1.
Aprilia, Lazio
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Aprilia is a town and comune in the province of Latina, now incorporated in the conurbation of Rome, in the Lazio region of central Italy. It is the town for population in the region and the tenth for its area. Aprilia is located at 80 metres above sea level, in the Agro Romano, although Aprilia is effectively part of the province of Latina, because of its strategic position at the far north of the Pontinian province, Aprilia is commonly associated to Rome. It has been considered whether Aprilia should be included in the Rome metropolitan area, in ancient times the territory of Aprilia was under the dominion of Ardea and Rome. In modern age Aprilia was founded on April 25,1936, the project of the land reclamation, wanted by Benito Mussolini, where the Duce proposed new areas for Italian citizens to live and work in not so far from the big cities. Aprilia was part of the project called 2PST by The area where the city has been built belonged to the Rome county, is the fourth in order of foundation after Littoria, Sabaudia e Pontinia. The name of the city come from the Latin Venus Aprilia - Fruitful Venus With a surface of 17,774 hectares, and an amount of 71,150 inhabitants at 31.03. In 1929, after repeated attempts, began the work of land reclamation in the area attracted a significant number of people coming from Trentino, Veneto, from Friuli. Only then took over a population that lived in a small part in the new urban center. Aprilia was a part of the reclamation Pontina including Littoria, Sabaudia, Pontinia and Pomezia. At its foundation, the Urban Center was composed of four buildings, City, post office, church, home of the beam to which were added to the Cinema Littorio. Things became critical with the advance of World War II and the beginning of the Battle of Rome, in January 1944 Aprilia called the la fabbrica, the factory by the Allies, was reduced to a pile of rubble and the population took refuge in Campania and Calabria. In the 50s Italians from North Africa Colonies who built estesissimi vineyards to produce wines with denomination of origin and this was the first step toward industrialization itself. At the end of 1951 settled in Aprilias first factory, the Simmenthal, the town changed its face and gave work to many workers. Aprilia currently engaged about one hundred plants, including major corporations. The Aprilia region is home to a large 3,700 hectare Denominazione di origine controllata DOC that is noted for its wines from varieties such as Trebbiano, Merlot, Sangiovese. Under DOC regulations, the wines must contain at least 95% of the grape variety on the wine label in order to qualify for the DOC designation. Nearly 75% of the DOC production is centered around Trebbiano. 5% alcohol by volume
2.
Lancia Aprilia
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The berlinetta aerodinamica was first shown in 1936. Production commenced in February 1937, the month in which the founder died. The first series featured a 1,352 cc V4 motor providing 47 bhp, the second series had its engine capacity increased to 1,486 cc which provided 48 bhp. A Lusso model of second series was also offered as well as a lungo version. A total of 20,082 cars and 7,554 additional chassis for coach bodies were produced in Turin along with about 700 in France. With the Aprilia Lancia followed their tradition of offering cars with the wheel on the right even in markets seen by other manufacturers as left hand drive markets. Outside the UK and Sweden customers increasingly picked the optional left hand drive versions, Lancia had opened their first plant outside Italy at Bonneuil on the south side of Paris in 1931, and the Aprilia was assembled here between 1937 and 1939. The French version was badged as the Lancia Ardennes, but apart from the name, despite being well regarded by enthusiasts, the Lancia Ardennes was overshadowed in the French market place by the pioneering and aggressively priced Citroën Traction. Lancia Augusta Lancisti. net - An Information Exchange and Support Community for Lancia Owners and Enthusiasts
3.
Motorcycle
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A motorcycle is a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes, long travel, commuting, cruising, sport including racing. Motorcycling is riding a motorcycle and related social activity such as joining a motorcycle club, in 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle. In 2014, the three top motorcycle producers globally by volume were Honda, Yamaha, and Hero MotoCorp, in developing countries, motorcycles are overwhelmingly utilitarian due to lower prices and greater fuel economy. Of all the motorcycles in the world, 58% are in the Asia-Pacific and Southern and Eastern Asia regions, according to the United States Department of Transportation the number of fatalities per vehicle mile traveled was 37 times higher for motorcycles than for cars. The term motorcycle has different legal definitions depending on jurisdiction, there are three major types of motorcycle, street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many sub-types of motorcycles for different purposes, there is often a racing counterpart to each type, such as road racing and street bikes, or motocross and dirt bikes. Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal. Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture, the first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning. The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen and it was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle. The first commercial design for a cycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle. He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884, the vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich, in 1888. The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a valve lever. No braking system was fitted, the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever, the driver was seated between the front wheels. It wasnt, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing, many authorities have excluded steam powered, electric motorcycles or diesel-powered two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, and credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the worlds first motorcycle
4.
