1.
Steve Wozniak
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Stephen Gary Steve Wozniak, nicknamed Woz, is an American inventor, electronics engineer, programmer, and technology entrepreneur who co-founded Apple Inc. He is known as a pioneer of the computer revolution of the 1970s and 1980s. Wozniak single-handedly developed the 1976 Apple I, which was the computer that launched Apple and he primarily designed the 1977 Apple II, while Jobs oversaw the development of its unusual case and Rod Holt developed the unique power supply. Steve Wozniak was born in San Jose, California, the son of Margaret Elaine and he is of Polish and Swiss-German ancestry. His father was from Bukovyna, Ukraine and his mother from German-Swiss background, the name on Wozniaks birth certificate is Stephan Gary Wozniak, but Steves mother said that she intended it to be spelled Stephen, and Steve is what he uses. Wozniak has been referred to frequently by the nickname Woz, The Wonderful Wizard of Woz, The Second Steve, or The Woz, the city of San Jose named a street Woz Way in his honour. In the early 1970s, Wozniak was also known as Berkeley Blue in the phone phreak community, in 1969, Wozniak returned to the Bay Area after being expelled from University of Colorado Boulder in his first year for hacking into the institutions computer system. During this time, Wozniak designed and built his Cream Soda computer with his friend Bill Fernandez and he later re-enrolled at De Anza College and transferred to University of California, Berkeley in 1971. Before focusing his attention on Apple, he was employed at Hewlett-Packard where he designed calculators and it was during this time that he befriended Steve Jobs. Steve Wozniak was introduced to Jobs by friend Bill Fernandez, who attended Homestead High School with Jobs in 1971, Jobs and Wozniak became friends when Jobs worked for the summer at Hewlett-Packard, where Wozniak too was employed, working on a mainframe computer. This was recounted by Wozniak in a 2007 interview with ABC News, of how, a friend said, you should meet Steve Jobs, because he likes electronics and he also plays pranks. In 1973, Jobs was working for arcade game company Atari, Inc. in Los Gatos and he was assigned to create a circuit board for the arcade video game Breakout. According to Atari co-founder Nolan Bushnell, Atari offered $100 for each chip that was eliminated in the machine, Jobs had little knowledge of circuit board design and made a deal with Wozniak to split the fee evenly between them if Wozniak could minimize the number of chips. Wozniak reduced the number of chips by 50, by using RAM for the brick representation, too complex to be fully comprehended at the time, the fact that this prototype also had no scoring or coin mechanisms meant Wozs prototype could not be used. Jobs was paid the full bonus regardless, Jobs told Wozniak that Atari gave them only $700 and that Wozniaks share was thus $350. Wozniak did not learn about the actual $5,000 bonus until ten years later, on June 29,1975 Wozniak tested his first working prototype, displaying a few letters and running sample programs. It was the first time in history that a character displayed on a TV screen was generated by a home computer. With the Apple I design, he and Jobs were largely working to impress members of the Palo Alto-based Homebrew Computer Club
2.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
3.
MOS Technology 6502
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The MOS Technology 6502 is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by a small team led by Chuck Peddle for MOS Technology. When it was introduced in 1975, the 6502 was, by a considerable margin and it initially sold for less than one-sixth the cost of competing designs from larger companies, such as Motorola and Intel, and caused rapid decreases in pricing across the entire processor market. Along with the Zilog Z80, it sparked a series of projects that resulted in the computer revolution of the early 1980s. Popular home video consoles and computers, such as Atari, Apple II, Nintendo Entertainment System, Commodore PET and others. Soon after the 6502s introduction, MOS Technology was purchased outright by Commodore International, in the early days of the 6502, it was second-sourced by Rockwell and Synertek, and later licensed to other companies. The 6502 was designed by many of the engineers that had designed the Motorola 6800 microprocessor family. Motorola started the 6800 microprocessor project in 1971 with Tom Bennett as the main architect, the chip layout began in late 1972, the first 6800 chips were fabricated in February 1974 and the full family was officially released in November 1974. John Buchanan was the designer of the 6800 chip and Rod Orgill, Bill Mensch joined Motorola in June 1971 after graduating from the University of Arizona. His first assignment was helping define the peripheral ICs for the 6800 family, Motorolas engineers could run analog and digital simulations on an IBM 370-165 mainframe computer. Bennett hired Chuck Peddle in 1973 to do architectural work on the 6800 family products already in progress. He contributed in areas, including the design of the 6850 ACIA. Motorolas target customers were established electronics companies such as Hewlett-Packard, Tektronix, TRW, in May 1972, Motorolas engineers began visiting select customers and sharing the details of their proposed 8-bit microprocessor system with ROM, RAM, parallel and serial interfaces. In early 1974, they provided engineering samples of the chips so that customers could prototype their designs, Motorolas total product family strategy did not focus on the price of the microprocessor, but on reducing the customers total design cost. They offered development software on a computer, the EXORciser system debugging system, onsite training. Both Intel and Motorola had initially announced a price for a single microprocessor. The actual price for production quantities was much less, Motorola offered a design kit containing the 6800 with six support chips for $300. Peddle, who would accompany the people on customer visits. To lower the price, the IC chip size would have to shrink so that more chips could be produced on each silicon wafer and this could be done by removing inessential features in the 6800 and using a newer fabrication technology, depletion-mode MOS transistors
4.
Hertz
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The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion. Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i. e. 1/second or s −1. In English, hertz is also used as the plural form, as an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed, commonly used multiples are kHz, MHz, GHz and THz. One hertz simply means one cycle per second,100 Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels. Whereas 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second,1 Bq is 1 aperiodic radionuclide event per second, the conversion between a frequency f measured in hertz and an angular velocity ω measured in radians per second is ω =2 π f and f = ω2 π. This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, the hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc. Mc. etc. units, sound is a traveling longitudinal wave which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond. Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz
5.
Apple II
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The Apple II is an 8-bit home computer, one of the first highly successful mass-produced microcomputer products, designed primarily by Steve Wozniak. It was introduced in 1977 at the West Coast Computer Faire by Jobs and was the first consumer product sold by Apple Computer and it is the first model in a series of computers which were produced until Apple IIe production ceased in November 1993. The Apple II marks Apples first launch of a computer aimed at a consumer market – branded towards American households rather than businessmen or computer hobbyists. Along with the PET2001 and the TRS-80, Byte magazine referred to these as the 1977 Trinity of personal computing. The Apple II had the feature of being able to display color graphics. By 1976, Steve Jobs had convinced the product designer Jerry Manock to create the shell for the Apple II – a smooth case inspired by kitchen appliances that would conceal the internal mechanics. The earliest Apple IIs were assembled in Silicon Valley, and later in Texas, printed circuit boards were manufactured in Ireland, the original retail price of the computer was $1,298 and $2,638. To reflect the color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the casing has rainbow stripes. Perhaps most significantly, the Apple II was a catalyst for personal computers across many industries, the Apple II used a multiplicity of idiosyncratic engineering shortcuts to save hardware and reduce costs. This arrangement simultaneously eliminated the need for a separate circuit for the DRAM chips. Similarly, in the graphics mode, color is determined by pixel position and can thus be implemented in software. This also allows for subpixel font rendering since orange and blue pixels appear half a pixel-width farther to the right on the screen than green, the Apple II at first used data cassette storage like most other microcomputers of the time. In 1978 the company introduced an external 5 1⁄4-inch floppy disk drive, the Disk II interface, created by Wozniak, is regarded as an engineering masterpiece for its economy of electronic components. The approach taken in the Disk II controller is typical of Wozniaks designs, with a few small-scale logic chips and a cheap PROM, he created a functional floppy-disk interface at a fraction of the component cost of standard circuit configurations. The cost of such terminals could easily exceed the price of the computer itself, the Apple IIs PCB underwent several revisions as Steve Wozniak made modifications to it. The earliest version was known as Revision 0, and the first 6000 units shipped used it, later revisions added a color killer circuit to prevent color fringing when the computer was in text mode, as well as modifications to improve the reliability of cassette I/O. Revision 0 Apple IIs powered up in a mode and had garbage on screen. This was eliminated on the later board revisions, Revision 0 Apple IIs could display only four colors, but Wozniak was later able to generate 16 in low-res mode
6.
Desktop computer
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A desktop computer is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk or table due to its size and power requirements. The most common configuration has a case that houses the power supply, motherboard, disk storage, a keyboard and mouse for input, and a monitor, and, often. The case may be oriented horizontally or vertically and placed either underneath, beside, an all-in-one desktop computer typically combines the case and monitor in one unit. Early computers took up the space of a whole room, minicomputers generally fit into one or a few refrigerator-sized racks. The very first programmable calculator/computer was marketed in the half of the 1960s. More desktop models were introduced in 1971, leading to a model programmable in BASIC in 1972 and this one used a smaller version of a minicomputer design based on read-only memory and had small one-line LED alphanumeric displays. They could draw computer graphics with a plotter, over the course of the 1990s, desktop cases gradually became less common than the more-accessible tower cases that may be located on the floor under or beside a desk rather than on a desk. Not only do these tower cases had more room for expansion, Desktop cases, particularly the compact form factors, remain popular for corporate computing environments and kiosks. Some computer cases can be positioned either horizontally or upright. While desktops have long been the most common configuration for PCs, notably, while desktops were mainly produced in the United States, laptops had long been produced by contract manufacturers based in Asia, such as Foxconn. This shift led to the closure of the many desktop assembly plants in the United States by 2010, battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986. However, laptops have become popular, both for business and personal use. Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006, in 2008, it was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million. The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops, the change in sales of form factors is due to the desktop iMac moving from affordable to upscale and subsequent releases are considered premium all-in-ones. The decades of development means that most people already own desktop computers that meet their needs and have no need of buying a new one merely to keep pace with advancing technology. Recently, some analysts have suggested that Windows 8 has actually hurt sales of PCs in 2012, the post-PC trend has seen a decline in the sales of desktop and laptop PCs. The decline has been attributed to increased power and applications of computing devices, namely smartphones. Among PC form factors, desktops remain a staple in the market but have lost popularity among home buyers
7.
