1.
Royal Victorian Order
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The Royal Victorian Order is a dynastic order of knighthood established in 1896 by Queen Victoria. It recognises distinguished personal service to the monarch of the Commonwealth realms, members of the monarchs family, the present monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is the Sovereign of the order, its motto is Victoria, and its official day is 20 June. The orders chapel is the Savoy Chapel in London, the organisation was founded a year preceding Victorias Diamond Jubilee, so as to give the Queen time to complete a list of first inductees. The orders official day was made 20 June of each year, in 1902, King Edward VII created the Royal Victorian Chain as a personal decoration for royal personages and a few eminent British subjects and it was the highest class of the Royal Victorian Order. It is today distinct from the order, though it is issued by the chancery of the Royal Victorian Order. The order was open to foreigners from its inception, the Prefect of Alpes-Maritimes, Queen Elizabeth II then appointed her daughter, Anne, Princess Royal, to the position in 2007. Foreigners may be admitted as members, there are no limits to the number of any grade. Retiring Deans of the Royal Peculiars of St, prior to 1984, the grades of Lieutenant and Member were classified as Members and Members, respectively, but both with the post-nominals MVO. On 31 December of that year, Queen Elizabeth II declared that those in the grade of Member would henceforth be Lieutenants with the post-nominals LVO. Upon admission into the Royal Victorian Order, members are given various insignia of the organisation, each grade being represented by different emblems and robes. For Knights and Dames Grand Cross, Commanders, and Lieutenants, the orders ribbon is blue with red-white-red stripe edging, the only difference being that for foreigners appointed into the society, their ribbon bearing an additional central white stripe. For Knights Grand Cross, the ribbon is 82.5 millimetres wide, for Dames Grand Cross 57.1 millimetres, for Knights and Dames Commander 44.4 millimetres, and for all other members 31.7 millimetres. Though after the death of a Knight or Dame Grand Cross their insignia may be retained by their family, the collar must be returned. Knights and Dames Grand Cross also wear a mantle of blue satin edged with red satin and lined with white satin. Since 1938, the chapel of the Royal Victorian Order has been the Queens Chapel of the Savoy, in central London, upon the occupants death, the plate is retained, leaving the stalls festooned with a record of the orders Knights and Dames Grand Cross since 1938. There is insufficient space in the chapel for the display of knights and dames banners, founded by Michael Jackson, the group has, since 2008, gathered biennially. The practice of notifying the Prime Minister of Canada of nominees ended in 1982, in Canada, the order has come to be colloquially dubbed as the Royal Visit Order, as the majority of appointments are made by the sovereign during her tours of the country. Persons have been removed from the order at the monarchs command, anthony Blunt, a former surveyor of the Queens Pictures, was in 1979 stripped of his knighthood, after it was revealed that he had been a spy
2.
House of Lords
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The House of Lords of the United Kingdom, referred to ceremonially as the House of Peers, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster, officially, the full name of the house is, The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. Unlike the elected House of Commons, all members of the House of Lords are appointed, the membership of the House of Lords is drawn from the peerage and is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual are 26 bishops in the established Church of England, of the Lords Temporal, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission. However, they include some hereditary peers including four dukes. Very few of these are female since most hereditary peerages can only be inherited by men, while the House of Commons has a defined 650-seat membership, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. There are currently 805 sitting Lords, the House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament to be larger than its respective lower house. The House of Lords scrutinises bills that have approved by the House of Commons. It regularly reviews and amends Bills from the Commons, while it is unable to prevent Bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it can delay Bills and force the Commons to reconsider their decisions. In this capacity, the House of Lords acts as a check on the House of Commons that is independent from the electoral process, Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons. Members of the Lords may also take on roles as government ministers, the House of Lords has its own support services, separate from the Commons, including the House of Lords Library. The Queens Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament, the House also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 MPs and 16 Peers to represent Scotland, the Parliament of England developed from the Magnum Concilium, the Great Council that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, the first English Parliament is often considered to be the Model Parliament, which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined, for example, during much of the reign of Edward II, the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In 1569, the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, further developments occurred during the reign of Edward IIs successor, Edward III. It was during this Kings reign that Parliament clearly separated into two chambers, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the fifteenth century
3.
Belgravia
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Belgravia is a district in West London in the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. It is noted for its very expensive residential properties and is one of the wealthiest districts in the world, much of it, known as the Grosvenor Estate, is still owned by a family property company, the Duke of Westminsters Grosvenor Group. The area takes its name one of the Dukes subsidiary titles. Owing to the Leasehold Reform Act 1967, the estate has been forced to sell many freeholds to its erstwhile tenants, the area takes its name from one of the Duke of Westminsters subsidiary titles, Viscount Belgrave. The village of Belgrave, Cheshire is two miles from the Grosvenor familys main seat of Eaton Hall. Most of the area was owned by Richard Grosvenor, 2nd Marquess of Westminster. Thomas Cubitt was the main contractor, Belgravia is characterised by grand terraces of white stucco houses, and is focused on Belgrave Square and Eaton Square. It was one of Londons most fashionable residential districts from its beginnings, fashion design houses that have their retail flagship stores and studios within the area include Philip Treacy, Donna Ida, Jenny Packham and HEMYCA. On the southern edge of Belgravia is Pimlico Road, renowned for its antique shops and high-end furniture. It is a quiet district in the heart of London, contrasting with neighbouring districts. Many embassies are located in the area, especially in Belgrave Square and this phenomenon has diminished social relations in the neighbourhood. Belgrave Square, one of the grandest and largest 19th century squares, is the centrepiece of Belgravia and it was laid out by the property contractor Thomas Cubitt for the 2nd Earl Grosvenor, later to be the 1st Marquess of Westminster, in the 1820s. Most of the houses were occupied by 1840, the numbering is anti-clockwise from the north, NW terrace Nos.1 to 11, west corner mansion No. 12, SW terrace 13–23, south corner mansion No,24, SE terrace Nos. 25–36, east corner mansion No. There is also a later detached house at the northern corner. 49, which was built in by Cubitt for Sidney Herbert in 1851, the terraces were designed by George Basevi and are possibly the grandest houses ever built in London on a speculative basis. The largest of the mansions, Seaford House in the east corner, was designed by Philip Hardwick. Eaton Square is larger but less grand than the feature of the district, Belgrave Square
4.
Kensington
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Kensington is an affluent district within the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in West London. Its commercial heart is Kensington High Street, the affluent and densely populated area contains the major museum district of South Kensington, which has the Royal Albert Hall for music and nearby Royal College of Music. The area is home to many of Londons European embassies, the first mention of the area is in the Domesday Book of 1086, where it was written in Latin as Chenesitone, which has been interpreted to have originally been Kenesignetun in Anglo-Saxon. A variation may be Kesyngton, in 1396 and he in turn granted the tenancy of Kensington to his vassal Aubrey de Vere I, who was holding the manor in 1086, according to Domesday Book. The bishops heir, Robert de Mowbray, rebelled against William Rufus, Aubrey de Vere I had his tenure converted to a tenancy in-chief, holding Kensington after 1095 directly of the crown. He granted land and church there to Abingdon Abbey at the deathbed request of his young eldest son, Geoffrey. As the Veres became the earls of Oxford, their estate at Kensington came to be known as Earls Court, while the Abingdon lands were called Abbots Kensington and the church St Mary Abbots. The original Kensington Barracks, built at Kensington Gate in the late 18th century, were demolished in 1858, the focus of the area is Kensington High Street, a busy commercial centre with many shops, typically upmarket. The street was declared Londons second best shopping street in February 2005 thanks to its range, however, since October 2008 the street has faced competition from the Westfield shopping centre in nearby White City. Kensingtons second group of buildings is at South Kensington, where several streets of small to medium-sized shops. This is also the end of Exhibition Road, the thoroughfare that serves the areas museums. To the west, a border is kept along the line of the Counter Creek marked by the West London railway line, in the north east, the large Royal Park of Kensington Gardens is a green buffer. The other main area in Kensington is Holland Park, just north of Kensington High Street. Kensington is, in general, an affluent area, a trait that it now shares with its neighbour to the south. In early 2007, houses sold in Upper Phillimore Gardens for in excess of £20 million, Kensington is also very densely populated, it forms part of the most densely populated local government district in the United Kingdom. This high density is not formed from high-rise buildings, instead, unlike northern extremities of the Borough, Kensington lacks high-rise buildings except for the Holiday Inns London Kensington Forum Hotel in Cromwell Road, which is a 27-storey building. The Olympia exhibition hall is just over the border in West Kensington. Kensington is part of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, the head office of newspaper group DMGT is located in Northcliffe House in Kensington, which is the office part of the large Barkers building
5.
