in the manner that they had been under the crown. This phenomenon was particularly evident in New Granada and Río de la Plata and this rivalry also lead some regions to adopt the opposing political cause from their rivals. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had made by a Cortes assembled in his absence. He also declared all of the juntas and constitutions written in Spanish America invalid and restored the former law codes, most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy
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Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
30.
Real Felipe Fortress
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The Real Felipe Fortress was built to defend the main Peruvian port and the city of Lima from pirates and corsairs during colonial times. The fortress was pivotal in the 1866 naval battle between a Spanish fleet sent to South America to reclaim its colonies and land batteries in the coast of Peru, the Real Felipe Fortress is currently the Peruvian Army Museum, displaying historical uniforms, weapons and other military paraphernalia. During the Viceroyalty of Peru, Callao was the port of the Americas, it connected the colonies with Spain. Due to the lack of adequate defenses. In an attempt to protect the port, the viceroy Pedro Álvarez de Toledo y Leiva decreed the construction of Walls of Lima between the years 1640 and 1647 to protect the city, however, the 1746 Lima–Callao earthquake, destroyed most of the fortifications. Viceroy José Antonio Manso de Velasco, orders the contraction of the fortress to bolster the defense of the port, in 1746, the design proposal of French architect Louis Godin is selected as the design of the fortress. Construction of the fortress began on 21 January 1747 and the first stone was erected 1 August of the same year and this was considered one of the most important constructions made by Spain in the New World, costing about three million pesetas. Most of the came from the San Lorenzo Island and from the ruins caused by the earthquake. The name was chosen to honour the Spanish king Felipe V from the House of Bourbon, construction ended during the reign of viceroy Manuel de Amat y Junient in 1774. In 1782, viceroy Manuel Guirior decided to bolster the defences of the fortress with the construction of two smaller fortresses, the «San Miguel» and the «San Rafael». This system came to be known as «Los Castillos del Callao», in 1806, viceroy José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa ordered the construction of a storage depot for arms, artillery and water to supply up to 2,000 soldiers for up to four months. On 21 January 1816, Admiral Guillermo Brown blockaded the port of Callao, captured several royalist boats, however, they were soon repulsed by the coastal batteries of the fortress. During 16 January 1819, the fortress repulsed an attack from Admiral Lord Thomas Cochrane during the government of viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela and this incident forced General José de San Martín to invade Lima from Pisco. Once the declaration of independence was decreed, General San Martín ordered to siege the fortress, the siege ended in 1821, when royalist General José de La Mar surrenderd to republican forces. However, the fortress was captured again by the Spaniards under Brigadier José Ramón Rodil y Campillo, only in 1826, would the fortress return to the republicans after Brigadier Rodil y Campillo surrendered. GUIDE TO PERU, Handbook for travelers, 6th, edition, by Gonzalo de Reparaz Ruiz, Ediciones de Arte Rep, Lima – Perú, Book edited in English language by the Fondo de Promoción Turística del Perú – FOPTUR, pages 114–115. The Emancipation of Peru, British Eyewitness Accounts,2014, online at https, //sites. google. com/site/jhemanperu Satellite photo of Real Felipe Fortress Real Felipe Fortress website
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Callao
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El Callao is the chief seaport of Peru. The city is also called Provincia Constitucional, the province of the Callao Region. The Historic Centre of Callao is located 15 km west of Historic Centre of Lima, the countrys capital, Callao borders Lima Province on the north, east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. El Callao was founded by Spanish colonists in 1537, just two years after Lima and it soon became the main port for Spanish commerce in the Pacific. The origin of its name is unknown, both Indian and Spanish sources are credited, but it is certain that it was known by name since 1550. Other sources point to the similarity with the Portuguese word calhau, on 20 August 1836, during the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, President Andrés de Santa Cruz mandated the creation of the Callao Littoral Province, which had political autonomy in its internal affairs. During the government of President Ramón Castilla, Callao was given the name of Constitutional Province, on 22 April 1857, before that, all of the other Peruvian provinces had been given their names by law, while Callao was given it by constitutional mandate. Callao was never part of the Lima Department nor of any other departments, the