Apple Inc.
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Apple is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and online services. Apples consumer software includes the macOS and iOS operating systems, the media player, the Safari web browser. Its online services include the iTunes Store, the iOS App Store and Mac App Store, Apple Music, Apple was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne in April 1976 to develop and sell personal computers. It was incorporated as Apple Computer, Inc. in January 1977, Apple joined the Dow Jones Industrial Average in March 2015. In November 2014, Apple became the first U. S. company to be valued at over US$700 billion in addition to being the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization. The company employs 115,000 full-time employees as of July 2015 and it operates the online Apple Store and iTunes Store, the latter of which is the worlds largest music retailer. Consumers use more than one billion Apple products worldwide as of March 2016, Apples worldwide annual revenue totaled $233 billion for the fiscal year ending in September 2015. This revenue accounts for approximately 1. 25% of the total United States GDP.1 billion, the corporation receives significant criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors and its environmental and business practices, including the origins of source materials. Apple was founded on April 1,1976, by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak, the Apple I kits were computers single-handedly designed and hand-built by Wozniak and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. The Apple I was sold as a motherboard, which was less than what is now considered a personal computer. The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at $666.66, Apple was incorporated January 3,1977, without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Multimillionaire Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of $250,000 during the incorporation of Apple, during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially, doubling about every four months. Between September 1977 and September 1980 yearly sales grew from $775,000 to $118m, the Apple II, also invented by Wozniak, was introduced on April 16,1977, at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because of its character cell-based color graphics. While early Apple II models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface called the Disk II. The Apple II was chosen to be the platform for the first killer app of the business world, VisiCalc. VisiCalc created a market for the Apple II and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II. Before VisiCalc, Apple had been a distant third place competitor to Commodore, by the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line
8.
Handicraft
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One of the worlds oldest handicraft is Dhokra, this is a sort of metal casting has been used in India for over 4,000 years and is still used. Collective terms for handicrafts include artisanry, handicrafting, crafting, many handicrafters use natural, even entirely indigenous, materials while others may prefer modern, non-traditional materials, and even upcycle industrial materials. The individual artisanship of an item is the paramount criterion. Most crafts require the development of skill and the application of patience, like folk art, handicraft output often has cultural and/or religious significance, and increasingly may have a political message as well, as in craftivism. The Arts and Crafts movement originated as a late 19th-century design reform and social movement principally in Europe, North America and Australia and this was held up in contrast to what was perceived to be the alienating effects of industrial labor. These activities were called crafts because originally many of them were professions under the guild system, adolescents were apprenticed to a master craftsman, and refined their skills over a period of years in exchange for low wages. Simple arts and crafts projects are an elementary and middle school activity in both mainstream and alternative education systems around the world. e. The use of traditional handicrafting techniques by professional fine artists, many community centers and schools run evening or day classes and workshops, for adults and children, offering to teach basic craft skills in a short period of time. If sold, they are sold in Direct sales, Gift shops, Public markets, in developing countries, handicrafts are sold to locals and as Souvenirs to tourists. Sellers tend to speak at least a few words of common tourist languages
9.
Steve Jobs
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Steven Paul Steve Jobs was an American entrepreneur, businessman, inventor, and industrial designer. He was the co-founder, chairman, and chief officer of Apple Inc. CEO and majority shareholder of Pixar, a member of The Walt Disney Companys board of directors following its acquisition of Pixar, and founder, chairman, Jobs and Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak are widely recognized as pioneers of the microcomputer revolution of the 1970s and 1980s. Jobs was born in San Francisco and adopted at birth, he was raised in the San Francisco Bay Area during the 1960s, Jobs briefly attended Reed College in 1972 before dropping out. He then decided to travel through India in 1974 seeking enlightenment, Jobss declassified FBI report stated that an acquaintance knew that Jobs had used the illegal drugs marijuana and LSD while he was in college. Jobs once told a reporter that taking LSD was one of the two or three most important things he did in his life, Jobs and Wozniak co-founded Apple in 1976 to sell Wozniaks Apple I personal computer. The visionaries gained fame and wealth a year later for the Apple II, in 1979, after a tour of PARC, Jobs saw the commercial potential of the Xerox Alto, which was mouse-driven and had a graphical user interface. This led to development of the unsuccessful Apple Lisa in 1983, following a long power struggle, Jobs was forced out of Apple in 1985. In addition, Jobs helped to initiate the development of the effects industry when he funded the spinout of the computer graphics division of George Lucass Lucasfilm in 1986. The new company, Pixar, would produce the first fully computer-animated film. In 1997, Apple merged with NeXT, within a few months of the merger, Jobs became CEO of his former company, reviving Apple at the verge of bankruptcy. Mac OS was also revamped into OS X, based on NeXTs NeXTSTEP platform, Jobs was diagnosed with a pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor in 2003 and died on October 5,2011 of respiratory arrest related to the tumor. Steve Jobss biological father, Abdulfattah John Jandali, was born into a Muslim household and grew up in Homs, Jandali is the son of a self-made millionaire who did not go to college and a mother who was a traditional housewife. While an undergraduate at the American University of Beirut, he was a student activist, although Jandali initially wanted to study law, he eventually decided to study economics and political science. He pursued a PhD in the subject at the University of Wisconsin, where he met Joanne Carole Schieble, a Catholic of Swiss and German descent. As a doctoral candidate, Jandali was an assistant for a course Schieble was taking. Mona Simpson, notes that her grandparents were not happy that their daughter was dating Jandali. But there are a lot of Arabs in Michigan and Wisconsin, Walter Isaacson, Steve Jobss official biographer, additionally states that Schiebles father threatened to cut Joanne off completely if she continued the relationship
10.
Volkswagen Type 2
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Following – and initially deriving from Volkswagens first model, the Type 1 – it was given the factory designation Type 2. European competition included the 1947-1981 Citroën H Van, the 1959-1980 Renault Estafette, japanese manufacturers also introduced similar vehicles, such as the Nissan Caravan, Toyota LiteAce and Subaru Sambar. Brazil contained the last factory in the world that produced the T2, production in Brazil ceased on December 31,2013, due to the introduction of more stringent safety regulations in the country. This marks the end of an era with the rear-engine Volkswagens manufactured, the concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23,1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg, production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1. When capacity freed up, a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1s, engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp flat four engine. Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor, engineers used the tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a vee helped the production Type 2 achieve Cd=0.44, only two models were offered, the Kombi, and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951, in all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production. An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat and these features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year and these were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968. However, only generations T1 to T3 can be seen as related to the Beetle. The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first forward control vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA,1958 RAF-977,1959 Renault Estafette,1960 BMC Morris J4, except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. The Type 2 was available as a, Panel van, a van without side windows or rear seats. Double-door Panel Van, a van without side windows or rear seats
11.
HP-65
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The HP-65 is the first magnetic card-programmable handheld calculator. Introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1974 at an MSRP of $795, it featured nine storage registers and it also included a magnetic card reader/writer to save and load programs. Like all Hewlett-Packard calculators of the era and most since, the HP-65 used Reverse Polish Notation, bill Hewletts design requirement was that the calculator should fit in his shirt pocket. That is one reason for the depth of the calculator. The magnetic program cards are fed in at the end of the calculator under the LED display. The HP-65 introduced the tall, trapezoid-shaped keys that would become iconic for many generations of HP calculators, each of the keys had up to 4 functions. For example, f followed by 4 would access the sine function, for some mathematical functions, a gold f −1 prefix key would access the inverse of the gold-printed functions, e. g. f −1 followed by 4 would calculate the inverse sine. Functions included square root, inverse, trigonometric, exponentiation, logarithms, the HP-65 was one of the first calculators to include a base conversion function, although it only supported octal conversion. It could also perform conversions between degrees/minutes/seconds and decimal degree values, as well as polar/cartesian coordinate conversion, the HP-65 had a program memory for up to 100 instructions of 6 bits which included subroutine calls and conditional branching based on comparison of x and y registers. Some but not all entered as multiple keystrokes were stored in a single program memory cell. When displaying a program, the key codes were shown without line numbers, a program could be saved to mylar-based magnetically coated cards, which were fed through the reader by a small electric motor through a worm gear and rubber roller at a speed of 6 cm/s. The recording area used only half of the width of the card, cards could be write-protected by diagonally clipping the top left corner of the card. HP also sold a number of collections for scientific and engineering applications on sets of pre-recorded cards. Since the limitation was documented in the manual, it is not strictly speaking a bug, during the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, the HP-65 became the first programmable handheld calculator in outer space. It was carried as a backup in case of a problem with the Apollo Guidance Computer and it was not put into operation, though, as the Apollo computer did not malfunction during that mission.6692. This ratio of convergence is now known as the first Feigenbaum constant, hP-25 HP-35 The HP-65 at an unofficial Hewlett-Packard museum, includes a photograph of the magnetic card. 1975 HP Calculator Christmas Guide HPs Virtual Museum, HP-65 HP-65 page at the unofficial Museum of HP Calculators
12.
Homebrew Computer Club
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Several very high-profile hackers and computer entrepreneurs emerged from its ranks, including the founders of Apple Inc. The open exchange of ideas that went on at its meetings. The Homebrew Computer Club has been called the crucible for an entire industry and it was started by Gordon French and Fred Moore who met at the Community Computer Center in Menlo Park. They both were interested in maintaining a regular, open forum for people to get together to work on making computers more accessible to everyone, Steve Wozniak credits that first meeting with inspiring him to design the Apple I. Subsequent meetings were held at an auditorium at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, others would convene at The Oasis, a bar and grill on El Camino Real in nearby Menlo Park, recalled years later by a member as Homebrews other staging area. Many of the members of the Homebrew Computer Club continue to meet, having formed the 6800 Club. Occasionally and variously renamed after the release of the 6800,6809, and other microprocessors, though the Homebrew members were hobbyists, most of them had an electronic engineering or computer programming background. They came to the meetings to talk about the Altair 8800 and other topics and to exchange schematics. Steve Inness was a designer of one of the early cell phone touch screens as well as a business partner with John Draper. The Homebrew Computer Clubs newsletter was one of the most influential forces in the formation of the culture of Silicon Valley, created and edited by its members, it initiated the idea of the personal computer, and helped its members build the original kit computers, like the Altair. One such influential event was the publication of Bill Gatess Open Letter to Hobbyists, the first issue of the newsletter was published on March 15,1975, and continued through several designs, ending after 21 issues in December 1977. The newsletter was published from a variety of addresses in the early days, hobby Computer Club,180 thousand members strong Dutch group Kilobaud Microcomputing was a magazine dedicated to the homebrew computer hobbyists with knowledge of electronics. West Coast Computer Faire Stephen Wozniak, Homebrew and How the Apple Came to Be in Steve Ditlea, ed
13.