St Baglan's Church, Llanfaglan
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St Baglans Church, Llanfaglan, is a redundant church in the parish of Llanfaglan, Gwynedd, Wales. It is designated by Cadw as a Grade I listed building and it stands in an isolated position in a field some 150 metres from a minor road. It is traditionally credited to its namesake, the 7th-century saint Baglan ap Dingad, the present church dates probably from the 13th century. The chancel was rebuilt in about 1800, when the porch was also added. Unusually, the church escaped restoration during the Victorian era, and it also comments on its outstanding isolated setting. After it was declared redundant, the church was vested in the charity the Friends of Friendless Churches in 1991, and it has since been repaired, aided by financial help from Cadw. The church is constructed in stone slate roofs. Its plan consists of a nave and a chancel under a roof, a south transept acting as a chapel. On the west gable is a bellcote, and on the gable is a weathered cross. There are no windows in the nave, and the chancel has only a two-light east window, in the south and east walls of the transept are small two-light windows. Over the doorway is a lintel consisting of a 6th-century inscribed stone, internally, the walls are plastered and whitewashed, the roof timbers are also whitewashed. The floor is paved with slate slabs, there is no division between the nave and the chancel, and the transept is fully open to the body of the church. The east window dates from the 14th century and was resited when the chancel was rebuilt, Cadw describes the set of mid- and later 18th-century furniture as being exceptional. The oak altar is enclosed by communion rails on three sides, the rails are supported by slender balusters and on the posts are finials. In the southwest corner of the chancel is an oak pulpit, the seating in the nave, chancel and transept consists of box pews and benches, some of which are inscribed with initials and dates. The font dates from the 13th or 14th century and consists of a heptagonal gritstone bowl on a heptagonal shaft and it is the only seven-sided font in Wales. On the walls of the church are memorial tablets. The bell is dated 1790, and was re-fitted in 2003, an early 19th-century brass candelabrum, a chalice dated 1723, and a silver salver of 1752 which were formerly in the church are now in the care of Bangor Cathedral
6.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
7.
Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon
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Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, CI, GCVO, GCStJ was the younger daughter of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth of the United Kingdom and the only sibling of Queen Elizabeth II. Margaret spent much of her childhood in the company of her older sister and her life changed dramatically in 1936, when her paternal uncle, King Edward VIII, abdicated to marry a divorcée, Wallis Simpson. Margarets father became King, and her sister became heir presumptive. During World War II, the two stayed at Windsor Castle, despite suggestions to evacuate them to Canada. During the war years, Margaret was considered too young to perform any official duties, after the war, Margaret fell in love with Group Captain Peter Townsend. In 1952, Margarets father died, her sister became Queen, early the following year, he proposed to Margaret. Many in the government believed he would be a husband for the Queens 22-year-old sister. Margaret eventually abandoned her plans with him and in 1960, she accepted the proposal of the photographer Antony Armstrong-Jones, Margaret was often viewed as a controversial member of the British royal family. Her divorce earned her publicity, and she was romantically associated with several men. Her health gradually deteriorated in the two decades of her life. A heavy smoker for most of her life, she had a lung operation in 1985, a bout of pneumonia in 1993. She died at King Edward VII Hospital on 9 February 2002, Margaret was born on 21 August 1930 at Glamis Castle in Scotland, her mothers ancestral home, and was affectionately known as Margot within the royal family. The Home Secretary, J. R. Clynes, was present to verify the birth, the registration of her birth was delayed for several days to avoid her being numbered 13 in the parish register. At the time of her birth, she was fourth in the line of succession to the British throne and her father was Prince Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. Her mother was Elizabeth, Duchess of York, the youngest daughter of the 14th Earl, King George V disliked the name Ann but approved of the alternative Margaret Rose. Margaret was baptised in the chapel of Buckingham Palace on 30 October 1930 by Cosmo Lang. Margarets early life was spent primarily at the Yorks residences at 145 Piccadilly and she was educated alongside her sister, Princess Elizabeth, by their Scottish governess Marion Crawford. Margarets education was supervised by her mother, who in the words of Randolph Churchill never aimed at bringing her daughters up to be more than nicely behaved young ladies
8.
David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon
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At the age of five, Snowdon started lessons in the Buckingham Palace schoolroom with his cousin Prince Andrew. From 1980 to 1982 he studied at Parnham House in the town of Beaminster in Dorset. He has written books and lectured around the world. His work is sold in stores in Belgravia, Harrods. On 1 December 2006, Snowdon took up the post of chairman of Christies UK, having joined the board in 2005 as a non-executive director. On 8 April 2002, Snowdon, along with the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York and this was a mark of respect unofficially known as the Vigil of the Princes, which had taken place only once before, during the lying-in-state of King George V in 1936. Snowdon had romances with Susannah Constantine, Kate Menzies and Nicola Formby, on 8 October 1993 he married the Hon. Serena Stanhope, a daughter of Viscount Petersham at St. Margarets Church, Westminster. Lord Snowdon also has a half-brother, Jasper Cable-Alexander, son of his father and Melanie Cable-Alexander, from 2000 until 2002, Snowdon, his wife and son lived at Kensington Palace with his mother, Princess Margaret, in her declining years. In 2011, Snowdons daughter, Margarita Armstrong-Jones, was a bridesmaid at the wedding of the Duke of Cambridge. The Snowdons have three homes, a flat in Chelsea, London, a cottage on the Daylesford estate in Gloucestershire, and the Chateau dAutet in the Luberon, Provence. His father, Anthony Armstrong-Jones, the 1st Earl of Snowdon, died on 13 January 2017 and he assumed the title, thus becoming the 2nd Earl of Snowdon. Snowdon is the son of Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, and the 1st Earl of Snowdon, thus he is the nephew of Queen Elizabeth II, and a grandson of George VI
9.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
10.
Jesus College, Cambridge
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Jesus College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. The colleges full name is The College of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Saint John the Evangelist and its common name comes from the name of its chapel, Jesus Chapel. Jesus College was established between 1496 and 1516 on the site of the twelfth-century Benedictine nunnery of St Mary and St Radegund by John Alcock, the cockerel is a symbol of Jesus College, after the surname of its founder. Three members of Jesus College have received a Nobel Prize, two fellows of the college have been appointed to the International Court of Justice. Notable alumni include Thomas Cranmer, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Reid, Lord Toulson, Sir Rupert Jackson, Sir David Hare, Jesus College has assets of approximately £243m making it Cambridge’s third wealthiest college. The college is known for its particularly expansive grounds which include its sporting fields, ian White, current van Eck Professor of Engineering in the university, has been master of Jesus College since 2011. Founded at the beginning of the 12th century, Jesus Chapel is the oldest university building in Cambridge still in use, when founded in 1496, the college consisted of buildings taken over from the Nunnery of St Mary and St Radegund. This included the chapel and the attached to it, the nuns’ refectory, which became the college hall, and the former lodging of the prioress. This set of remains the core of the college to this day and this accounts for its distinctly monastic. A library was added, and the chapel was considerably modified and reduced in scale by Alcock. At its foundation, the college had a master, six fellows, the college offers a wide range of scholarships. The college consistently performs well in the informal Tompkins Table, which ranks Cambridge colleges by undergraduate results, along with students from Trinity, Kings, Christs and St Johns, students of the college have been members of the Cambridge Apostles. The main entrance to Jesus College is a passage known as the Chimney. The term is derived the Middle French word chemin, for path or way, the Chimney leads directly to the Porters Lodge and then into First Court. All the courts at the college, with the exception of the cloister, are open on at least one side, the Quincentenary Library is the main library of Jesus College and is open 24 hours a day. The library was designed by Eldred Evans and David Shalev in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the foundation of the college in 1996, completion of the library was shortly followed by a new accommodation building in 2000, now known as Library Court. The Quincentenary Library has a large law collection, housed in a law library on the ground floor. The Old Library was in use until 1912
11.
Photographer
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A photographer is a person who makes photographs. As in other arts, the definitions of amateur and professional are not entirely categorical, a professional photographer is likely to take photographs to make money, by salary or through the display, sale or use of those photographs. An amateur photographer may take photographs for pleasure and to record an event, emotion, place, as a person without a monetary motivation. A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a planned event such as a wedding or graduation. Others, including paparazzi and fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making a picture, some workers, such as crime scene detectives, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, an amateur may make considerable sums entering work in contests for prize money or through occasional inclusion of their work in magazines or the archive of a photo agency. The term professional may also imply preparation, for example, by academic study, Photographers are also categorized based on the subjects they photograph. Some photographers explore subjects typical of such as landscape, still life. The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright, countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees, an additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph. The contract may be for one year, or other duration. The photographer usually charges a royalty as well as a one-time fee, the contract may be for non-exclusive use of the photograph or for exclusive use of the photograph. The contract can also stipulate that the photographer is entitled to audit the company for determination of royalty payments. A royalty is also based on the size at which the photo will be used in a magazine or book. Photos taken by a photographer working on assignment are often work for hire belonging to the company or publication unless stipulated otherwise by contract. There are major companies who have maintained catalogues of stock photography and images for decades, such as Getty Images, commercial photographers may also promote their work to advertising and editorial art buyers via printed and online marketing vehicles. Many people upload their photographs to social networking websites and other websites and those interested in legal precision may explicitly release them to the public domain or under a free content license. Some sites, including Wikimedia Commons, are punctilious about licenses, the dictionary definition of photographer at Wiktionary Media related to Photographers at Wikimedia Commons
12.