provinces first mayor was Col. Manuel Cipriano Dulanto. By 1949, Callao was known as one of the biggest centers of coca-based products, on 28 October 1746, a tsunami caused by the 1746 Lima–Callao earthquake destroyed the entire port of Callao. On 22 January 22,1826, besieged by nationalist forces backed by Simón Bolívar, on 2 May 1866, during the Battle of Callao, the Spanish fleet tried to reconquer independent Peru. Kon-Tiki left Callao, Peru, on the afternoon of April 28,1947, on 19 June 1986, dozens of Sendero Luminoso terrorists tried to escape but encountered the governments naval forces on El Frontón, resulting in the so-called Peruvian prison massacres. Callao is built on and around a peninsula, the district of La Punta, a historical fortress, the Castillo de Real Felipe, stands on the promontory overlooking the harbor. A large naval base is sited in Callao and its prison holds Abimael Guzmán, the leader of the Shining Path terrorist organization, and Vladimiro Montesinos, the ex-director of internal security during the Fujimori regime. Jorge Chávez International Airport is located in Callao, on a bluff overlooking the harbor sits Colegio Militar Leoncio Prado, the military high school. The city also has a university, the National University of Callao, the main Naval Hospital, Centro Medico Naval is located on Avenida Venezuela in Bellavista. It contains the U. S. Navy command Naval Medical Research Unit Six, residents of Callao are known as chalacos. Callaos professional football teams are Sport Boys and Atlético Chalaco, Callao has several islands, San Lorenzo, El Frontón, the Cavinzas Islands, and the Palomino Islands, where numerous sea lions and sea birds live in a virtually untouched ecosystem. There are proposed plans to build a naval, terrestrial
32.
Battle of Ayacucho
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The Battle of Ayacucho was a decisive military encounter during the Peruvian War of Independence. It was the battle that secured the independence of Peru and ensured independence for the rest of South America, as of late 1824, Royalists still had control of most of the south of Peru as well as of Real Felipe Fort in the port of Callao. On 9 December 1824, the Battle of Ayacucho took place at Pampa de Ayacucho, Independentist forces were led by Simón Bolívars lieutenant Sucre. Viceroy José de la Serna was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the capitulation of the Royalist army. The modern Peruvian Army celebrates the anniversary of this battle, in 1820 Spain began what would shortly become a political disaster. An expedition of 20,000 soldiers waiting to be sent to Río de la Plata to help the royalists of America revolted under the encouragement of General Rafael Riego. In the subsequent weeks the revolt spread and King Ferdinand VII was forced to restore the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, the royalists in each viceroyalty, however, took different paths. In Peru Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela was discredited after a royalist expedition to Chile under Mariano Osorio was defeated and advances in Peru were made by José de San Martín. The viceroy was overthrown on 29 January 1821, in Asnapukyu, in a coup by General José de la Serna, the independentists started the new year with a promising victory. At Cerro de Pasco they defeated a Peruvian royalist army commanded by Viceroy La Serna, however, the royalists had received solid military training. Their first victory came against the independentist army commanded by Domingo Tristán, a year later, San Martin had withdrawn from the scene after the Interview of Guayaquil and royalist forces had smashed Rudecindo Alvarados Liberating Expedition in campaigns in Torata and Moquegua. After scattering Santa Cruzs isolated troops, La Serna recaptured Arequipa after beating Antonio José de Sucres Gran Colombian force on 10 October. Sucre decided to evacuate the Gran Colombian troops, setting sail on 10 October 1823, saving himself and his troops, Viceroy La Serna ended the campaign after reaching Oruro in Upper Peru. On the political front, the last remnants of optimism among patriots faded away with accusations of treason against Peruvian presidents José de la Riva Agüero, Riva Agüero deported deputies of the Peruvian Congress and organized another congress in Trujillo. After being found guilty of treason by the Peruvian Congress he was banished to Chile. This act, in turn, was considered by Simón Bolívar to be treasonous, Tagle, who had earlier ordered all armies under his command to support Bolívar against the royalist enemy, was now pursued by Bolívar, who was looking to capture and execute him. Tagle took shelter with the royalists in the fortress of Callao, nevertheless, by the end of 1823, the situation had started to become critical for those who defended the kings cause. In spite of the military triumphs, Bolívars request for reinforcements from Colombia made him a threat to the royalist army
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Viceroy