Palo Alto, California
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Palo Alto is a charter city located in the northwest corner of Santa Clara County, California, in the San Francisco Bay Area of the United States. The city shares its borders with East Palo Alto, Mountain View, Los Altos, Los Altos Hills, Stanford, Portola Valley and it is named after a coast redwood tree called El Palo Alto. Palo Alto was established by Leland Stanford Sr. when he founded Stanford University, following the death of his son and it has also served as an incubator to several other high-technology companies such as Google, Facebook, Logitech, Intuit, Pinterest, and PayPal. As of the 2010 census, the total resident population is 64,403. Palo Alto is one of the most expensive cities in the United States, the recorded history of Palo Alto dates back to 1769, when Gaspar de Portolá noted an Ohlone settlement. This remains an area of known Indian mounds, a plaque at Middlefield Road and Embarcadero Road commemorates the area. The city got its name from a tall coast redwood tree, named El Palo Alto, a plaque there recounts the story of the Portolà expedition, a 63-man, 200-horse expedition from San Diego to Monterey from November 7–11,1769. The group overshot Monterey in the fog and when they reached modern-day Pacifica, they ascended Sweeney Ridge, thinking the bay was too wide to cross, the group retraced their journey to Monterey, never becoming aware of the Golden Gate entrance to the Bay. Located south of the San Francisquito Creek, west of todays I-280, in 1835, Rafael Soto and family settled near the San Francisquito Creek near Newell and Middlefield, selling goods to travelers. Rafael Soto died in 1839, but his wife, Maria Antonia Mesa, was granted Rancho Rinconada del Arroyo de San Francisquito in 1841, in 1839, their daughter María Luisa Soto married John Coppinger, who was the grantee of Rancho Cañada de Raymundo. Rancho Cañada de Raymundo was West of San Francisquito Creek, and began at Alambique Creek, the border of Rancho Corte de Madera. Bear Gulch Creek flowed on his land in Portola Valley, the rancho also abutted Buelnas grant near Skyline Boulevard and Matadero Creek. Upon Coppingers death, Maria inherited it and later married a visiting boat captain, Greer owned a home on the site that is now Town & Country Village on Embarcadero and El Camino Real. Greer Avenue and Court are named for him, to the west of Rafael Soto, near El Camino and following the Creek, was Rancho San Francisquito granted in 1839 to Antonio Buelna and wife Maria Concepcion. To the south of the Sotos, the brothers Secundino and Teodoro Robles in 1849 bought Rancho Rincon de San Francisquito from José Peña, where the Joness house was, then east down Arastradero Rd. to the north property line of Alta Mesa Memorial Park and Terman Park. The property then went along the bay to the Embarcadero, a boundary in the day, then up to the Stanford University gates, up Galvez. The grant was bounded on the south by Mariano Castros Rancho Pastoria de las Borregas grant across San Antonio Road, thats the Robles Rancho, about 80% of Palo Alto and Stanford University. It was whittled down by 1863 through courts to 6,981 acres, stories say their grand hacienda was built on the former meager adobe of José Peña near Ferne off San Antonio Road, midway between Middlefield and Alma Street
14.
Byte (magazine)
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Byte magazine was an American microcomputer magazine, influential in the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s because of its wide-ranging editorial coverage. Coverage was in-depth with much detail, rather than user-oriented. Print publication ceased in 1998 and online publication in 2013, Byte started in 1975, shortly after the first personal computers appeared as kits advertised in the back of electronics magazines. Byte was published monthly, with a yearly subscription price of $10. In 1975 Wayne Green was the editor and publisher of 73 and his ex-wife, on May 25th we made a deal with the publisher of a small computer hobby magazine to take over as editor of a new publication which would start in August. Carl Helmers published a series of six articles in 1974 that detailed the design and construction of his Experimenters Computer System, in January 1975 this became the monthly ECS magazine with 400 subscribers. The last issue was published on May 12,1975 and in June the subscribers were mailed a notice announcing Byte magazine, carl wrote to another hobbyist newsletter, Micro-8 Computer User Group Newsletter, and described his new job as editor of Byte magazine. I got a note in the mail about two weeks ago from Wayne Green, publisher of 73 Magazine essentially saying hello and why dont you come up, the net result of a follow up is the decision to create BYTE magazine using the facilities of Green Publishing Inc. I will end up with the focus for the magazine. Virginia Londner Green had returned to 73 in the December 1974 issue, the first five issues of Byte were published by Green Publishing and the name was changed to Byte Publications starting with the February 1976 issue. Carl Helmers was a co-owner of Byte Publications, the first four issues were produced in the offices of 73 and Wayne Green was listed as the publisher. One day in November 1975 Wayne came to work and found that the Byte magazine staff had moved out, the February 1976 issue of Byte has a short story about the move. After a start which reads like a light opera with an episode or two reminiscent of the Keystone Cops, Byte magazine finally has moved into separate offices of its own. Wayne Green was not happy about losing Byte magazine so he was going to start a new one called Kilobyte, Byte quickly trademarked KILOBYTE as a cartoon series in Byte magazine. The new magazine was called Kilobaud, there was competition and animosity between Byte Publications and 73 Inc. but both remained in the small town of Peterborough, New Hampshire. Byte was able to attract advertising and articles from many well-knowns, soon-to-be-well-knowns, articles in the first issue included Which Microprocessor For You. by Hal Chamberlin, Write Your Own Assembler by Dan Fylstra and Serial Interface by Don Lancaster. Advertisements from Godbout, MITS, Processor Technology, SCELBI, and Sphere appear, early articles in Byte were do-it-yourself electronic or software projects to improve small computers. A continuing feature was Ciarcias Circuit Cellar, a column in which electronic engineer Steve Ciarcia described small projects to modify or attach to a computer, Byte ran Microsofts first advertisement, as Micro-Soft, to sell a BASIC interpreter for 8080-based computers
15.
Commodore PET
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The Commodore PET is a line of home/personal computers produced starting in 1977 by Commodore International. The first model, which was named the PET2001, was the personal computer ever made available to retail consumers, after the Apple II. In the 1970s Commodore was one of many companies selling calculators designed around Dallas-based Texas Instruments chips. Commodore responded to this by searching for a set they could purchase outright. At Commodore, Peddle convinced Jack Tramiel that calculators were a dead-end, in September 1976 Peddle got a demonstration of Jobs and Wozniaks Apple II prototype, when Jobs was offering to sell it to Commodore, but Commodore considered Jobs offer too expensive. Tramiel demanded that Peddle, Bill Seiler, and John Feagans create a computer in time for the June 1977 Consumer Electronics Show, tramiels son, Leonard, helped design the PETSCII graphic characters and acted as quality control. The result was the first all-in-one home computer, the PET and its 6502 processor controlled the screen, keyboard, cassette tape recorders and any peripherals connected to one of the computers several expansion ports. The machine also included a built-in Datasette for data storage located on the front of the case, the data transfer rate to cassette tape was 1500 baud, but the data was recorded to tape twice for safety, giving an effective rate of 750 baud. The PET2001 was announced at the Winter CES in January 1977, however, the PET was back-ordered for months and to ease deliveries, early in 1978 Commodore decided to cancel the 4 kB version. However, this took six months to finally happen, during which time Microsoft lost money. At the end of the year, the company was saved by Apples decision to license Microsoft BASIC for the Apple II line. The key tops also tended to rub off easily, reliability was fairly poor, although that was not atypical of many early microcomputers. Because of the keyboard on the PET, external replacement ones quickly appeared. On the other hand, Commodore was a year behind Apple, in 1979, Commodore replaced the original PET2001 with an improved model known as the 2001-N. The new machine used a standard green-phosphor monitor in place of the blue in the original 2001. It now had a conventional, full-sized keyboard and no longer sported the built-in cassette recorder, the kernel ROM was upgraded to add support for Commodores newly introduced disk drive line. It was offered in 8kB, 16kB, or 32kB models as the 2001-N8, 2001-N16, the 2001-N switched to using conventional DRAM instead of the 6550 SRAM in the original model. PET 2001-8Ns had eight 2108 DRAMs and 2001-16Ns used sixteen 2108s, the PET4016 used eight 4116 chips
16.