George VI
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George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
13.
Elizabeth II
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Elizabeth II has been Queen of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand since 6 February 1952. Elizabeth was born in London as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth and her father acceded to the throne on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII in 1936, from which time she was the heir presumptive. She began to undertake duties during the Second World War. Elizabeths many historic visits and meetings include a visit to the Republic of Ireland. She has seen major changes, such as devolution in the United Kingdom, Canadian patriation. She has reigned through various wars and conflicts involving many of her realms and she is the worlds oldest reigning monarch as well as Britains longest-lived. In October 2016, she became the longest currently reigning monarch, in 2017 she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee. Elizabeth has occasionally faced republican sentiments and press criticism of the family, however, support for the monarchy remains high. Elizabeth was born at 02,40 on 21 April 1926, during the reign of her paternal grandfather and her father, Prince Albert, Duke of York, was the second son of the King. Her mother, Elizabeth, Duchess of York, was the youngest daughter of Scottish aristocrat Claude Bowes-Lyon, 14th Earl of Strathmore and she was delivered by Caesarean section at her maternal grandfathers London house,17 Bruton Street, Mayfair. Elizabeths only sibling, Princess Margaret, was born in 1930, the two princesses were educated at home under the supervision of their mother and their governess, Marion Crawford, who was casually known as Crawfie. Lessons concentrated on history, language, literature and music, Crawford published a biography of Elizabeth and Margarets childhood years entitled The Little Princesses in 1950, much to the dismay of the royal family. The book describes Elizabeths love of horses and dogs, her orderliness, others echoed such observations, Winston Churchill described Elizabeth when she was two as a character. She has an air of authority and reflectiveness astonishing in an infant and her cousin Margaret Rhodes described her as a jolly little girl, but fundamentally sensible and well-behaved. During her grandfathers reign, Elizabeth was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind her uncle Edward, Prince of Wales, and her father, the Duke of York. Although her birth generated public interest, she was not expected to become queen, many people believed that he would marry and have children of his own. When her grandfather died in 1936 and her uncle succeeded as Edward VIII, she became second-in-line to the throne, later that year, Edward abdicated, after his proposed marriage to divorced socialite Wallis Simpson provoked a constitutional crisis. Consequently, Elizabeths father became king, and she became heir presumptive, if her parents had had a later son, she would have lost her position as first-in-line, as her brother would have been heir apparent and above her in the line of succession
14.
Barrister
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A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
15.
Robert Armstrong-Jones
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Sir Robert Armstrong-Jones, CBE, born Robert Jones, was a Welsh physician and psychiatrist. He was the grandfather of Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon and he was born in Ynyscynhaearn, Caernarvonshire, the son of a Congregational minister. He was educated at Porthmadog Grammar School and Grove Park School, Wrexham, going on to study medicine at University of Wales, Bangor, in 1893 he became superintendent of the London County Councils Claybury Asylum, where he developed new treatments. In the same year he married Margaret Roberts, the daughter of Sir Owen Roberts of Plas Dinas. Armstrong-Jones lectured at St Bartholomews Hospital, and became consulting physician in mental diseases to the forces at London. In 1913, he assumed the surname of Armstrong. During World War I, he was designated a Lieutenant-Colonel in the Royal Army Medical Corps, he was knighted in 1917 and he was appointed High Sheriff of Caernarvonshire for 1929. Armstrong-Jones remained attached to Claybury, where he died at the age of 85 and his wife survived him by only four months. Their daughter, Elaine, married Colonel Charles Wauchup, armstrong-Joness son, Ronald, became a barrister and was himself the father of Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon, the brother-in-law of Queen Elizabeth II
16.
Oliver Messel
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Oliver Hilary Sambourne Messel was an English artist and one of the foremost stage designers of the 20th century. Messel was born in London, the son of Lieutenant-Colonel Leonard Messel and Maud, the only daughter of Linley Sambourne. He was educated at Hawtreys, a preparatory school then in Kent, Eton — where his classmates included Harold Acton. Subsequently, he created masks, costumes, and sets – many of which have been preserved by the Theatre Museum, cochrans revues through the late 1920s and early 1930s. He also designed the costumes for Romeo and Juliet, Rashomon, and Gigi, for film his costume designs include The Private Life of Don Juan, Romeo and Juliet, The Thief of Bagdad, and Caesar and Cleopatra. For Romeo and Juliet he also served as Set Decorator and he was Art Director on Caesar and Cleopatra, On Such a Night and Production Designer on Suddenly Last Summer, for which he was nominated for the Academy Award. During the Second World War Messel served as a camouflage officer, according to his fellow officer Julian Trevelyan, he revelled in the opportunity to give his talents free rein. The disguises of his pillboxes included haystacks, castles, ruins and it became the first production of the ballet shown on American television, on the program Producers Showcase. That production, the first ever televised in color, survives on black-and-white kinescope and has released on DVD. In 2006, it was revived by the Royal Ballet, starring Alina Cojocaru, with new additions to the scenic design by Peter Farmer. In 1953, he was commissioned to design the decor for a suite at Londons elegant Dorchester Hotel, the suite, along with other suites that he designed in the Dorchester, are preserved as part of Britains national heritage. It was restored in the 1980s by many of the craftsmen, overseen by Messels nephew, Lord Snowdon. Messel also contributed to design, creating the new Delman shoe store for H. & M. Rayne in Old Bond Street in 1960. An article in The Observer noted that, Mr Messel and Mr Rayne are at one in thinking that shoes to buy should be as easy to see and handle as books in a library. Oliver Messel came from a wealthy, well-connected family and when his nephew, Antony Armstrong-Jones, married HRH Princess Margaret, a lifelong relationship with the British royalty began. Messel was later to design Les Jolies Eaux, Princess Margaret’s home on Mustique Island in The Grenadines, in 1959, Messel, exhausted by a demanding theatre season and recurring arthritis, retreated to Barbados and the lush beauty of the eastern Caribbean. He was 55 and at the peak of a career in which he had dazzled three decades of theatre-goers with his fantastic, romantic and inspired stage sets and costumes, not content to rest there, he also designed many furnishings for these homes, particularly for outdoor use. Messel bought a house called Maddox, a simple bay house perched above a small beach on the St. James coast
17.
Punch (magazine)
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Punch, or The London Charivari was a British weekly magazine of humour and satire established in 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells. Historically, it was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s, after the 1940s, when its circulation peaked, it went into a long decline, closing in 1992. It was revived in 1996, but closed again in 2002, Punch was founded on 17 July 1841 by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells, on an initial investment of £25. It was jointly edited by Mayhew and Mark Lemon and it was subtitled The London Charivari in homage to Charles Philipons French satirical humour magazine Le Charivari. Mayhew ceased to be joint editor in 1842 and became suggestor in chief until he severed his connection in 1845, the magazine initially struggled for readers, except for an 1842 Almanack issue which shocked its creators by selling 90,000 copies. In December 1842 due to difficulties the magazine was sold to Bradbury and Evans. Bradbury and Evans capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies and also were the publishers for Charles Dickens, Punch humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the Punch cartoons led to the terms widespread use. The illustrator Archibald Henning designed the cover of the magazines first issues, the cover design varied in the early years, though Richard Doyle designed what became the magazines masthead in 1849. Artists who published in Punch during the 1840s and 50s included John Leech, Richard Doyle, John Tenniel and this group became known as The Punch Brotherhood, which also included Charles Dickens who joined Bradbury and Evans after leaving Chapman and Hall in 1843. Punch authors and artists contributed to another Bradbury and Evans literary magazine called Once A Week. In the 1860s and 1870s, conservative Punch faced competition from upstart liberal journal Fun, at Evanss café in London, the two journals had Round tables in competition with each other. Punch gave several phrases to the English language, including The Crystal Palace, several British humour classics were first serialised in Punch, such as the Diary of a Nobody and 1066 and All That. Towards the end of the century, the artistic roster included Harry Furniss, Linley Sambourne, Francis Carruthers Gould. Among the outstanding cartoonists of the century were Bernard Partridge, H. M. Bateman, Bernard Hollowood who also edited the magazine from 1957 to 1968, Kenneth Mahood. Circulation broke the 100,000 mark around 1910, and peaked in 1947–1948 at 175,000 to 184,000, sales declined steadily thereafter, ultimately, the magazine was forced to close in 1992 after 150 years of publication. Punch was widely emulated worldwide and popular in the colonies, however, the colonial experience, especially in India, also influenced Punch and its iconography. Tenniels Punch cartoons of the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny led to a surge in the magazines popularity, colonial India was time and again caricatured in Punch and can be seen as a significant source for producing knowledge about India. Many Punch cartoonists of the late 20th century published collections of their own, Punch magazine ceased publishing in 1992
18.