Noale
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Noale is a town in the province of Venezia, Veneto, Italy. The town is home to the cult Hard rock/Heavy Metal band Catarrhal Noise, the most important event of the town is the Palio. The Noale Palio is the historical re-enactment of the Medieval contest which used to place in the town under the seigniory of the Tempesta family. Historical documents show that the Palio was first celebrated in 1339 and it was originally intended to commemorate Noale’s annexation to Treviso’s possessions. The Palio still takes place annually in the month of June, over the Whit Sunday period, more specifically, the main contest involve the following seven districts, Bastia, Cerva, Drago, Gato, S. Giorgio, S. Giovanni and S. Urbano. In accordance with the tradition, the winner of the contest is awarded with a drape designed by local artists. Dilijan, Armenia Noale travel guide from Wikivoyage
5.
Piaggio
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SpA via its subsidiaries designs, engineers, manufactures and distributes two wheeled motor vehicles and compact commercial vehicles under seven brands. SpA corporate headquarters are located in Pontedera, Italy, Piaggios various subsidiaries employ a total of 7,053 employees who produced a total of 519,700 vehicles in 2014. Piaggio operates six research and development centers and operates in over 50 countries, in 1882, Enrico Piaggio completes the purchase of land in Sestri Ponente to set up a timber yard. Two years later, in 1884, the company was founded by Rinaldo Piaggio, Piaggio initially produced locomotives and railway carriages. During 1917, in the wake of the World War, Rinaldo converts the company to the aeronautical, Italys crippled economy and the disastrous state of the roads did not assist in the redevelopment of the automobile markets. Enrico Piaggio decided to leave the field in order to address Italys urgent need for a modern. The idea was to design a vehicle for the masses. The aeronautical designer didnt like motorcycles and he found them uncomfortable and bulky, with wheels that were difficult to change after a puncture. Corradino DAscanios drawings had nothing to do with the Paperino, his design was absolutely original, the vehicle had to be easy to drive for both men and women, be able to carry a passenger, and not get its drivers clothes dirty. Piaggio launched the Vespa scooter and within ten years over a million units had been produced, the Italian language gained a new word, vespare, meaning to go somewhere on a Vespa. In 1956 the millionth Vespa is produced, Italy sees its first mass motorised mobility, with strong cash flow from the success of the Vespa, Piaggio developed other products, including the 1957 Vespa 400, a tiny passenger car. In 1959, Piaggio came under the control of the Agnelli family, in 1960 Vespa reaches 4 million units produced and sold worldwide. In 1964 the two divisions, aeronautical and motorcycle, split to two independent companies as a result of the wide ownership by Fiat in Italian industry. The aeronautical division was named IAM Rinaldo Piaggio, the aircraft company Piaggio Aero is controlled by the family of Piero Ferrari, who still hold 10% of Ferrari. In 1971 Ape gets a steering wheel and becomes Ape Car, in 1988 Vespa reaches 10 million units produced. Vespa thrived, until 1992, when Gianni Agnelli became CEO, in 1999 Morgan Grenfell Private Equity acquired Piaggio, but hopes for a quick sale were dashed by a failed joint venture in China. In Italy, Piaggio invested 15 million euros in a new motorcycle, by the end of 2002, the company had run up 577 million Euros in debt on revenues of 945 million Euros, and booked a loss of 129 million Euros. Then came Roberto Colaninno, who said, A lot of people told me I was crazy and it just needed to be treated better
6.
Bicycle
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A bicycle, often called a bike or cycle, is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist, Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century in Europe and as of 2003, more than 1 billion have been produced worldwide, twice as many as the number of automobiles that have been produced. They are the means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a form of recreation, and have been adapted for use as childrens toys, general fitness, military and police applications, courier services. The basic shape and configuration of an upright or safety bicycle, has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. But many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and these have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for many types of cycling. The bicycles invention has had an effect on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. The word bicycle first appeared in English print in The Daily News in 1868, to describe Bysicles and trysicles on the Champs Elysées, the word was first used in 1847 in a French publication to describe an unidentified two-wheeled vehicle, possibly a carriage. The design of the bicycle was an advance on the velocipede, Other words for bicycle include bike, pushbike, pedal cycle, or cycle. In Unicode, the point for bicycle is 0x1F6B2. The entity 🚲, in HTML produces
7.