TRS-80
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The TRS-80 Micro Computer System is a desktop microcomputer launched in 1977 and sold by Tandy Corporation through their Radio Shack stores. The name is an abbreviation of Tandy/Radio Shack, Z-80 microprocessor and it was one of the earliest mass-produced personal computers. By 1979, the TRS-80 had the largest selection of software in the microcomputer market, until 1982, the TRS-80 was the best-selling PC line, outselling the Apple II series by a factor of 5 according to one analysis. In mid-1980, the broadly compatible TRS-80 Model III was released, the Model I was discontinued shortly after, primarily due to stricter FCC regulations on the radio-frequency interference it caused in surrounding electronics. In 1983, the Model III was in turn succeeded by the compatible Model 4, in the mid-1970s, Tandy Corporations Radio Shack division was a successful American chain of more than 3,000 electronics stores. After buyer Don French purchased a MITS Altair kit computer, he began designing his own, although the design did not impress Roach, the idea of selling a microcomputer did. When the two men visited National Semiconductor in California in mid-1976, Steve Leiningers expertise on the SC/MP microprocessor impressed them, the company envisioned a kit, but Leininger persuaded the others that because too many people cant solder, a preassembled computer would be better. Many opposed the project, one executive told French, Dont waste my time—we cant sell computers, as the popularity of CB radio—at one point comprising more than 20% of Radio Shacks sales—declined, however, the company sought new products. In February 1977 they showed their prototype, running a simple tax-accounting program, to Charles Tandy, after the demonstration Tandy revealed that he had already leaked the computers existence to the press, so the project was approved. MITS sold 1,000 Altairs in February 1975, and was selling 10,000 a year. Leininger and French suggested that Radio Shack could sell 50,000 computers, Roach persuaded Tandy to agree to build 3, 500—the number of Radio Shack stores—so that each store could use a computer for inventory purposes if they did not sell. Having spent less than US$150,000 on development, Radio Shack announced the TRS-80 at a New York City press conference on August 3,1977. It cost US$399, or US$599 with a 12 monitor and a Radio Shack tape recorder as datacassette storage, the company hoped that the new computer would help Radio Shack sell higher-priced products, and improve its schlocky image among customers. Despite the internal skepticism, Radio Shack aggressively entered the market, the company advertised The $599 personal computer as the most important, useful, exciting, electronic product of our time. The company announced plans to be selling by Christmas a range of peripherals and software for the TRS-80, began shipping computers by September, the first units, ordered unseen, were delivered in November 1977, and rolled out to the stores the third week of December. The line won popularity with hobbyists, home users, and small-businesses, Tandy Corporations leading position in what Byte Magazine called the 1977 Trinity had much to do with Tandys retailing the computer through more than 3,000 of its Radio Shack storefronts. Notable features of the original TRS-80 included its full-stroke QWERTY keyboard, small size, its floating-point BASIC programming language, a monitor. The pre-release price was US$500 and a US$50 deposit was required, by 1980 InfoWorld described Radio Shack as the dominant supplier of small computers
17.
Computer terminal
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A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that is used for entering data into, and displaying data from, a computer or a computing system. The function of a terminal is confined to display and input of data, a terminal that depends on the host computer for its processing power is called a dumb terminal or thin client. A personal computer can run terminal emulator software that replicates the function of a terminal, sometimes allowing concurrent use of local programs and access to a distant terminal host system. The terminal of the first working programmable, fully automatic digital Turing-complete computer, the Z3, had a keyboard, early user terminals connected to computers were electromechanical teleprinters/teletypewriters, such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR, originally used for telegraphy or the Friden Flexowriter. Later printing terminals such as the DECwriter LA30 were developed, however printing terminals were limited by the speed at which paper could be printed, and for interactive use the paper record was unnecessary. The problem was that the amount of memory needed to store the information on a page of text was comparable to the memory in low end minicomputers then in use. Displaying the information at video speeds was also a challenge and the control logic took up a rack worth of pre-integrated circuit electronics. Another approach involved the use of the tube, a specialized CRT developed by Tektronix that retained information written on it without the need to refresh. The Datapoint 3300 from Computer Terminal Corporation was announced in 1967 and shipped in 1969 and it solved the memory space issue mentioned above by using a digital shift-register design, and using only 72 columns rather than the later more common choice of 80. Some type of blinking cursor that can be positioned, the term intelligent in this context dates from 1969. Notable examples include the IBM2250 and IBM2260, predecessors to the IBM3270, providing even more processing possibilities, workstations like the Televideo TS-800 could run CP/M-86, blurring the distinction between terminal and Personal Computer. Most terminals were connected to minicomputers or mainframe computers and often had a green or amber screen, typically terminals communicate with the computer via a serial port via a null modem cable, often using an EIA RS-232 or RS-422 or RS-423 or a current loop serial interface. In fact, the design for the Intel 8008 was originally conceived at Computer Terminal Corporation as the processor for the Datapoint 2200. While early IBM PCs had single color green screens, these screens were not terminals. The screen of a PC did not contain any character generation hardware, all signals and video formatting were generated by the video display card in the PC, or by the CPU. An IBM PC monitor, whether it was the monochrome display or the 16-color display, was technically much more similar to an analog TV set than to a terminal. With suitable software a PC could, however, emulate a terminal, the Data General One could be booted into terminal emulator mode from its ROM. Since the advent and subsequent popularization of the computer, few genuine hardware terminals are used to interface with computers today
18.
Computer keyboard
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In computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as a mechanical lever or electronic switch. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the input device for computers. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys, however, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs, other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands. In normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface to type text and numbers into a word processor, in a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software, Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows Control-Alt-Delete combination. A command-line interface is a type of user interface operated entirely through a keyboard and it was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts. Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House, earlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s. From the 1940s until the late 1960s, typewriters were the means of data entry. The keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a device in 1984. By this time, text-only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen, One factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate numeric keyboard, for convenience. A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad, another factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is limited by the consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys, standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers, and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches. Desktop computer keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards, include characters, punctuation symbols, numbers. The internationally common 102/104 key keyboards have a left shift key. Also the enter key is usually shaped differently, computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such as the command or Windows keys
19.
Television set
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A television set, more commonly called a television, TV, TV set, television receiver, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and loudspeakers for the purpose of viewing television. Introduced in the late 1920s in mechanical form, television became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, the ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as Betamax, VHS and later DVD. It was also the display device for the first generation of home computers, in the 2010s flat panel television incorporating liquid-crystal displays, especially LED-backlit LCDs, largely replaced cathode ray tubes and other displays. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of display and can also play content from a USB device. Mechanical televisions were sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom, United States. The Baird Televisor is considered the first mass-produced television, selling about a thousand units, the first commercially made electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, followed by other makers in France, Britain, and America. The cheapest model with a 12-inch screen was $445, an estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7, 000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U. S. before the War Production Board halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. While only 0. 5% of U. S. households had a television in 1946,55. 7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962. In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947,1.4 million in 1952, by the late 1960s and early 1970s, color television had come into wide use. In Britain, BBC1, BBC2 and ITV were regularly broadcasting in colour by 1969, during the first decade of the 21st century, CRT picture tube display technology was almost entirely supplanted worldwide by flat panel displays. By the early 2010s, LCD TVs, which increasingly used LED-backlit LCDs, television sets may employ one of several available display technologies. The production of plasma and CRT displays has been almost completely discontinued, the cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to accelerate and deflect the beam onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent electrical waveforms, pictures, radar targets or others, the CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep, fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions. In television sets and computer monitors, the front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster
20.
Altair 8800
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The Altair 8800 is a microcomputer designed in 1974 by MITS and based on the Intel 8080 CPU. The designers hoped to sell a few hundred build-it-yourself kits to hobbyists, the Altair also appealed to individuals and businesses that just wanted a computer and purchased the assembled version. The Altair is widely recognized as the spark that ignited the microcomputer revolution as the first commercially successful personal computer, the model rocket kits were a modest success and MITS wanted to try a kit that would appeal to more hobbyists. The November 1970 issue of Popular Electronics featured the Opticom, a kit from MITS that would send voice over an LED light beam, Mims and Cagle were losing interest in the kit business so Roberts bought his partners out, then began developing a calculator kit. Electronic Arrays had just announced a set of six LSI integrated circuit chips that would make a four-function calculator, the MITS816 calculator kit used the chip set and was featured on the November 1971 cover of Popular Electronics. This calculator kit sold for $175, Forrest Mims wrote the assembly manual for this kit and many others over the next several years. He often accepted a copy of the kit as payment, the calculator was successful and was followed by several improved models. The MITS1440 calculator was featured in the July 1973 issues of Radio-Electronics and it had a 14-digit display, memory, and square root function. The kit sold for $200 and the version was $250. MITS later developed a unit that would connect to the 816 or 1440 calculator. In addition to calculators, MITS made a line of test equipment kits and these included an IC tester, a waveform generator, a digital voltmeter, and several other instruments. To keep up with the demand, MITS moved into a building at 6328 Linn NE in Albuquerque in 1973. They installed a wave soldering machine and a line at the new location. In 1972, Texas Instruments developed its own calculator chip and started selling complete calculators at less than half the price of other commercial models, MITS and many other companies were devastated by this, and Roberts struggled to reduce his quarter-million-dollar debt. In January 1972, Popular Electronics merged with another Ziff-Davis magazine, the change in editorial staff upset many of their authors, and they started writing for a competing magazine, Radio-Electronics. In 1972 and 1973, some of the best construction projects appeared in Radio-Electronics, in 1974, Art Salsberg became editor of Popular Electronics. It was Salsbergs goal to reclaim the lead in electronics projects and he was impressed with Don Lancasters TV Typewriter article and wanted computer projects for Popular Electronics. Don Lancaster did an ASCII keyboard for Popular Electronics in April 1974 and they were evaluating a computer trainer project by Jerry Ogdin when the Mark-8 8008-based computer by Jonathan Titus appeared on the July 1974 cover of Radio-Electronics
21.
Light-emitting diode
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A light-emitting diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode, which emits light when activated, when a suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light is determined by the band gap of the semiconductor. LEDs are typically small and integrated optical components may be used to shape the radiation pattern, appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still used as transmitting elements in remote-control circuits. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low intensity and limited to red, modern LEDs are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices and they were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays and were commonly seen in digital clocks. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental, LEDs have allowed new displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced communications technology. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, as of 2017, LED lights home room lighting are as cheap or cheaper than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They are also more energy efficient and, arguably, have fewer environmental concerns linked to their disposal. Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide, russian inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927. His research was distributed in Soviet, German and British scientific journals, rubin Braunstein of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide, GaAs, indium phosphide, in 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer Braunstein …had set up a simple optical communications link, the emitted light was detected by a PbS diode some distance away. This signal was fed into an amplifier and played back by a loudspeaker. Intercepting the beam stopped the music and we had a great deal of fun playing with this setup. This setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications, by October 1961, they had demonstrated efficient light emission and signal coupling between a GaAs p-n junction light emitter and an electrically-isolated semiconductor photodetector
22.