Edward Linley Sambourne
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His mother Frances Linley was the daughter of Peter Linley, who followed into the family business of scythe manufacture near Sheffield. Linley was educated at schools throughout England. Aged 10 or 11 he enrolled as a pupil in the City of London School, from late 1857 to 1860 he had again enrolled in a new school, the Chester Training College where he was encouraged to pursue his talent for drawing. In 1860 aged 16, Linley enrolled in the South Kensington School of Art, in 1861 Sambourne was apprenticed to John Penn & Son, marine engineers of Greenwich. Initially he worked under the son, John Penn Jr but was moved to the drawing office when his employer discovered his aptitude for draft drawing. In his spare time Sambourne continued to draw caricatures and study the great artists such as William Hogarth. At his son’s urging Thomas passed the drawing on to Mark Lemon, Lemon was sufficiently impressed by the sketch that he encouraged Sambourne to take art lessons and consult the engraver Joseph Swain about drawing on wood. Pleased with the results Lemon published a drawing by Sambourne in the 27 April 1867 issue of Punch and this was an initial letter T showing the politician John Bright striking a quintain. Between 1867 and 1874 Sambourne contributed 350 initial letters, although Sambournes distinctive style emerged only slowly, he became a regular staff member of Punch in 1871, and, at the end of John Tenniels long occupancy in 1901, its chief principal cartoonist. The quality of his work for Punch was acknowledged by the Royal Academy, while his work for Punch occupied most of his energy it was not Sambournes only source of income he would often accept commissions for individuals, books, magazines and advertisements. These include, Book illustrations Military Men I have met, edward Dyne Fenton,1872 Our Autumn Holiday on French Rivers. James Lynam Molly,1874 Our Holiday in the Scottish Highlands and that Mighty Art of Black-And-White, Linley Sambourne, Punch, and the Royal Academy. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Ad Hoc Press, a Victorian household, based on the diaries of Marion Sambourne. Nymans, the story of a Sussex garden, stroud, Alan Sutton in association with the National Trust. Linley Sambourne, illustrator and Punch cartoonist
19.
Alfred Messel
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Alfred Messel was one of the most well-known German architects at the turning point to the 20th century, creating a new style for buildings which bridged the transition from historicism to modernism. As an urban architect striving for excellence he was in many respects ahead of his time and his most well known works, the Wertheim department stores and the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, reflect a new concept of self-confident metropolitan architecture. His architectural drawings and construction plans are preserved at the Architecture Museum of the Technical University of Berlin, Alfred Messel was the third son of the banker Simon Messel. The family owned a bank which was managed by Alfred’s brother Ludwig, first in Darmstadt and then, from the end of the 1870s. In his youth Alfred Messel began a friendship with Ludwig Hoffmann. In 1872 Messel graduated from the Ludwig-Georgs-Gymnasium in Darmstadt, after which he served in the military as a volunteer in the First Grand Ducal Hessian Royal Guard Infantry Regiment. In 1873 he attended the Kassel art academy together with his friend Ludwig Hoffmann, followed by studies at the Berlin Building Academy under Heinrich Strack. Over the next two years he traveled extensively through France, Spain, Italy and Great Britain and was a lecturer at the newly founded Technical University in Berlin-Charlottenburg, in 1886 he took a leave of absence from the civil service to work as a private architect. On February 1,1893 he married Elsa Altmann and in November of that year their first child, in February 1894 he was appointed professor at the Berlin School of Fine Arts and in the same year founded an architectural firm together with Martin Altgelt. In 1896 his son Ludwig Leonhard was born, in 1899 Messel converted from Judaism to Protestantism. On May 17 of that year he received the Order of the Red Eagle, 4th Class, also that year his youngest daughter Irene was born. In 1900 he terminated his collaboration with Martin Altgelt, starting in 1902 he suffered from heart disease, which caused him to spend long periods at a health resort in the following years. He was busy with the extension of the Wertheim store on Leipziger Platz 1903/06. In 1906 Messel became a member of the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin and in 1906 was awarded a doctorate from Darmstadt Technical University. Messel died on March 24,1909 and was buried in the Alter St. -Matthäus-Kirchhof in Berlin-Schöneberg, since he was of Jewish descent, city streets named after him were renamed during the Nazi era. Messel’s most famous work is the Wertheim Department store on Leipziger Platz, after passing through a vestibule two-storeys high, one entered a rectangular light well 22 meter high and 450 square meters in size. On the opposite wall a stairway led to the upper sales floors. The store did not survive World War II, in March 1943 it was damaged by three exploding bombs, and its final destruction was caused by a fire started by a phosphorus bomb
20.
Elizabeth Ann Linley
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Elizabeth Ann Sheridan was the first daughter of the composer Thomas Linley and his wife Mary Johnson, and was herself the wife of the leading playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan. She was one of the most noted soprano singers of her day, Elizabeth Ann Sheridan was born in the autumn of 1754 but the exact date varies with sources giving 4,5 or 7 September, at either Abbey Green or 5 Pierrepont Street, Bath. Her father was Thomas Linley, an English musician and composer, Elizabeth was the couples eldest daughter, and like several of her siblings inherited her parents musical abilities. It is likely she began singing at concerts when she was nine years old and she made her formal stage début alongside her brother, also named Thomas, in 1767 at Covent Garden. The concert, or masque, featured music by Bach and was called The Fairy Favour, Elizabeth sang and her brother played the part of Puck. At the end of 1770, she was betrothed to an elderly but wealthy suitor, Walter Long, Long paid her compensation of £3,000 in 1771 and she also received £1,000 worth of clothing and jewellery. On 26 June 1771, a new comedy, called The Maid of Bath, opened at the Haymarket Theatre, written by Samuel Foote, it played for 24 nights in London and was very popular but made Elizabeth a figure of ridicule. She moved to France in 1772 accompanied by Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the abscondment may have been an attempt to avoid the unwanted attention of Captain Thomas Mathews, a married man. The Linley family made the acquaintance of Mathews when he moved to Bath in 1770 and he amorously pursued Elizabeth despite his marital status. Elizabeths father may have delayed seeking her return until after Mathews had left Bath, Mathews placed an advertisement in the Bath Chronicle, published on 9 April 1772, decrying Sheridan, then left the town a few days later. The young couple stayed in France for around a month, returning on or around 29 April 1772, Mathews lost his sword and begged for his life before signing a formal retraction of the advertisement he had placed. Sheridan was not obliged to accept this challenge, but would have become a social pariah if he had not, the second duel, fought in July 1772 at Kingsdown near Bath, was a much more ferocious affair. This time both men broke their swords but carried on fighting in a struggle for life and honour. Elizabeth was performing in Oxford and Cambridge so was unaware of the events until later, although Sheridans injuries were severe, eight days after the duel the Bath Chronicle was able to announce that he was out of danger. According to later reports their courtship was one of the classic romances of the west country. After they were officially married Sheridan would not allow her to appear on stage in a capacity as he felt it reflected badly on his status as a gentleman. Thomas Gainsborough had been a friend of the family since 1759 and his artwork The Linley Sisters was painted c. 1772 and shows Elizabeth and her sister Mary Linley shortly before the elopement. Gainsborough developed an affinity with Elizabeth, intuitively sensing her subconscious thoughts, Elizabeth was also the model for the Joshua Reynolds painting St Cecilia, which was successfully exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1775, and described by Reynolds as the best picture I ever painted
21.