Scooter (motorcycle)
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A scooter or motor scooter is a motorcycle with step-through frame and a platform for the riders feet. Elements of scooter design have been present in some of the earliest motorcycles, Scooter development continued in Europe and the United States between the World Wars. The global popularity of scooters dates from the post-World War II introductions of the Vespa and these scooters were intended to provide low-power personal transportation. The original layout is widely used in this application. Maxi-scooters, with engines from 250 to 850 cc have been developed for Western markets, scooters are popular for personal transport, partly due to being cheap to buy, easy to operate and convenient to park and store. Licensing requirements for scooters are easier and cheaper than for cars in most parts of the world, a motor scooter is a motorcycle similar to a kick scooter with a seat, a floorboard, and small or low wheels. The United States Department of Transportation defines a scooter as a motorcycle that has a platform for the feet or has integrated footrests. The classic scooter design features a frame and a flat floorboard for the riders feet. This design is possible because most scooter engines and drive systems are attached to the axle or under the seat. Scooters usually feature bodywork, including a front leg shield and body that conceals all or most of the mechanicals, there is often some integral storage space, either under the seat, built into the front leg shield, or both. Scooters have varying engine displacements and configurations ranging from 50 cc single-cylinder to 850 cc twin-cylinder models, some scooters carry a spare wheel. Many recent scooters use conventional front forks with the front axle fastened at both ends, most jurisdictions do not differentiate between scooters and motorcycles. For all legal purposes in the United States of America, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration recommends using the motorcycle for all of these vehicles. However, while NHTSA excludes the term motor scooter from legal definition, it proceeds, in the same document, the emissions of mopeds and scooters have been the subject of multiple studies. In the same study, four-stroke mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, approximate parity with automobiles was achieved with NOx emissions in these studies. Emissions performance was tested on a basis and was unaffected by fuel economy. Scooter-like traits began to develop in motorcycle designs around the 1900s, in 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller produced the first motorcycle that was available for purchase. Their motorcycle had a frame, with its fuel tank mounted on the down tube, its parallel two-cylinder engine mounted low on the frame
8.
Sport bike
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Motorcycles are versatile and may be put to many uses as the rider sees fit. In the past there were few if any specialized types of motorcycles, the introduction of the Honda CB750 in 1969 marked a dramatic increase in the power and speed of practical and affordable sport bikes available to the general public. This was followed in the 1970s by improvements in suspension and braking commensurate with the power of the inline fours that had begun to dominate the sport bike world. In the 1980s sport bikes again took a leap ahead, becoming almost indistinguishable from racing motorcycles, since the 1990s sport bikes have become more diverse, adding new variations like the naked bike and streetfighter to the more familiar road racing style of sport bike. With the emphasis of a bike being on speed, acceleration, braking. Sport bikes have comparatively high-performance engines resting inside a lightweight frame, high tech and expensive materials are often used on sport bikes to reduce weight. Braking systems combine higher performance brake pads and disc brakes with multi-piston calipers that clamp onto oversized vented rotors, suspension systems are advanced in terms of adjustments and materials for increased stability and durability. Front and rear tires are larger and wider than tires found on other types of motorcycles to allow higher cornering speeds and greater lean angles. Fairings may or may not be used on a sport bike, correct front-to-rear weight distribution is of particular importance to the handling of sport bikes, and the changing position of the riders body dynamically changes the handling of the motorcycle. There is no universal authority defining the terminology of sport bikes or any other motorcycle classes, marketing messages about a model from the manufacturer can diverge from the consensus of the motorcycling media and the public. Sometimes the classes used in racing are approximated in production models, often. The sport bike classes in common usage are, Lightweight, also called entry level, some two strokes in this class have dramatically higher performance than the four strokes, being likened to miniature superbikes. Sport bikes with displacements of up to about 500 cc are usually in this class. Displacements of 600–750 cc are typical, superbike, liter-class, or literbike, i. e.1,000 cc. As with supersport, many of the models in this class compete in superbike racing, open class, hypersport or hyperbike, are terms sometimes used in lieu of superbike as a catch-all for everything larger than middleweight. Alternatively, these terms mark a class above the superbikes for the largest displacement sport bikes with the highest top speeds, hyperbike was in use by 1979. The terms supersport and superbike are sometimes applied indiscriminately to all high-performance motorcycles, in the less developed world, smaller engine sizes are the norm, and relative terms like small, mid-sized and large displacement can have different meanings. For example, in India in 2002 there were about 37 million two-wheelers, similarly, the perception of relative sizes has shifted over time in developed countries, from smaller to larger displacements
9.