Teletype Model 33
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The Teletype Model 33 is an electromechanical teleprinter designed for light-duty office. It is less rugged and less expensive than earlier Teletype machines, the Teletype Corporation introduced the Model 33 as a commercial product in 1963 after being originally designed for the US Navy. The Model 33 was one of the first products to employ the then new ASCII code, a companion Model 32 used the more established five-level Baudot code. Because of its low price and ASCII-compatibility, the Model 33 was widely used with early minicomputers, Teletype Corporations Model 33 terminal, introduced in 1963, is one of the most popular terminals in the data-communications industry. Over a half-million Model 32s and 33s were made by 1975, a Model 33 cost about $700, much less than other teleprinters and computer terminals at the time, such as the Friden Flexowriter and the IBM1050. Early video terminals, such as the Tektronix 4010, did not become available until 1970, however the introduction of integrated circuits and semiconductor memory later that decade allowed the price of cathode-ray-tube-based terminals to fall below the price of a Teletype. Teletype machines were replaced in new installations by dot-matrix printers. Basic CRT-based terminals which could only print lines and scroll them are called glass teletypes to distinguish them from more sophisticated devices. Teletype Corporation discontinued Model 33 production in 1981, while the manufacturer called the Model 33 teleprinter with a tape punch and tape reader a Model 33 ASR, many users, specifically computer users, called this equipment an ASR-33. This naming discrepancy continued from the Teletype Model 28 to other Teletype equipment in later DEC documentation, for example, Digital Equipment Corporations PDP-15 Price List from April 1970 lists a number of Teletype Corporation teletypewriters using this alternate naming convention. This alternate naming convention was continued as other computer manufacturers published their documentation, for example, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems sold the Teletype Model 33 ASR as Teletype ASR-33. The design objective for the Model 33 was a machine that would fit into an office space, match with other office equipment of the time. Since this machine was designed for light duty use, adjustments that Teletype made in previous teleprinters by turning screws were made by bending metal bars and levers, many Model 33 parts were not heat treated and hardened. However, the base was die cast, but self-tapping screws were used, in another cost saving measure, the paper tape equipment was dependent on the keyboard and page printer mechanisms. Independent use of the tape punch and reader is not possible with the Model 33 ASR. The Model 33 used the seven-bit upper-case only ASCII code, also known as CCITT International Telegraphic Alphabet No,5, with one parity bit and two stop bits. The Model 33 is usually geared to run at maximum speed ten characters per second speed, i. e.100 words per minute, but other speeds are available,60 wpm,66 wpm,68.2 wpm, there were also many typewheel options. The Teletype Parts Bulletin lists sixty-nine available Model 33 typewheel options, the Teletype Model 33 contained an answer-back mechanism that was generally used in dial-up networks such as the TWX network
23.
Christie's
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Christies is a historic British auction house. It was founded in 1766 by James Christie and its main premises are in King Street, St. Jamess, in London, and on Rockefeller Plaza in New York City in the United States. The company is owned by Groupe Artémis, the company of François-Henri Pinault. Sales in 2015 totalled £4.8 billion, however, other sources note that James Christie rented auction rooms from 1762, and newspaper advertisements of Christies sales dating from 1759 have also been traced. Christies soon established a reputation as an auction house. From 1859, the company was called Christie, Manson & Woods, in 1958, it established its first overseas office, by placing a representative in Rome. The first overseas salesroom opened in Geneva, where Christies holds jewellery auctions, Christies was a public company, listed on the London Stock Exchange from 1973 to 1999. In 1974, Jo Floyd was appointed chairman of Christies and he served as chairman of Christies International plc. from 1976 to 1988, until handing over to Lord Carrington, and later was a non-executive member of the board of directors until 1992. The auction houses subsidiary Christies International Inc. held its first sale in the United States in 1977,13 years later than Sothebys, Christies growth was slow but steady since 1989, when it had 42 percent of the auction market. In 1990, the company reversed a policy and guaranteed a minimum price for a collection of artworks in its May auctions. In 1996, the auction houses sales eclipsed Sothebys for the first time since 1954. In 1993, Christies paid $10.9 million for the London gallery Spink & Sons, which specialised in Oriental art and British paintings, the company bought Leger Gallery for $3.3 million in 1996, and merged it with Spink to become Spink-Leger. The company has not been reporting profits, though it gives sale totals twice a year. Its policy, in line with U. K. accounting standards, is to convert non-U. K, results using an average exchange rate weighted daily by sales throughout the year. In 2002, Christies France held its first auction in Paris, like Sothebys, Christies became increasingly involved in high-profile private transactions. Under the original deal, the gallery was meant to be the channel for all of Christies private-client business as well as the focus of its primary trade. Also, the house originally announced that Haunch employees could not bid at auction because of conflicts of interest or issues of market manipulation. Today, the continues to operate as an independent company in London and New York
24.
Polytechnic University of Turin
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The Polytechnic University of Turin is an engineering partially public university based in Turin, Italy. Established in 1859, Politecnico di Torino is Italy’s oldest technical university, the university offers several courses in the fields of Engineering, Architecture and Industrial Design. The Regio Politecnico di Torino was established in 1906, the present-day institution was preceded by the Scuola di Applicazione per gli Ingegneri and the Museo Industriale Italiano founded in 1862 by the Ministry of Agriculture, Trade and Industry. The Technical School for Engineers was part of the University, which led to technical studies being accepted as part of higher education, the new school was deeply concerned with the needs of the Italian society and its development perspectives. Students from all over Italy came to Turin and found in the new laboratories built for the study of subjects ranging from chemistry to architecture in a positive. In the 1990s, new teaching campuses were opened in Alessandria, Biella, Ivrea, Mondovì, the historical and representative base of the Politecnico is in the town, on the River Po, the Castle of Valentino, a House of Savoy of the 17th Century. It is the main teaching campus for Architecture and has an area of 23.000 sq. m, STUDENTS32.000 students 30% women 42% students from outside Piedmont 16. The development of the fields of excellence, the investment on frontier subjects, DEPARTEMENTS The two souls characterizing Departments are research and teaching. Departments indeed carry out duties of coordination, promotion of research, organization and management of the teaching activity, the first agreements date back to nineties and their number increased very soon thanks to collaborations on student mobility. Additionally, Politecnico di Torino has agreement with Turin Polytechnic University in Tashkent Uzbekistan, there Politecnico di Torino prepare students in the field of Mechanical Engineering, Mechatronics, Computer science and Civil engineering. The Politecnico di Torino is a member of CESAER, according to ARWU Ranking 2013, Politecnico Di Torino is 1st in Italy and 8th in Europe for Engineering. The Automotive Engineering program, conceived in collaboration with Fiat Group, has consistently ranked among the top three in Europe for the past ten years. Galileo Ferraris Francesco Profumo Corradino DAscanio John Elkann Most of the graduates with a masters degree find jobs within few days after graduation, a special section called Stage&Jobs has been created to improve contact between students and industry. ESDP-Network List of Italian universities Top Industrial Managers for Europe Politecnico di Torino Website Politecnico di Torino in Scientific American CLUSTER Website CESAER website
25.
BASIC
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BASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use. In 1964, John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz designed the original BASIC language at Dartmouth College in the U. S. state of New Hampshire and they wanted to enable students in fields other than science and mathematics to use computers. At the time, nearly all use of computers required writing custom software, versions of BASIC became widespread on microcomputers in the mid-1970s and 1980s. Microcomputers usually shipped with BASIC, often in the machines firmware, having an easy-to-learn language on these early personal computers allowed small business owners, professionals, hobbyists, and consultants to develop custom software on computers they could afford. In the 2010s, BASIC remains popular in many computing dialects and in new languages influenced by BASIC, before the mid-1960s, the only computers were huge mainframe computers. Users submitted jobs on punched cards or similar media to specialist computer operators, the computer stored these, then used a batch processing system to run this queue of jobs one after another, allowing very high levels of utilization of these expensive machines. As the performance of computing hardware rose through the 1960s, multi-processing was developed and this allowed a mix of batch jobs to be run together, but the real revolution was the development of time-sharing. The original BASIC language was released on May 1,1964 by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz, the acronym BASIC comes from the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz. BASIC was designed to allow students to write computer programs for the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System. It was intended specifically for technical users who did not have or want the mathematical background previously expected. Being able to use a computer to support teaching and research was quite novel at the time, the language was based on FORTRAN II, with some influences from ALGOL60 and with additions to make it suitable for timesharing. Wanting use of the language to become widespread, its designers made the available free of charge. They also made it available to schools in the Hanover area. In the following years, as dialects of BASIC appeared, Kemeny. A version was a part of the Pick operating system from 1973 onward. During this period a number of computer games were written in BASIC. A number of these were collected by DEC employee David H. Ahl and he later collected a number of these into book form,101 BASIC Computer Games, published in 1973. During the same period, Ahl was involved in the creation of a computer for education use
26.
Sotheby's
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Sothebys /ˈsʌðəbiz/ is a British multinational corporation headquartered in New York City. One of the worlds largest brokers of fine and decorative art, jewelry, real estate, the company’s services range from corporate art services to private sales. Sothebys is the fourth oldest auction house in continuous operation. As of December 2011, the company had 1,446 employees worldwide and it is the worlds largest art business with global sales in 2011 totalling $5.8 billion. Sothebys was established on 11 March 1744 in London, the American holding company was initially incorporated in August 1983 in Michigan. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys, in July 2016, Chinese insurance giant Taikang Life became Sothebys largest shareholder. Three Swedish auction houses are older and Sothebys great rival in London and then New York. The current business dates back to 1804, when two of the partners of the business left to set up their own book dealership. After Baker’s death in 1778, his estate was divided between Leigh and John Sotheby, George Leigh died unmarried in 1816, but not before endeavouring to secure his succession by recruiting Samuel E Leigh into the business. Under the Sotheby family, the house extended its activities to auctioning prints, medals. John Wilkinson, Sothebys Senior Accountant, became the company’s new CEO, the business did not seek to auction fine arts in general until much later, their first major success in this field being the sale of a Frans Hals painting for nine thousand guineas as late as 1913. In 1917, Sothebys relocated from 13 Wellington Street to 34-35 New Bond Street and they soon came to rival Christies as leaders of the London auction market, which had become the most important for art. In 1955, Sothebys opened an office at Bowling Green, New York City, in 1964, Sothebys purchased Parke-Bernet, then the largest auctioneer of fine art in the United States. In the following year, Sothebys moved to 980 Madison Avenue, Sothebys became a U. K. public company in 1977. The auction house closed its Madison Avenue galleries at East 76th Street, the Los Angeles galleries were sold and auctions of West Coast material moved to New York. In the following year, a group of investors purchased and privatized Sothebys, Sothebys was initially incorporated as Sothebys Holdings, Inc. in Michigan in August 1983. Taubman took Sothebys public in 1988, listing the shares on the New York Stock Exchange. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys shortly after, with private transactions constituting an essential and increasingly profitable business segment, through the years Sothebys has bought art galleries and helped dealers finance purchases
27.