Richard Brinsley Sheridan
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Richard Brinsley Butler Sheridan was an Irish satirist, a playwright and poet, and long-term owner of the London Theatre Royal, Drury Lane. He is known for his plays such as The Rivals, The School for Scandal, The Duenna and he was also a Whig MP for 32 years in the British House of Commons for Stafford, Westminster, and Ilchester. He is buried at Poets Corner in Westminster Abbey and his plays remain a central part of the canon and are regularly performed worldwide. RB Sheridan was born in 1751 in Dublin, Ireland, where his family had a house on then fashionable Dorset Street, while in Dublin Sheridan attended the English Grammar School in Grafton Street. The family moved permanently to England in 1758 when he was aged seven and he was a pupil at Harrow School from 1762 to 1768. His mother, Frances Sheridan, was a playwright and novelist and she had two plays produced in London in the early 1760s, though she is best known for her novel The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Biddulph. In 1772 Sheridan fought two duels with Captain Thomas Mathews, who had written a newspaper article defaming the character of Elizabeth Ann Linley, the woman Sheridan intended to marry. In the first duel, they agreed to fight in Hyde Park, far from its romantic image, the duel was short and bloodless. Mathews lost his sword and, according to Sheridan, was forced to beg for his life, the apology was made public and Mathews, infuriated by the publicity the duel had received, refused to accept his defeat as final and challenged Sheridan to another duel. Sheridan was not obliged to accept this challenge, but could have become a social pariah if he had not, the second duel, fought in July 1772 at Kingsdown near Bath, was a much more ferocious affair. This time both men broke their swords but carried on fighting in a struggle for life and honour. His remarkable constitution pulled him through, and eight days after this affair the Bath Chronicle was able to announce that he was out of danger. Mathews escaped in a post chaise, the young couple entered the fashionable world and apparently held up their end in entertaining. In 1775 Sheridans first play, The Rivals, was produced at Londons Covent Garden Theatre and it was a failure on its first night. Sheridan cast a more capable actor in the lead for its performance, and it was a smash which immediately established the young playwrights reputation. It has gone on to become a standard of English literature, shortly after the success of The Rivals, Sheridan and his father-in-law Thomas Linley the Elder, a successful composer, produced the opera, The Duenna. This piece was accorded such a reception that it played for seventy-five performances. In the next year,1776, Sheridan, his father-in-law and one other partner bought a half-interest in the Drury Lane theatre and, Sheridan was the manager of the theatre for many years, and later became sole owner with no managerial role
22.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
23.
Liverpool Infirmary
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Liverpool Infirmary was founded in 1743, took 6 years to build, was opened by the Earl of Derby on 25 March 1749. The first Infirmary stood on the site of the present day St Georges Hall, the Infirmary was brought about due, in part, to the unsanitary conditions of the town at the time. In 1700 the population was about 5000, by 1749 it had quadrupled to 20,000, with the population growing fast the people were housed in ill drained streets. The unsanitary conditions led to illness and it was decided to open the Infirmary. William Rathbone V set up the worlds first ever district nursing service in Liverpool, initially with only one nurse, he asked Florence Nightingale’s advice on how to expand. At her suggestion, Rathbone persuaded the Infirmary to open a training school based at the Royal Infirmary. This was established in 1862 and was the second only Nightingale nurse training school in the United Kingdom, after the Florence Nightingale School of Nursing, the Infirmary was built of brick and faced with stone. On the ground there were two exam rooms, a lodging room, an apothecary, and the Hospice Chapel. The second floor held four wards, a room and two bedrooms for nurses. The kitchen, wash-house, laundry and laboratory were situated in the cellar, in 1823 a new hospital and lunatic asylum was built on Brownlow Street and renamed the Liverpool Royal Infirmary in 1851. The old Infirmary was closed in 1826 and eventually demolished in 1842 to make way for St Georges Hall, in 1890 a new Infirmary building by Alfred Waterhouse was constructed on the Brownlow Street site. The building is an example of Victorian design, in red brick. In 1978 the building closed and was replaced by the Royal Liverpool University Hospital, the Royal Infirmary has since been used by the BBC for Casualty 1907 in 2006/2007
24.
Independent school (United Kingdom)
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For example, pupils do not have to follow the National Curriculum. Seven of the older, expensive and more schools catering for the 13–18 age-range in England. The term public being derived from the fact that they were open to pupils regardless of where they lived or their religion, prep schools, educate younger children up to the age of 13 to prepare them for entry to the public schools and other independent schools. Some former grammar schools converted to an independent fee paying model following the 1965 Circular 10/65 which marked the end of their state funding, others converted into comprehensive schools. There are around 2,500 independent schools in the UK, in addition to charging tuition fees, many also benefit from gifts, charitable endowments and charitable status. Many of these schools are members of the Independent Schools Council and these schools were founded as part of the church and were under their complete dominion. However, it was during the late 14th & early 15th centuries that the first schools, winchester & Oswestry were the first of their kind and paved the way for the establishment of the modern Public school. These were often established for scholars from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds, however, English law has always regarded education as a charitable end in itself. For instance, the Queens Scholarships founded at Westminster in 1560, are for the sons of decayd gentlemen, also, facilities already provided by the charitable foundation for a few scholars could profitably be extended to further paying pupils. After a time, such fees would eclipse the original charitable income, in 2009 senior boarding schools were charging fees of between £16,000 and nearly £30,000 per annum. However, majority of the independent schools today are still registered as a charity, christs Hospital in Horsham is one of the examples, large proposition of its students are funded by its charitable foundation or by various benefactors. Most public schools developed significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools created a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes. They were schools for the elite of Victorian politics, armed forces. Often successful businessmen would send their sons to a school as a mark of participation in the elite. More recently heads of schools have been emphasising that senior pupils now play a much reduced role in disciplining. To an extent, the school system influenced the school systems of the British Empire. Until 1975 there had been a group of 179 academically selective schools drawing on both private and state funding, the direct grant grammar schools, the Direct Grant Grammar Schools Regulations 1975 required these schools to choose between full state funding as comprehensive schools and full independence. As a result,119 of these schools became independent, pupil numbers at independent schools fell slightly during the mid-1970s recession
25.
Wiltshire
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Wiltshire is a county in South West England with an area of 3,485 km2. It is landlocked and borders the counties of Dorset, Somerset, the county town was originally Wilton, after which the county is named, but Wiltshire Council is now based in the new county town of Trowbridge. Wiltshire is characterised by its high downland and wide valleys, Salisbury Plain is noted for being the location of the Stonehenge and Avebury stone circles and other ancient landmarks, and as a training area for the British Army. The city of Salisbury is notable for its mediaeval cathedral, important country houses open to the public include Longleat, near Warminster, and the National Trusts Stourhead, near Mere. The county, in the 9th century written as Wiltunscir, later Wiltonshire, is named after the county town of Wilton. Wiltshire is notable for its pre-Roman archaeology, the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age people that occupied southern Britain built settlements on the hills and downland that cover Wiltshire. Stonehenge and Avebury are perhaps the most famous Neolithic sites in the UK, in the 6th and 7th centuries Wiltshire was at the western edge of Saxon Britain, as Cranborne Chase and the Somerset Levels prevented the advance to the west. The Battle of Bedwyn was fought in 675 between Escuin, a West Saxon nobleman who had seized the throne of Queen Saxburga, in 878 the Danes invaded the county. Following the Norman Conquest, large areas of the country came into the possession of the crown, at the time of the Domesday Survey the industry of Wiltshire was largely agricultural,390 mills are mentioned, and vineyards at Tollard and Lacock. In the 17th century English Civil War Wiltshire was largely Parliamentarian, the Battle of Roundway Down, a Royalist victory, was fought near Devizes. The Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry currently lives on as Y Squadron, based in Swindon, around 1800 the Kennet and Avon Canal was built through Wiltshire, providing a route for transporting cargoes from Bristol to London until the development of the Great Western Railway. Information on the 261 civil parishes of Wiltshire is available on the Wiltshire Community History website, run by the Libraries and this site includes maps, demographic data, historic and modern pictures and short histories. The local nickname for Wiltshire natives is moonrakers and this originated from a story of smugglers who managed to foil the local Excise men by hiding their alcohol, possibly French brandy in barrels or kegs, in a village pond. The officials took them for simple yokels or mad and left them alone, many villages claim the tale for their own village pond, but the story is most commonly linked with The Crammer in Devizes. Two-thirds of Wiltshire, a rural county, lies on chalk. This chalk is part of a system of chalk downlands throughout eastern and southern England formed by the rocks of the Chalk Group, the largest area of chalk in Wiltshire is Salisbury Plain, which is used mainly for arable agriculture and by the British Army as training ranges. The highest point in the county is the Tan Hill–Milk Hill ridge in the Pewsey Vale, just to the north of Salisbury Plain, the chalk uplands run northeast into West Berkshire in the Marlborough Downs ridge, and southwest into Dorset as Cranborne Chase. Cranborne Chase, which straddles the border, has, like Salisbury Plain, yielded much Stone Age, the Marlborough Downs are part of the North Wessex Downs AONB, a 1,730 km2 conservation area
26.
Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia
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Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia was a member of the House of Karađorđević, the second son of Alexander I and Maria of Yugoslavia. He was a brother of Peter II of Yugoslavia and a former nephew-in-law to Prince Philip. The Prince was named after Tomislav of Croatia, the King of medieval Croatia and he began his elementary education at the Belgrade Palace but in 1937 he started to attend Sandroyd School in Cobham, England. He stayed in the UK throughout World War II and after King Peter was deposed, moving on to Oundle School from 1941–1946 and Clare College, Cambridge in 1946-1947. In 1934 when he was six, Prince Tomislavs father, Alexander I, was assassinated. As he was still only 11, because of his young age, two days later, in a British-supported coup détat opposing the Tripartite Pact, King Peter, then 17, was proclaimed of age, and the regency overthrown. Postponing Operation Barbarossa, Germany simultaneously attacked Yugoslavia and Greece, from 6 April Luftwaffe pounded Belgrade for three days and three nights, Operation Punishment. Within a week, Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Italy invaded Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia was divided to satisfy Italian, Bulgarian, Hungarian and German demands and puppet Croat, Montenegrin and Serb states proclaimed. He went to England in June 1941, where he joined numerous other governments in exile from Nazi-occupied Europe, local Yugoslav forces continued to resist the occupying Axis powers. Initially the monarchy preferred Draža Mihailović and his Serb-dominated Četnik resistance, however, in 1944, the Tito–Šubašić agreement recognised the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia as a provisional government, with the status of the monarchy to be decided at a later date. Three regents, Srđan Budisavljević, a Serb, Ante Mandić, a Croat, and Dušan Sernec and they appointed the new government, to be headed by Tito as prime minister and minister of war, with Šubašić as foreign minister, on 7 March. On 29 November 1945, while still in exile, King Peter II was deposed by the constituent assembly, the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia was internationally recognized as Yugoslavia while Peter II became a pretender. After Cambridge, and not being able to return to Yugoslavia following the abolition of the Monarchy, Prince Tomislav remained in the UK, while he attended agricultural college, he worked summers as an ordinary field hand in an orchard in Kent. In 1950, he bought a farm at Kirdford, near Petworth, in West Sussex and he supported the Serbian community and the Serbian Orthodox Church in the United Kingdom, helping found St Lazars Church, Bournville where he married his second wife, Linda Bonney, in 1982. He was the first member of the family who permanently moved back to Serbia, in early 1992, making his residence at the King Peter I Foundation Complex in Oplenac. He frequently visited the Serb soldiers in Republika Srpska and the Republic of Serb Krajina, there were initiatives for him to be crowned Prince of the Serb-held part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were rejected by the local political leadership. He died after five years of illness on 12 July 2000, Peter and Paul Day in the Julian Calendar, the patron saints of the family crypt on Oplenac, where he was buried, in a funeral attended by several thousand mourners. He was married on 5 June 1957, in Salem, Baden-Württemberg, West Germany, Tomislav and Margarita were divorced in 1981
27.
Prince Andrew of Yugoslavia
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Prince Andrew of Yugoslavia was born in Bled, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, subsequently Kingdom of Yugoslavia, now Slovenia. He was the youngest child of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia and Maria of Yugoslavia, daughter of King Ferdinand of Romania and Marie of Edinburgh. After the fall of the monarchy in Yugoslavia, he went into exile in London, on 2 August 1956, he married his third cousin-once-removed Princess Christina Margarethe of Hesse, in Kronberg im Taunus, Germany. She was the eldest child of Prince Christoph of Hesse and his wife Princess Sophie of Greece and Denmark, her mother being a sister of Prince Philip and they had two children, Princess Maria Tatiana, married 30 June 1990 Gregory Per Edward Anthony Michael Thune-Larsen. Prince Christopher, a teacher who died in a bicycle accident. The couple divorced in London on 31 May 1962, on 18 September 1963, he married his second cousin Princess Kira of Leiningen, daughter of Karl, Prince of Leiningen and Grand Duchess Maria Kirillovna of Russia. Married firstly 20 May 1989 Erastos Dimitrios Sidiropoulos and secondly on 4 October 1998 Austin Prichard-Levy, nadya Marie George, illegitimate, fathered by Roy Rexford Finnimore, her surname was changed to Sidiropoulos in 1990. Prince Karl Vladimir Cyril Andrej, married 18 April 2000 Brigitte Müller and they were divorced in Frankfurt am Main on 10 July 1972. Andrej married thirdly Eva Maria Andjelkovich on 30 March 1974 in Palm Springs, California and he was found dead in his car in Irvine, California, US on 7 May 1990. The death was determined to be suicide by carbon monoxide and his remains were initially buried in New Gračanica Monastery, Third Lake, Illinois. They remained there until 2013, when they were returned to Serbia and buried in Saint Georges Church, Oplenac on 26 May 2013
28.
Peter II of Yugoslavia
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Peter II was the last King of Yugoslavia, and the last reigning member of the Karađorđević dynasty which came to prominence in the early 19th century. Peter II was the eldest son of Alexander I and Maria of Romania, Prince Peter was initially tutored at the Royal Palace, Belgrade, before attending Sandroyd School then in Cobham, Surrey where Reeds School now stands. When he was 11 years old, Prince Peter succeeded to the Yugoslav throne in 1934 upon the assassination of his father King Alexander I in Marseille during a visit to France. In view of the new monarchs young age, a regency was set up under his fathers cousin Prince Paul. Although King Peter II and his advisors were utterly opposed to Nazi Germany, two days later, King Peter, at age 17, was proclaimed of age, after a British-supported coup détat. Postponing Operation Barbarossa, Nazi Germany simultaneously attacked Yugoslavia and Greece on 6 April 1941, within a week, Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Italy invaded Yugoslavia, and the government was forced to surrender on 17 April. Parts of Yugoslavia were annexed by Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary, the remaining parts of the kingdom of Yugoslavia, Croatia and Serbia, two Nazi-puppet governments were installed. In June 1941, King Peter arrived in London where he joined numerous other governments in exile from Nazi-occupied Europe, the King completed his education at Cambridge University before being commissioned in the Royal Air Force. In 1942 he made a visit to America and Canada. The whirlwind tour was unsuccessful in securing Allied support for the exiled Yugoslav monarchist cause, FDR and Churchill had already engaged the support of the Communist Yugoslav Government in the Allied effort to defeat Nazi Germany, with a view to ending the hostilities. Peter married his cousin, Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark in London on 20 March 1944. They had one son, Crown Prince Alexander, who was born on 17 July 1945, Peter filed for divorce in 1953. He hired attorney René de Chambrun, the son-in-law of Vichy France Prime Minister Pierre Laval, however, the couple reconciled in 1955. Though the war ended, Peter was not allowed to return home and he was deposed by Yugoslavias Communist Constituent Assembly on 29 November 1945. After that, he settled in the United States, after many years of suffering from cirrhosis of the liver, he died in Denver, Colorado, on 3 November 1970, after a failed liver transplant. He was interred in Saint Sava Monastery Church at Libertyville, Illinois, on 4 March 2007, former Crown Prince Alexander announced plans to have his fathers remains repatriated to Serbia. Peter II had chosen St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Monastery as his resting place because of the extenuating circumstances that afflicted his homeland. After talks with the Serbian government, the move was confirmed in January 2013 with the place being the Royal Family Mausoleum in Oplenac
29.
Eton College
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Eton College /iːtən/ is an English independent boarding school for boys in Eton, Berkshire, near Windsor. It educates more than 1,300 pupils, aged 13 to 18 years and it was founded in 1440 by King Henry VI as The Kings College of Our Lady of Eton besides Wyndsor, making it the 18th oldest Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference school. Eton is one of the seven public schools as defined by the Public Schools Act 1868. Eton has educated 19 British prime ministers and generations of the aristocracy and has referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The school is headed by a Provost and Fellows, who appoint the Head Master and it contains 25 boys houses, each headed by a housemaster, selected from the more senior members of the teaching staff, which numbers some 155. Almost all of the pupils go on to universities, about a third of them to Oxford or Cambridge. The Head Master is a member of the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference, Eton has a long list of distinguished former pupils. David Cameron was the 19th British prime minister to have attended the school, about 20% of pupils at Eton receive financial support, through a range of bursaries and scholarships. In early 2014, this figure had risen to 263 pupils receiving the equivalent of around 60% of school fee assistance, Eton has been described as the most famous public school in the world, and been referred to as the chief nurse of Englands statesmen. The Good Schools Guide called the school the number one public school, adding that The teaching. The school is a member of the G20 Schools Group, Eton today is a larger school than it has been for much of its history. In 1678, there were 207 boys, in the late 18th century, there were about 300, while today, the total has risen to over 1,300. Eton College was founded by King Henry VI as a charity school to free education to 70 poor boys who would then go on to Kings College, Cambridge. Henry took Winchester College as his model, visiting on many occasions, borrowing its Statutes and removing its Headmaster, when Henry VI founded the school, he granted it a large number of endowments, including much valuable land. He persuaded the then Pope, Eugene IV, to grant him a privilege unparalleled anywhere in England, the school also came into possession of one of Englands Apocalypse manuscripts. Legend has it that Edwards mistress, Jane Shore, intervened on the schools behalf and she was able to save a good part of the school, although the royal bequest and the number of staff were much reduced. Construction of the chapel, originally intended to be slightly over twice as long, only the Quire of the intended building was completed. Etons first Headmaster, William Waynflete, founder of Magdalen College, Oxford and previously Head Master of Winchester College, as the school suffered reduced income while still under construction, the completion and further development of the school has since depended to some extent on wealthy benefactors
30.