V-twin engine
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A V-twin engine, also called a V2 engine, is a two-cylinder internal combustion engine where the cylinders are arranged in a V configuration. Although widely associated with motorcycles, V-twin engines are produced for the power equipment industry and are often found in riding lawnmowers, small tractors. Gottlieb Daimler built a V-twin engine in 1889 and it was used as a stationary powerplant and to power boats. It was also used in Daimlers second automobile, the 1889 Stahlradwagen, the engine was also manufactured under licence in France by Panhard et Levassor. In November 1902 the Princeps AutoCar Co advertised a V-twin engined motorcycle, also, in 1903, Glenn Curtiss in the United States, and NSU in Germany began building V-twin engines for use in their respective motorcycles. Peugeot, which had used Panhard-built Daimler V-twins in its first cars, a Norton motorcycle powered by a Peugeot V-twin engine won the first Isle of Man Tourist Trophy twin-cylinder race in 1907. Most V-twin engines have a single crankpin, which is shared by both connecting rods, the connecting rods may sit side-by-side with offset cylinders, or they may be fork & blade items with cylinders in the same plane without an offset. Generally, any engine with its two cylinders arranged more than 0° and less than 180° apart is referred to as a V-twin. Although Ducati uses the name L-twin for its 90° twin engine, a 90° V-twin will, with a correct counterweight, yield perfect primary balance, although its firing intervals are uneven. A V-twin with an angle of less than 90° is more compact and has more even firing intervals, offset crankpins are sometimes used to reduce the resulting vibration. Highly technical sources, such as V, the engine can be mounted in transverse crankshaft position as on Harley-Davidsons, Ducatis and many recent Japanese motorcycles. This layout produces a twin cylinder engine that is little or no wider than a single. A narrower engine can be mounted lower in the frame with handling benefits, a disadvantage of this configuration for air-cooled engines is that the two cylinders receive different air-flows and cooling of the rear cylinder tends to be restricted. Cooling problems are somewhat mitigated by having all four sides of each cylinder exposed to air flow, some transverse V-twins use a single carburettor in the middle of the V-angle to feed both cylinders. Some cooling strategies of transverse-crankshaft 90° V-twins The longitudinal crankshaft two-cylinder V as seen on Moto-Guzzis and this orientation is suited to shaft drive, eliminating the need for a 90° bevel gear at the transmission end of the shaft. Many modern motorcycle manufacturers correct for this effect by rotating flywheels or alternators in the direction to that of the crankshaft. BSA made a V-twin car starting in 1921, then introduced a three-wheeler in 1929, V-twin engines, adapted from motorcycles, were featured in Morgan three-wheelers made from 1911 to 1939. Morgan introduced a new Morgan 3-Wheeler in 2011, Mazda made 356 cc and 571 cc V-twins beginning in 1960 for the Mazda R360
10.
Aprilia RSV Mille
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The Aprilia RSV Mille was a sport motorcycle manufactured by Aprilia from 1998 to 2003. It was offered in three versions, RSV Mille, RSV Mille R, and RSV Mille SP, the first RSV Mille was made from 1998 to 2000, the updated RSV Mille from 2001 to 2002 and the last update was made in 2003. With a 998 cc 60-degree V-twin engine built by the Austrian company Rotax and this same engine was used unmodified in the Tuono and in slightly modified form in the SL1000 Falco. The Mille featured a type of clutch, which worked by using a vacuum on a closed throttle from the inlet manifold to give the effect of slipper clutch. The first changes were made in 2001 when the fairing was restyled, the fuel tank was changed to a plastic item, and the rear shock on both the standard and the R models was revised. In 2002, the front brake calipers were changed to Brembo Monobloc 4 pad calipers - each piston having a separate pad gave an increase in braking performance and feel. In 2003, the ratios were changed to give a slightly closer ratio gearbox, the exhaust system was changed. From 2004, the Mille was replaced by the RSV-R and RSV-R Factory, the RSV Mille R is a lighter, higher spec. Version of the standard Mille, introduced in 1999 and it features Öhlins suspension, an Öhlins steering damper, forged aluminum wheels, carbon fibre front mudguard and a shorter subframe for one person use only. The SP stands for Sport Production and this version was made as a special for the Superbike World Championship. Only 150 motorcycles, the requirement to homologate the model for Superbike World Championship, were manufactured in 1999. It uses a special version of the 60-degree V-twin engine. In 2002, Aprilia produced 300 limited edition RSV Mille R Haga Replica, in 2003, an RSV Mille R Edwards Replica with a livery inspired by the Aprilia RS Cube MotoGP motorcycle ridden by Colin Edwards. As with the Haga replica, the motorcycle came with a kit, which included Akrapovic exhausts, a more pressurised airbox
11.