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A viceroy /ˈvaɪs. rɔɪ/ is a regal official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning in the place of, a viceroys territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjectival form is viceregal, less often viceroyal, the term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term. Vicereine is more used to indicate a viceroys wife. The title was used by the Crown of Aragon, where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia. In Europe, until the 18th century, the Habsburg crown appointed viceroys of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia, Navarre, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily, with the ascension of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish throne, the historic Aragonese viceroyalties were replaced by new captaincies general. At the end of War of the Spanish Succession, the Spanish monarchy was shorn of its Italian possessions and these Italian territories, however, continued to have viceroys under their new rulers for some time, Sardinia would have a viceroy until 1848. These large administrative territories became known as Viceroyalties, New viceroyalties were created for New Granada in 1717 and the Río de la Plata in 1776. These units gathered the local provinces which could be governed by either a crown official, audiencias primarily functioned as superior judicial tribunals, but unlike their European counterparts, the New World audiencias were granted by law both administrative and legislative powers. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. The government started six years after the discovery of sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, in 1505, however the post was centered by governor Afonso de Albuquerque, who became plenipotentiary, and remained so. The duration in office was three years, possibly longer, given the power represented, of the thirty-four governors of India in the 16th century. After the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, the governors of Brazil that were members of the Portuguese high nobility started to use the title of Viceroy. Brazil became a permanent Viceroyalty in 1763, when the capital of the State of Brazil was transferred from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro, the designation Viceroy, although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. The Governor-General continued to be the representative of the Crown. The viceroys reported directly to the Secretary of State for India in London and were advised by the Council of India, alongside the Commander-in-Chief, India, the viceroy was the public face of the British presence in India, attending to many ceremonial functions as well as political affairs. During the offices history, the Governors-General of India were based in two cities, Calcutta during the 19th century and New Delhi during the 20th century, additionally, whilst Calcutta was the capital of British India, the viceroys spent the summer months at Simla. The two historic residences of the viceroys still stand, the Viceroys House in New Delhi and Government House in Calcutta and they are used today as the official residences of the President of India and the Governor of West Bengal, respectively
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General in Chief
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General-in-chief has been a military rank or title in various armed forces around the world. In France, general-in-chief was first an informal title for the lieutenant-general commanding over others lieutenant-generals, during the Revolution, it became a title given to officers of général de division rank commanding an army. The généraux en chef wore four stars on their shoulders boards opposed to the three of a mere général de division, the title of général en chef was abolished in 1812, re-established during the Restoration and ultimately abolished in 1848. In Russia, general-in-chief, was a general rank in the Russian Imperial army. It was created in 1698 by Peter the Great, in 1798, the rank was divided into three equivalent ranks of general of the infantry, general of the cavalry and general of the artillery. Later, in 1940, the rank of general was created. In the United States, the title general in-chief was used to refer to the general of the United States Army. Famous generals-in-chief were George Washington, Winfield Scott, Robert E. Lee, Henry Halleck, George McClellan, during the American Civil War, General Robert E. Lee was appointed General in chief of the Armies of the Confederate States. The rank of General of the Armies of the United States was conferred upon General John J. Pershing in 1919, washingtons date of rank was retroactively dated to 1799, so that he will always be the senior ranking general of the United States Army. Since the age of the war in Venezuela the most senior officer is designated as general-in-chief. From its creation the rank was represented by three suns, but with the creation in 2008 of the rank of general, four suns are used. From the 1940s until 2001 the rank was not used, in 2001 Divisional General Lucas Rincon Romero was promoted to general-in-chief. He was the first ever active officer to be promoted after six decades, today 13 general officers of the army have been promoted, General officer
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