Michaelmas
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Michaelmas is a minor Christian festival observed in some Western liturgical calendars on the 29th of September. Michaelmas has been one of the four days of the financial year. The Serbian Orthodox Church observes the feast, whereas most Eastern Orthodox Churches do not, the Greek and Romanian Orthodox honor the archangels on 8 November instead. In Christian angelology, the Archangel Michael is the greatest of all the Archangels and is honored for defeating Satan in the war in heaven and he is one of the principal angelic warriors, seen as a protector against the dark of night, and the administrator of cosmic intelligence. Michaelmas has also delineated time and seasons for secular purposes, as well, particularly in Britain, the name Michaelmas comes from a shortening of Michaels Mass, in the same style as Christmas and Candlemas. During the Middle Ages, Michaelmas, or the Feast of St. Michael, was celebrated as a Holy Day of Obligation, in medieval England, Michaelmas marked the ending and beginning of the husbandmans year, George C. Homans observes, at that time harvest was over, and the bailiff or reeve of the manor would be making out the accounts for the year. Because it falls near the equinox, it is associated in the northern hemisphere with the beginning of autumn and it was also one of the English, Welsh and Irish quarter days when accounts had to be settled. On manors, it was the day when a reeve was elected from the peasants, Michaelmas hiring fairs were held at the end of September or beginning of October. On the Isle of Skye, Scotland, a procession was held, many of the activities that had been done at Lughnasadh – sports, games and horse races – migrated to this day. One of the few flowers left around at this time of year is the Michaelmas daisy, hence the rhyme, The Michaelmas daisies, among dead weeds, Bloom for St Michaels valorous deeds. Traditional meal for the day includes goose, the bread was made from equal parts of barley, oats, and rye without using any metal implements. In remembrance of absent friends or those who had died, special Struans, nuts were traditionally cracked on Michaelmas Eve. Folklore in the British Isles suggests that Michaelmas day is the last day that blackberries can be picked and it is said that when St. Michael expelled Lucifer, the devil, from heaven, he fell from the skies and landed in a prickly blackberry bush. Satan cursed the fruit, scorched them with his fiery breath, as it is considered ill-advised to eat them after 29 September, a Michaelmas pie is made from the last of the season. In Anglican and Episcopal tradition, there are three or four archangels in its calendar for 29 September feast for St. Michael and All Angels, namely Michael, Gabriel and Raphael, and often, Uriel. The Bible itself identifies only Michael as an archangel, although in I Thessalonians 4,16, there is the implication that there is more than one archangel. It is used in the sense of autumn, as the name of the first term of the academic year
31.
North Wales
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North Wales is the northernmost unofficial region of Wales. Retail, transport and educational infrastructure are centred on Wrexham, Rhyl, Colwyn Bay, Llandudno and Bangor. It is bordered to the south by the counties of Ceredigion and Powys in Mid Wales, the southern boundary is arbitrary and its definition may depend on the use being made of the term. For example, the boundary of North Wales Police differs from the boundary of the North Wales area of the Natural Resources Wales, montgomeryshire is sometimes referred to as being in north Wales. The region is steeped in history and was for almost a millennium known as the Kingdom of Gwynedd, the mountainous stronghold of Snowdonia formed the nucleus of that realm and would become the last redoubt of independent Wales — only overcome in 1283. To this day it remains a stronghold of the Welsh language, the area is home to two of the three UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Wales. These are Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and canal and, collectively, the Edwardian castles and town walls of the region which comprise those at Caernarfon, Beaumaris, Conwy and Harlech. It also shares with Powys and Ceredigion the distinction of hosting the only UNESCO Biosphere reserve in Wales, namely, the area is mostly rural with many mountains and valleys. This, in combination with its coast, has ensured that tourism is the principal industry, farming, which was once the principal economic force in the area, is now much reduced in importance. The average income per capita of the population is the lowest in the UK. The eastern part of North Wales contains the most populous areas, with more than 300,000 people living in the areas around Wrexham, Wrexham is North Wales largest town, with a population of 63,084 in 2001. The total population of North Wales is 687,937, the majority of other settlements are along the coast, including some popular resort towns, such as Rhyl, Llandudno and Pwllheli. The A55 road links these towns to cities like Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham, the highest mountain in Wales, Snowdon, is situated in north west Wales. North Wales has a diverse and complex geology with Precambrian schists along the Menai Strait. To the east, around Llangollen, to the north on Halkyn Mountain, added to all this are the complexities posed by Parys Mountain and the outcrops of unusual minerals such as Jasper and Mona Marble which make the area of special interest to geologists. North Wales has a regional identity. Colloquially, a person from North Wales is known as a North Walian, areas close to the border with Cheshire can have Scouse accents of English, and along the coast Manchester accents are common. Two daily newspapers are published in the region, a weekly Welsh-language newspaper, Y Cymro is published each week by the Cambrian News from its Porthmadog office alongside two localised Welsh titles, Y Cyfnod and Y Dydd
32.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
33.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
34.
Coxswain (rowing)
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In a crew, the coxswain /ˈkɒksən/ is the member who sits in the stern facing the bow. The coxswain is responsible for steering the boat, and coordinating the power, in some capacities, the coxswain is responsible for implementing the training regimen prescribed by a teams coach during practice. Be responsible for the vessel, in the event of a collision, the coxswain is in charge of the shell. They are responsible for safety, which must be the prime concern. Along with steering, their role is to coach the crew, the cox acts as the coachs assistant, but in the absence of a coach, as is the case in a race, the cox becomes the coach. Being in the boat, the cox has a feel for what the crew need, the cox needs to translate the coachs concerns into practical calls. The cox must be able to diagnose problems such as balance and it is essential that the coach and the cox work in good harmony and show respect to each other all the time. Its essential that the cox is briefed on what the coach wants to achieve in the outing from the point of view of building physical fitness, technical skill, a cox must be positive, a good motivator and very encouraging. Whilst errors must be spotted and corrected, it is important to catch someone getting it right where they have been struggling. Rowing boats are designed for speed, not manoeuverability, so steering requires effort, coxswains may steer with either the tiller, commands for increased pressure or strength from rowers on one side of the boat, or both, depending on what is necessary in the situation. In the most extreme cases, the coxswain may go full tiller, turning the rudder to its maximum angle and this technique is usually reserved for only the sharpest turns, as the sharp angle of the rudder increases drag and upsets the balance of the boat. For more conventional turns, the coxswain may move the tiller slightly to one side or the other over the course of a few strokes, to minimize disturbance of the boats stability, the motion of the tiller must be smooth and not sudden. The coxswain may also initiate the turn during the phase of the stroke. For very small steering adjustments, the coxswain may move the tiller very subtly during the phase of a single stroke. This technique is most effective at speeds and on straight courses. The technique that often accompanies this view involves repeatedly moving the back and forth over several strokes. However, the rudder has much less steering power during the drive phase because of the large forward propulsion force it must overcome. As a result, this often causes more boat drag due to longer rudder use
35.
Cambridge University Boat Club
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The Cambridge University Boat Club is one of the rowing clubs of the University of Cambridge, England. The club was founded in 1828 and has been located at the Goldie Boathouse on the River Cam, nowadays, training primarily takes place on the River Great Ouse at Ely. The prime constitutional aim of CUBC is to beat Oxford University Boat Club in the annual Oxford, CUBC currently lead OUBC in the series by 81 races to 79, with 1 dead heat in The Boat Race 1877. The inaugural meeting of Cambridge University Boat Club took place at Gonville, following this meeting, it was agreed that a challenge be sent to the University of Oxford to organise a race between representatives of the two universities. A letter was sent to Oxford in which they were challenged to row a match at or near London, consequently, the first Boat Race took place at Henley-on-Thames in June 1829. CUBC was one of five clubs which retained the right until 2012 to appoint representatives to the Council of British Rowing, the others were Leander Club, London Rowing Club, Thames Rowing Club and Oxford University Boat Club. CUBC has produced numerous Olympic-level rowers in its history, during the Boat Race period both the Blue Boat and Goldie crews boat from Kings College Schools Boat House on the Putney embankment. The Oxford & Cambridge Boat Race
36.