Nexon Computer Museum
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The Nexon Computer Museum is a museum on Jeju Island, South Korea. It opened on July 27,2013 and it is known as one of the first permanent museum in Korea that is dedicated for the history of computer and video games. In 2016, the museum houses 6,700 items including personal computers, video game consoles, arcades, Ltd. s museum is to interact and communicate with a range of visitors from across boundaries, by collecting, preserving, researching, exhibiting and educating historic digital artifacts. The Nexon Computer Museum is displaying one of the original Apple I, purchased from Sothebys on June 15,2012 for $374,500, their Apple I is one of only six that are still fully operational. This Apple I successfully operated in 2010 and 2013, a video footage of their year 2013s Apple I operating test was revealed in G-Star 2013, as part of the Nexon Computer Museums moving exhibition PC Road Show. The museum also provides several gaming software available for visitors to play, such as Space Invaders, Galaga, Prince of Persia, Hanme-Type Writing Teacher and it also offers various education programs to local communities. In 2014, Nexon Computer Museum restored and preserved the earliest version of graphical MMORPG Kingdom of Winds, in addition, it provides regional educatio program such as NCM Kids Panel, Integrated Kids Workshop HAT, Open Workshop, etc. In June 17,2015, the museum released its 360 Virtual Museum, April 6th 2016, free moblie application NCM Mobile Application was launched for both iOS and Android, which allows users to look for and share pictures and information of 440 major artifacts. Six awardees were chosen among 58 works in various genres including travel, horror, fairy tale, with total 5mln KRW as award, all winners had the opportunity to have Develop Week and Artist Talk program* with independent exhibition in Nexon Computer Museum VR zone. The winners also had a special museum exhibition at Nexon Korea building at Pan-gyo. On November 3rd,2016, Nexon Computer Museum commissioned the winners of 2016 NCM VR OPEN CALL as 2017 NCM Accelerator, Nexon Computer Museum will fund each team from 0.5 to 1 million KRW monthly along with international exhibition, networking and mentoring for a year. Starting from 2016 NCM VR OPEN CALL, Nexon Computer Museum hopes to be a companion of the artists to mount new challenges. Restored the earliest version of graphical MMORPG Kingdom of Winds on May 27,2014, Museum Remark, Keyboard & Mouse exhibition since July 19,2014. 360 Virtual Museum since June 17,2015, NCM Mobile Application launched April 6th,20162016 NCM VR OPEN CALL from April to November,2016 Nexon Co. Ltd
28.
Jeju City
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Jeju is the capital of Jeju Province in South Korea and the largest city on Jejudo. The city is served by Jeju International Airport, located on an island off the Korean Peninsula, Jeju has mild, warm weather during much of the year. The city is a resort, with prestigious hotels and public casino facilities. In 2011,9.9 million passengers flew between the two cities of Seoul and Jeju, making the Gimpo–Jeju route the worlds busiest passenger air route, Jeju welcomes over ten million visitors from mainland Korea, Japan, and China every year. The area of the city has played a role in Jeju since before recorded history. The Samseonghyeol, holes from which the three ancestors of the Jeju people are said to have come, are located in downtown Jeju City, the city has grown quite rapidly since the 1970s. Shin Jeju, or new Jeju, was created decades ago, up the hill from the airport. The thatched roof buildings that were common throughout the city until the 1970s are gradually disappearing, the city was separated from Bukjeju County in 1955. That change was put into effect in July 2006, in 2012 Sang-Oh Kim became mayor, he was formerly the Jeju regional president of National Agricultural Cooperative Federation. Jeju City is the transportation center for Jeju Province. It is home to the sole airport, Jeju International Airport. In addition, its port is the largest on the island, serving the majority of passenger. It also stands at the center of the road network. To travel throughout the city and island, various buses are available and affordably priced, a bus ride from Jeju City to Seogwipo is typically an hour. Due to its position in transportation, Jeju City sees the main share of tourist traffic to the island. Many tourists arrive at the city through the terminal or airport, stay in the tourist hotels of the Sinjeju neighborhood. The city also sells lots of oranges for which Jeju is famous, Jeju City is surrounded by orange and mandarin farms. Jeju Air has its headquarters in Jeju City, Jeju city and Jejudo is home ground of Jeju United fc
29.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
30.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
31.
Cologne
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Cologne is the largest city in the German federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and the fourth-largest city in Germany. It is located within the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region, one of the major European metropolitan areas, and with more than ten million inhabitants, Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River, less than eighty kilometres from Belgium. The citys famous Cologne Cathedral is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne, the University of Cologne is one of Europes oldest and largest universities. Cologne was founded and established in Ubii territory in the first century AD as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Cologne, the French version of the citys name, has become standard in English as well. The city functioned as the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior, during the Middle Ages it flourished on one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval. Up until World War II the city had several occupations by the French. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II, the bombing reduced the population by 95%, mainly due to evacuation, and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many buildings as possible. Cologne is a cultural centre for the Rhineland, it hosts more than thirty museums. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics, the Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina. The first urban settlement on the grounds of modern-day Cologne was Oppidum Ubiorum, founded in 38 BC by the Ubii, in 50 AD, the Romans founded Colonia on the Rhine and the city became the provincial capital of Germania Inferior in 85 AD. The city was named Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in 50 AD, considerable Roman remains can be found in present-day Cologne, especially near the wharf area, where a notable discovery of a 1900-year-old Roman boat was made in late 2007. From 260 to 271 Cologne was the capital of the Gallic Empire under Postumus, Marius, in 310 under Constantine a bridge was built over the Rhine at Cologne. Roman imperial governors resided in the city and it one of the most important trade. Cologne is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map, maternus, who was elected as bishop in 313, was the first known bishop of Cologne. The city was the capital of a Roman province until occupied by the Ripuarian Franks in 462, parts of the original Roman sewers are preserved underneath the city, with the new sewerage system having opened in 1890. Early medieval Cologne was part of Austrasia within the Frankish Empire, Cologne had been the seat of a bishop since the Roman period, under Charlemagne, in 795, bishop Hildebold was promoted to archbishop
32.
The Henry Ford
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The Henry Ford is a large indoor and outdoor history museum complex and a National Historic Landmark in the Detroit suburb of Dearborn, Michigan, USA. The Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation and Greenfield Village is the largest indoor-outdoor museum complex in the United States and is visited by 1.6 million people each year and it is one of the largest such collections in the nation. Henry Ford said of his museum, I am collecting the history of our people as written into things their hands made and used. When we are through, we shall have reproduced American life as lived, the Edison Institute was dedicated by President Herbert Hoover to Fords longtime friend Thomas Edison on October 21,1929 – the 50th anniversary of the first successful incandescent light bulb. The attendees included Marie Curie, George Eastman, John D. Rockefeller, Will Rogers, Orville Wright, the dedication was broadcast on radio with listeners encouraged to turn off their electric lights until the switch was flipped at the Museum. The Edison Institute was, at first, a site for educational purposes only. It was originally composed of the Henry Ford Museum, Greenfield Village, the Henry Ford is sited between the Ford Dearborn Development Center and several Ford engineering buildings with which it shares the same style gates and brick fences. In 1970, the museum purchased what it believed to be a 17th-century Brewster Chair, created for one of the Pilgrim settlers in the Plymouth Colony, in September 1977, the chair was determined to be a modern forgery created in 1969 by Rhode Island sculptor Armand LaMontagne. The museum retains the piece as a tool on forgeries. The Henry Ford Museum of American Innovation began as Henry Fords personal collection of historic objects, a model of the nuclear-powered Ford Nucleon automobile An Oscar Mayer Wienermobile The 1961 Lincoln Continental, SS-100-X that President John F. Kennedy was riding in when he was assassinated. The rocking chair from Fords Theatre in which President Abraham Lincoln was sitting when he was shot, a ten-person safety bicycle made in 1896. A collection of several fine 17th- and 18th-century violins including a Stradivarius, Thomas Edisons alleged last breath in a sealed tube. The bus on which Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat, fokker Trimotor airplane that flew the first flight over the North Pole. Bill Elliotts record-breaking race car clocking in at over 212 MPH at Talladega in 1987 Fairbottom Bobs, the Automotive Hall of Fame, adjacent to the Henry Ford Museum. A working fragment of the original Holiday Inn Great Sign A Chesapeake & Ohio Railway 2-6-6-6 Allegheny-class steam locomotive built by Lima Locomotive Works in Lima, the Allegheny was the most powerful steam locomotive ever built. The Research Center also contains the Ford Motor Archives, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the sinking of the RMS Titanic, the Henry Ford Museum exhibited a vast array of artifacts and media documenting the Titanics voyage and demise. The exhibit was hosted from 31 March to 30 September 2012, Greenfield Village, the outdoor living history museum section of the Henry Ford complex, was dedicated in 1929 and opened to the public in June 1933. It was the first outdoor museum of its type in the nation, patrons enter at the gate, passing by the Josephine Ford Memorial Fountain and Benson Ford Research Center
33.