The Boat Race 1950
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The 96th Boat Race took place on 1 April 1950. Held annually, the Boat Race is a rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames. The Cambridge crew contained three Olympic silver medallists from the 1948 Summer Olympics, six of their crew rowed for Lady Margaret Boat Club, the Boat Race is a side-by-side rowing competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. First held in 1829, the takes place on the 4. 2-mile Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London. The rivalry is a point of honour between the two universities, it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and, as of 2014, broadcast worldwide. Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions, having won the 1949 race by a quarter of a length, with Cambridge leading overall with 51 victories to Oxfords 43. Cambridge were coached by R. Beesly, Roy Meldrum, Mike Nicholson, Harold Rickett, Oxfords coaches were T. A. Brocklebank, R. E. Eason, Hugh Jumbo Edwards and J. A. MacNabb. The race was umpired for the time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne. The Observers G. I. F. Thomson suggested that it is anyones race, the Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 8.25 lb,4.75 pounds per rower more than their opponents. Oxford saw three return to the boat with experience of the event, including number five G. C. Fisk who was rowing in his third consecutive Boat Race, Cambridges crew contained five rowers who had taken part in the Boat Race previously, including Paul Bircher who was also making his third appearance in the race. Four of the participants in the race were registered as non-British, Oxfords Fisk and Calvert came from Australia, as did Cambridges Brian Lloyd, while Light Blue W. T. Arthur was South African. The Cambridge crew contained three rowers who had won medals at the 1948 Summer Olympics, Paul Massey, Bircher. Chris Davidge, the Oxford University Boat Club president, was forced to out of the race through illness. Five of the Oxford rowers were educated at Eton College, six of the Cambridge rowers were studying at St Johns College, Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station, handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge. Umpire Payne started the race at 12,30 p. m. with the Dark Blues making a slightly faster start, although having the outside of the first bend, they had extended their lead to a quarter of a length by Craven Cottage. By the time the crews passed the Mile Post, Cambridge were leading by a quarter-length which they extended to half a length by Harrods Furniture Depository, Cambridges stroke Crick increased his crews rate, his opposite number Cavenagh responded to prevent the Light Blues going clear. While the conditions were not too rough, both crews slowed their rate, with Cambridge passing below Hammersmith Bridge still half a length ahead
37.
Carl Van Vechten
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Carl Van Vechten was an American writer and artistic photographer who was a patron of the Harlem Renaissance and the literary executor of Gertrude Stein. Born in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, he was the youngest child of Charles and he graduated from Washington High School in 1898, and later the University of Chicago in 1903. In 1906, he moved to New York City and he was hired as the assistant music critic at The New York Times. His interest in opera had him take a leave of absence from the paper in 1907, while in England he married his long-time friend from Cedar Rapids, Anna Snyder. He returned to his job at the New York Times in 1909, at that time, Isadora Duncan, Anna Pavlova, and Loie Fuller were performing in New York City. The marriage to Anna Snyder ended in divorce in 1912 and he wed actress Fania Marinoff in 1914 and their marriage lasted until the end of his life, even while his relationships with men were an open secret. They continued corresponding for the remainder of Steins life, and at her death she appointed Van Vechten her literary executor, several books of Van Vechtens essays on various subjects such as music and literature were published between 1915 and 1920. Van Vechtens controversial novel Nigger Heaven was published in 1926 and his essay Negro Blues Singers was published in Vanity Fair in 1926. Biographer Edward White suggests Van Vechten was convinced that Negro culture was the essence of America, by the start of the 1930s and at age 50, Van Vechten was finished with writing and took up photography, using his apartment at 150 West 55th Street as a studio. After the 1930s Van Vechten published little writing, though he continued writing letters to many correspondents, Van Vechten died in 1964, at the age of 84, in New York City. Most of Van Vechtens personal papers are held by the Beinecke Rare Book, the Beinecke Library also holds a collection titled Living Portraits, Carl Van Vechtens Color Photographs Of African Americans, 1939–1964, a collection of 1,884 color Kodachrome slides. The Library of Congress has a collection of approximately 1,400 photographs, there is also a collection of Van Vechtens photographs in the Prentiss Taylor collection in the Smithsonians Archives of American Art, and a Van Vechten collection at Fisk University. The Museum of the City of New Yorks collection includes 2,174 of Carl Van Vechtens photographs, brandeis Universitys department of Archives & Special Collections holds 1,689 Carl Van Vechten portraits. Van Vechten also donated materials to Fisk University to form the George Gershwin Memorial Collection of Music, the album ’O, Write My Name’, American Portraits, Harlem Heroes was completed in 1983. That year, the National Endowment for the Arts transferred the Eakins Press Foundation’s prototype albums to the permanent collection of the Smithsonian American Art Museum, dust Tracks on a Road, An Autobiography. Guide to the Carl Van Vechten papers, 1833–1965, manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library. Carl Van Vechten collection of papers, 1911–1964, berg Collection of English and American Literature, New York Public Library
38.
Tatler
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Tatler is a British glossy magazine published by Condé Nast Publications focusing on fashion and lifestyle, as well as coverage of high society and politics. It is targeted towards the British upper-middle class and upper class, and its readership is the wealthiest of all Condé Nasts publications. It was founded in 1901 by Clement Shorter, Tatler also has editions in local languages in mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, and Indonesia. Tatler was introduced on 3 July 1901, by Clement Shorter, publisher of The Sphere and it was named after the original literary and society journal founded by Richard Steele in 1709. For some time a weekly publication, it had a subtitle varying on a journal of society. It contained news and pictures of high society balls, charity events, race meetings, shooting parties, fashion and gossip, with cartoons by The Tout, in 1940, it absorbed The Bystander, creating a publication called The Tatler and Bystander. In 1961, Illustrated Newspapers, which published Tatler, The Sphere, in 1965, Tatler was rebranded London Life. In 1968, it was bought by Guy Waytes Illustrated County Magazine group, Waytes group had a number of county magazines in the style of Tatler, each of which mixed the same syndicated content with county-specific local content. Wayte, a playboy of a conman was convicted of fraud in 1980 for inflating the Tatlers circulation figures from 15,000 to 49,000. The magazine was sold and relaunched as a magazine in 1977. Tina Brown, created a vibrant and youthful Tatler and is credited with putting the edge, the irony, Brown subsequently transferred to New York to another Condé Nast title, Vanity Fair. After several later editors and a recession and the magazine was once again ailing. The circulation rose to over 90,000, a figure which was exceeded five years later by Geordie Greig, kate Reardon became editor in 2011. She was previously an assistant on American Vogue and then, aged 21. Under Reardons directorship, Tatler has retained its position as having the wealthiest audience of Condé Nasts magazines, in 2014, the BBC broadcast a three-part fly-on-the-wall documentary television series, titled Posh People, Inside Tatler, featuring the editorial team going about their various jobs. One of Tatlers most talked about annual features is the Little Black Book, isabella Blow – Contributing fashion editor-at-large Clare Milford Haven – Social editor Diana Mitford – commissioned to write a Letters from Paris section in the 1960s. The Asian Tatlers are now owned by the Swiss-based Edipresse Group, the Story of Tatler, A 300-year frolic through Tatlers history, from coffee-house tri-weekly to glossy monthly. Tatler – official site Tatler – official site Tatler - official site The Tatler and The Guardian The Tatler, Vol.1 at Project Gutenberg – an 1899 reprint of the first 49 Issues of the 1709 Tatler
39.
Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
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Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh is the husband of Queen Elizabeth II. A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, Philip was born into the Greek and he was born in Greece, but his family was exiled from the country when he was an infant. After being educated in France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, he joined the Royal Navy in 1939, from July 1939, he began corresponding with the 13-year-old Princess Elizabeth, whom he had first met in 1934. During the Second World War he served with the Mediterranean and Pacific fleets, after the war, Philip was granted permission by King George VI to marry Elizabeth. After an engagement of five months, he married Elizabeth on 20 November 1947, just before the wedding, he was created Duke of Edinburgh. Philip left active service when Elizabeth became Queen in 1952. He was formally made a Prince of the United Kingdom in 1957, Philip has four children with Elizabeth, Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew, and Prince Edward. He has eight grandchildren and five great-grandchildren, a keen sports enthusiast, Philip helped develop the equestrian event of carriage driving. He is a patron of over 800 organisations and serves as chairman of the Duke of Edinburghs Award scheme for people aged 14 to 24 and he is the longest-serving consort of a reigning British monarch and the oldest-ever male member of the British royal family. Philips four elder sisters were Margarita, Theodora, Cecilie, and he was baptised into the Greek Orthodox Church. His godparents were Queen Olga of Greece and the Mayor of Corfu, shortly after Philips birth, his maternal grandfather, Prince Louis of Battenberg, then known as Louis Mountbatten, Marquess of Milford Haven, died in London. Louis was a naturalised British citizen, who, after a career in the Royal Navy, had renounced his German titles and adopted the surname Mountbatten during the First World War. After visiting London for the memorial, Philip and his mother returned to Greece where Prince Andrew had remained behind to command an army division embroiled in the Greco-Turkish War, the war went badly for Greece and the Turks made large gains. On 22 September 1922, Philips uncle, King Constantine I, was forced to abdicate, the commander of the army, General Georgios Hatzianestis, and five senior politicians were executed. Prince Andrews life was believed to be in danger, and Alice was under surveillance, in December, a revolutionary court banished Prince Andrew from Greece for life. The British naval vessel HMS Calypso evacuated Prince Andrews family, with Philip carried to safety in a cot made from a fruit box. Philips family went to France, where settled in the Paris suburb of Saint-Cloud in a house lent to them by his wealthy aunt, Princess George of Greece. Because Philip left Greece as a baby, he not have a strong grasp of Greek
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