Dearborn, Michigan
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Dearborn is a city in the State of Michigan. It is located in Wayne County and is part of the Detroit metropolitan area, Dearborn is the eighth largest city in the State of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 98,153 and it later grew into a manufacturing hub for the automotive industry. The city was the home of Henry Ford and is the headquarters of the Ford Motor Company. It has a campus of the University of Michigan as well as Henry Ford Community College, Dearborn has The Henry Ford, the United States largest indoor-outdoor museum complex and Metro Detroits leading tourist attraction. Dearborn residents are primarily of European or Middle Eastern heritage, descendants of 19th, Middle Eastern ancestries make up the largest ethnic grouping with Lebanese, Yemeni, Iraqi, Syrian and Palestinian groups present. The primary European ethnicities are German, Polish, Irish and Italian, the area had been inhabited for thousands of years by varying indigenous peoples. Historical tribes belonged mostly to the Algonquian-language family, although the Huron were Iroquoian speaking, French colonists had a trading post and developed Detroit during the colonial period, trading with numerous regional tribes. This settlement was ceded to Britain in 1763 after its victory in the Seven Years War, the Dearborn area was settled permanently by Europeans in 1786, after the American Revolutionary War. The town of Dearborn was incorporated in 1893, in 1927 it was established as a city. Its current borders result from a 1928 consolidation vote that merged Dearborn and neighboring Fordson, the area between the two towns was, and still remains in part, undeveloped. Once farm land, this was bought by Henry Ford for his estate, Fair Lane, the open land is planted with sunflowers and often with Henry Fords favorite soybeans. The Arab American National Museum opened in Dearborn in 2005, the first museum in the devoted to Arab-American history. Arab Americans in Dearborn include ethnic Lebanese Christians who immigrated in the twentieth century to work in the auto industry as well as more recent Arab immigrants from other nations. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.5 square miles. The Rouge River runs through the city with an artificial waterfall/low head dam on the Henry Ford estate to power its powerhouse, the Upper, Middle, and Lower Branches of the river come together in Dearborn. The river is widened and channeled near the Rouge Plant to allow freighter access. Fordson Island is an 8.4 acre island about three miles inland from the Detroit River on the River Rouge, Fordson Island is the only major island in a tributary to the Detroit River
34.
Los Altos, California
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Los Altos /lɔːs ˈæltoʊs/ is a city at the southern end of the San Francisco Peninsula, in the San Francisco Bay Area. The city is in Santa Clara County, California, United States, the population was 28,976 according to the 2010 census. Most of the growth occurred between 1950 and 1980. Originally an agricultural town with summer cottages and apricot orchards. Los Altos has several distinctive features, commercial zones are strictly limited to the downtown area and small shopping and office parks lining Foothill Expressway and El Camino Real. Homes and other real estate are costly in Los Altos, the median household income of Los Altos for 2009–2013 was $157,907. The median home listing price in 2016 was $3.6 million, in 2016, Forbes put Los Altos as the 8th and 46th most expensive ZIP codes in the United States. Los Altos means the heights in Spanish, the area was originally called Banks and Braes. Paul Shoup, an executive of the Southern Pacific Railroad, and his colleagues formed the Altos Land Company in 1906, the company acquired 140 acres of land from Sarah Winchester. Shoup wanted to link Palo Alto and Los Gatos by making Los Altos a commuter town and it continued a train a day operation to and from San Francisco. In 1908, Southern Pacific Railroad began running steam train service through Los Altos with five trains per day, two freight cars served as train depot. Also, the first commercial building, Eschenbruecher’s Hardware, was built in downtown, in 1913, the craftsman-style Los Altos train station was built at 288 First Street. By 1949, many residents were dissatisfied with the policy of Santa Clara county. Also, there was a constant threat of being annexed by neighboring Palo Alto and Mountain View, Los Altos became the eleventh city in Santa Clara county on December 1,1952. Train service stopped its operation in January,1964, and the track became Foothill Expressway. In 1976, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, along with others including Ronald Wayne, Jobs, Wozniak, and Wayne founded Apple Computer, Inc on 1 April 1976. Los Altos is located at 37°22′5″N 122°5′51″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 6.487 square miles. Los Altos is crossed by three creeks that flow north to San Francisco Bay, Adobe Creek on its boundary, Stevens Creek on its eastern boundary
35.
Computer recycling
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Computer recycling, electronic recycling or e-waste recycling is the disassembly and separation of components and raw materials of waste electronics. Although the procedures of re-use, donation and repair are not strictly recycling, in 2009, 38% of computers and a quarter of total electronic waste was recycled in the United States, 5% and 3% up from 3 years prior respectively. Since its inception in the early 1990s, more and more devices are recycled worldwide due to increased awareness, Electronic recycling occurs primarily in order to recover valuable rare earth metals and precious metals, which are in short supply, as well as plastics and metals. These are resold or used in new devices after purification, in creating a circular economy. Recycling is considered environmentally friendly because it prevents hazardous waste, including metals and carcinogens, from entering the atmosphere. While electronics consist a small fraction of waste generated, they are far more dangerous. Obsolete computers and old electronics are valuable sources for raw materials if recycled, otherwise. Rapid technology change, low initial cost, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a surplus of computers. Technical solutions are available, but in most cases a legal framework, collection system, logistics, and other services need to be implemented before applying a technical solution. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, estimates 30 to 40 million surplus PCs, classified as household waste. The U. S. National Safety Council estimates that 75% of all personal computers ever sold are now surplus electronics, in 2007, the United States Environmental Protection Agency stated that more than 63 million computers in the U. S. were traded in for replacements or discarded. Today, 15% of electronic devices and equipment are recycled in the United States, many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling for use in future production. Reuse of tin, silicon, iron, aluminium, and a variety of plastics that are present in bulk in computers or other electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems, components frequently contain lead, copper, gold and other valuable materials suitable for reclamation. Computer components contain many substances, like dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, cadmium, chromium, radioactive isotopes. A typical computer monitor may contain more than 6% lead by weight, a typical 15 inch computer monitor may contain 1.5 pounds of lead but other monitors have been estimated to have up to 8 pounds of lead. Circuit boards contain considerable quantities of lead-tin solders that are likely to leach into groundwater or create air pollution due to incineration. The processing required to reclaim these precious substances may release, generate, export of waste to countries with lower environmental standards is a major concern. Companies may find it cost-effective in the term to sell outdated computers to less developed countries with lax regulations
36.
Silicon Valley
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Silicon Valley is a nickname for the southern portion of the San Francisco Bay Area, in the northern part of the U. S. state of California. The valley in its name refers to the Santa Clara Valley in Santa Clara County, which includes the city of San Jose and surrounding cities and towns, where the region has been traditionally centered. The region has expanded to include the half of the San Francisco Peninsula in San Mateo County. It was in the Valley that the integrated circuit, the microprocessor. As of 2013, the region employed about a quarter of an information technology workers. The term is now used as a synecdoche for the American high-technology economic sector. The first published use of Silicon Valley is credited to Don Hoefler, hostler used the phrase as the title of a series of articles in the weekly trade newspaper Electronic News. The series, entitled Silicon Valley in the USA, began in the papers January 11,1971, the term gained widespread use in the early 1980s, at the time of the introduction of the IBM PC and numerous related hardware and software products to the consumer market. The silicon part of the name refers to the concentration of companies involved in the making of semiconductors. These firms slowly replaced the orchards and the fruits which gave the area its initial nickname — the Valley of Hearts Delight, Stanford University leadership was especially important in the valleys early development. Together these elements formed the basis of its growth and success, the ship had been outfitted with a wireless telegraph transmitter by a local newspaper, so that they could prepare a celebration on the return of the American sailors. Local historian Clyde Arbuckle states in Clyde Arbuckles History of San Jose that California first heard the click of a key on September 11,1853. It marked completion of an enterprise begun by a couple of San Francisco Merchants Exchange members named George Sweeney and it was known as the Inner Station, the second, as the Outer Station. Both used their primitive mode of communication until Messrs, Sweeney and Baugh connected the Outer Station directly with the Merchantss Exchange by electric telegraph Wire. According to Arbuckle Sweeney and Baughs line was strictly an intra-city, San Francisco-based service, allen and C. Burnham led the way to build a line from San Francisco to Marysville via San Jose, Stockton, and Sacramento. Delays to construction occurred until September 1853, but, …San Jose became the first station on the line when the wire arrived here on October 15, the line was completed when Gambles northbound crew met a similar crew working southward from Marysville on October 24. The Bay Area had long been a site of United States Navy research. In 1909, Charles Herrold started the first radio station in the United States with regularly scheduled programming in San Jose
37.
Living Computers: Museum + Labs
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Living Computers, Museum + Labs is a computer and technology museum located in the SoDo neighborhood of Seattle, Washington. LCM+L showcases vintage computers which provide interactive sessions, either through time-sharing operating systems or single-user interfaces and this gives users a chance to actually use the computers on-line or in person in the museum. An expansion adds direct touch experiences with contemporary technologies such as reality, self-driving cars, the internet of things. This puts todays computer technology in the context of how its used to tackle real-world issues. LCM+L also hosts a range of educational programs and events in their state-of-the art classroom. According to LCM+Ls website, their goal is to life back into our machines so the public can experience what it was like to see them, hear them. We make our systems accessible by allowing people to come and interact with them, LCM+L was founded by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, on January 9,2006. Through PDPplanet users were able to telnet into vintage devices and experience timesharing computing on equipment from Digital Equipment Corporation and XKL. Users around the world can now request a login through the LCM+L website and telnet into systems from XKL, DEC, IBM, Xerox Sigma, AT&T, and CDC. Various and changing exhibits in the museum show how much computers, Paul Allen also founded the Museum of Pop Culture, or MoPOP and the Flying Heritage Collection. On March 17,2010, it was recognized by Washington State Senate Resolution 8721 for its role in the preservation of the history of information technology, LCM was the main sponsor of the Seattle Retro Gaming Expo in 2016. Various artifacts from the museum have been borrowed and featured in TV shows such as Mad Men and Halt and Catch Fire, the collection consists of publicly donated items and Paul Allen’s personal collection. The museum also has two of its own libraries, the first is on the exhibit floor with reference books, user manuals and magazines about the history of computing, available for people to peruse while in the museum. The second collection includes computers, peripherals, software, and documentation to assist in the restoration, display, LCM+L is still actively collecting and restoring vintage computers. See the want list for important items the collection is looking for, a full list of the computers currently on display, and those coming soon can be found below. MACRO JCL APL C LISP BASIC COBOL FORTRAN sh awk Daily Mail - Is this robot better at Pokémon Go than you
38.
American Computer & Robotics Museum
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It was founded in May 1990 by Barbara and George Keremedjiev as a non-profit organization and will be celebrating its 25th anniversary in May 2015. The museum is known as the American Computer & Robotics Museum. The museum was intended to have been located in Princeton, New Jersey. It is likely the oldest extant museum dedicated to the history of computers in the world, the Computer Museum in Boston opened first, but it closed in 1999. The museums mission is, To collect, preserve, interpret, and display the artifacts and history of the information age
39.
Computer History Museum
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The Computer History Museum is a museum established in 1996 in Mountain View, California, US. The Museum is dedicated to preserving and presenting the stories and artifacts of the information age, the museums origins date to 1968 when Gordon Bell began a quest for a historical collection and, at that same time, others were looking to preserve the Whirlwind computer. The resulting Museum Project had its first exhibit in 1975, located in a coat closet in a DEC lobby. In 1978, the museum, now The Digital Computer Museum, moved to a larger DEC lobby in Marlborough, maurice Wilkes presented the first lecture at TDCM in 1979 – the presentation of such lectures has continued to the present time. TDCM incorporated as The Computer Museum in 1982, in 1984, TCM moved to Boston, locating on Museum Wharf. In 1996/1997, The TCM History Center in Silicon Valley was established, a site at Moffett Field was provided by NASA, in 1999, TCMHC incorporated and TCM ceased operation, shipping its remaining artifacts to TCMHC in 2000. The name TCM had been retained by the Boston Museum of Science so, in 2000, in 2003, CHM opened its new building, at 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd in Mountain View, California, to the public. The facility was heavily renovated and underwent a two-year $19 million makeover before reopening on January 2011. The Computer History Museum claims to house the largest and most significant collection of computing artifacts in the world, the collection comprises nearly 90,000 objects, photographs and films, as well as 4,000 feet of cataloged documentation and several hundred gigabytes of software. The CHM oral history program conducts video interviews around the history of computing and networking, the museums 25, 000-square-foot exhibit Revolution, The First 2000 Years of Computing, opened to the public on January 13,2011. It covers the history of computing in 20 galleries, from the abacus to the Internet, the entire exhibition is also available online. The museum features a Liquid Galaxy in the “Going Places, A History of Silicon Valley” exhibit, the exhibit features 20 preselected locations that visitors can fly to on the Liquid Galaxy. An operating Difference Engine designed by Charles Babbage in the 1840s and it had been on loan since 2008 from its owner, Nathan Myhrvold, a former Microsoft executive. Former media executive John Hollar was appointed CEO of The Computer History Museum in July 2008, in 2012 the APL programming language followed. In February 2013 Adobe Systems, Inc. donated the Photoshop 1.0.1 source code to the collection, on October 21,2014, Xerox Altos source code and other resources followed. The CHM Fellows are exceptional men and women whose ideas have changed the world, the first fellow was Rear Admiral Grace Hopper in 1987. The fellows program has grown to 70 members as of 2015, vintage Computer Festival held annually at The Computer History Museum Computer museums History of computing History of computer science Bell, Gordon. Out of a Closet, The Early Years of the Computer * Museum, official website Computer History Museums channel on YouTube The Computer Museum Archive
40.
National Museum of American History
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Among the items on display is the original Star-Spangled Banner. The museum is part of the Smithsonian Institution and located on the National Mall at 14th Street and Constitution Avenue NW in Washington, the museum opened in 1964 as the Museum of History and Technology. It was one of the last structures designed by the architectural firm McKim Mead & White. In May 2012, John Gray was announced as the new director, the museum underwent an $85 million renovation from September 5,2006 to November 21,2008, during which time it was closed. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill provided the architecture and interior design services for the renovation, major changes made during the renovation include, A new, five-story sky-lit atrium, which is surrounded by displays of artifacts that showcase the breadth of the museums collection. A new, grand staircase that links the museums first and second floors, a new welcome center, and the addition of six landmark objects to orient visitors. New galleries, such as the Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Hall of Invention, an environmentally controlled chamber to protect the original Star-Spangled Banner. In 2012, the museum began a $37 million renovation of the west wing to add new spaces, public plazas. The renovation will also include panoramic windows overlooking the National Mall on all three floors and new features to the exhibits. The first floor of the west wing reopened on July 1,2015 with the second and third floors of the west wing reopening in 2016 and 2017, each wing of the museums three exhibition floors is anchored by a landmark object to highlight the theme of that wing. These include the John Bull locomotive, the Greensboro, North Carolina lunch counter, landmarks from pre-existing exhibits include the 1865 Vassar Telescope, a George Washington Statue, a Red Cross ambulance, and a car from Disneylands Dumbo Flying Elephant ride. Artifact walls,275 feet of glass-fronted cases, line the first, the lower level of the museum displays Taking America to Lunch, which celebrates the history of American lunch boxes. The museums food court, the Stars and Stripes Café, the first floors East Wing has exhibits that feature transportation and technology, they include America on the Move and Lighting a Revolution. The John Bull locomotive is the signature artifact, the exhibits in the West Wing address science and innovation. They include Science in American Life featuring Robots on the Road, spark. Lab is a hands-on exhibit of the Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation. The Vassar Telescope is the signature artifact, a café and the main museum store are also located on the first floor. The first floor contains the Constitution Avenue lobby, as well as a space for a temporary exhibit. The exhibitions in 2 East, the east wing of the floor, consider American ideals
41.
Replica 1
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The Replica 1 is a clone of the Apple I designed by Vince Briel with permission from the Apple Is original creator Steve Wozniak. The Replica 1 is functionally a close copy of the original, the Replica 1 is designed around the same MOS Technology 6502 chip used as the core of the Apple I. Like the original, the Replica 1 utilizes simple AV in/out to connect to a television or other similar screen, Apple had no objection to the project since Wozniak had given his approval and the design is technically Wozniaks alone since it predates the company itself. Apple had previously released all materials regarding the Apple I to the Apple I Owners Club, Briel Computers did sell the replica in two models, one pre-assembled, and another as a build-it-yourself kit. It appears the units are no longer available at time of writing, earlier revision Replica 1 came with an available Serial I/O card which allowed programs written on or for the Replica 1 to be stored on the hard drive of any common PC. This was needed because the Replica 1 had no ready means of program storage. The I/O card can also be attached to original Apple I computers, the most recent model of the Replica 1 is the Replica 1 Third Edition. The Second Edition model integrated both the previous Serial I/O board plus a new USB interface into the main board, other improvements included a wall mounted DC power supply replacing the previous models reliance on a full PC power supply and a power on light indicator. The Third Edition model removed the USB interface and replaced the AVR microcontroller used to video with a Parallax Propeller chip. This allows for quick data inputting for large programs, which is favourable over typing in such programs by hand, Apple 1 Slot Used for connecting original or third party expansion boards to the Replica 1, such as the CFFA1 Card Reader and Multi I/O Board by Briel Computers
42.
Printed circuit board
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Components are generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate, PCBs can be single sided, double sided or multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density. FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate, a basic building block of the PCB is an FR-4 panel with a thin layer of copper foil laminated to one or both sides. In multi-layer boards multiple layers of material are laminated together, printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, PCBs require the additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single part. A minimal PCB with a component used for easier prototyping is called a breakout board. When the board has no embedded components it is correctly called a printed wiring board or etched wiring board. However, the printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly, the IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly, and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used both for bare and assembled boards. The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $60.2 billion in 2014, initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar. Rub-on dry transfers of common component footprints increased efficiency, traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout, to fabricate the board, the finished photomask was photolithographically reproduced onto a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards. Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated software, generally in the following steps. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB, the positions of the components and heat sinks are determined
43.
Multi Emulator Super System
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Multi Emulator Super System is an emulator for many game consoles and computer systems, based on the MAME core and now a part of MAME. MESS emulates portable and console gaming systems, computer platforms, the project strives for accuracy and portability and therefore is not always the fastest emulator for any one particular system. Its accuracy makes it useful for homebrew game development. As of April 2015 MESS supported 994 unique systems with 2,106 total system variations, however, not all of the systems in MESS are functional, some are marked as non-working or are in development. MESS was first released in 1998 and has been under constant development since, MAME and MESS were once separate applications, but were later developed and released together from a single source repository. MAMEDEV member David Haywood maintained and distributed UME which combined much of the functionality of MAME, more recently, on May 27,2015, MESS was formally integrated with MAME and became a part of MAME. MESS was distributed under the MAME Licence, which allowed for the redistribution of binary files and source code, either modified or unmodified, but disallowed selling MESS or using it commercially. The license is similar to other copyleft licenses in requiring that rights, in addition to the MESS Licence, The MESS Team required that, MESS must be distributed only in the original archives. You are not allowed to distribute a version, nor to remove and/or add files to the archive. Adding one text file to advertise your web site is tolerated only if your site contributes original material to the emulation scene, if you cant do that, you must provide a pointer to a place where the source can be obtained. While MESS was available in binary and source code forms, the restrictions on commercial exploitation cause it to fall outside of the Free Software Foundations definition of free software. Similarly MESS was not considered to be open source software if appraised according to the criteria of the Open Source Definition, generally the emulation only includes raw hardware logic, such as for the CPU and RAM, and specialized DSPs such as tone generators or video sprites. The MESS emulator does not include any programming code stored in ROM chips from the emulated computer, since this may be copyrighted software. However, if one has a system, it is far easier to dump the ROM data to tape, disk, etc. In 2013 the Internet Archive began to provide abandonware games browser-playable via JSMESS, for instance, MAME List of computer system emulators List of video game emulators Official MESS website
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