V4 engine
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A V4 engine is a type of four-cylinder engine, a V engine with four cylinders. A V4 engine typically has three main bearings, usually one bank of cylinders will comprise cylinders # 1&3, and the other bank # 2&4. For reasons of packaging, the Honda VFR1200 has a 1&4, a disadvantage is that, as with a V-twin, it is more difficult to locate ancillaries, inlet systems, and exhaust systems. A V4 is usually expensive to produce than an equivalent in-line four. Also, while a V-4 is essentially two V-twins side-by-side, a V4 can have a couple that is not present in a V-twin. The compact 60° V4 is not perfectly smooth and needs a balance shaft, one of the earliest V4 internal combustion engines was that designed by Émile Mors of Paris to power his motor-car of 1897. The 90 degree V-angle with central camshaft and spark ignition meant its layout is much more modern engines. At the time the lack of vibration from this layout was a key selling point, the V4 engine has not been widely used in cars. AMC, Ford, Lancia and ZAZ were the companies to manufacture such an engine. Lancia produced several narrow-angle V4 engines from the 1920s through 1960s for cars like the Lambda, Augusta, Artena, Aprilia, Ardea, Appia and this engine was unsuitable for regular passenger car use, mainly due to its relatively small displacement and power output. Ford of Europe produced two totally different V4 engines with a shaft, one in the UK and one in Germany, The British Ford Essex V4 engine, mainly used in the Ford Transit. The German Ford Taunus V4 engine The Ukrainian manufacturer ZAZ used an air-cooled V4 with a shaft, produced by MeMZ and used in Zaporozhets. In 2014, Porsche announced that their 919 Hybrid Le Mans Prototype would use a small-capacity, in modern cars with V8 engines and variable displacement technology, the engine will enter V4 mode during light load conditions such as highway cruising. This technology is known as Active Fuel Management in the Chevrolet Corvette, in the 1930s, the Matchless Silver Hawk used a narrow-angle V4, while Puch used a very wide-angle V4. V4 engines are more recently found in motorcycles, typically transversely mounted and this engine design enjoyed particular popularity during the mid-to-late 1980s, especially in Honda motorcycles. Honda VFR400R Honda VFR750F Honda VFR1200F Motus MST with a longitudinal engine, the company discontinued its water-cooled versions by 1939, and manufactured only air-cooled V4 petrol engines in various displacements for industrial, agricultural, and stationary applications. Farm equipment manufacturers sourced Wisconsin V4s as they offered compact size, in 1968, the largest in the Wisconsin gasoline line was the new V-465D, a 177 cu in V4 rated at 65.9 hp at 3000 rpm. Standard features include controlled pressurized lubrication to provide full-time oiling to all working parts, Wisconsin Motors continues to produce V4 engines for specialized applications
12.
Aprilia RSV4
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The Aprilia RSV4 is a super bike manufactured by Aprilia. The RSV4 is Aprilia’s flagship model, Aprilia offers two models of the bike, the RSV4 Factory and RSV4 R. For 2016 it is offered in two models the RSV4 RR and the limited-edition RSV4 RF, the 2016 updated bike was made to take advantage of and comply with this year’s Superbike rules. Which state that fewer modifications are allowed for production bikes and it has more power, is lighter, with improved handling and electronics being more sophisticated. Production of the began in 2008. The motorcycle was unveiled on 22 February 2008, at the International Piaggio Group Convention in Milan and it is powered by a 65-degree 999.6 cc V-4 engine, the companys first production four-cylinder engine. Aprilia claims that the new engine was designed specifically for superbike racing, Aprilia launched the bike to race in the 2009 Superbike World Championship season. In 2009, its first full season of World Superbike racing, Max Biaggi aboard the RSV4 reached the podium nine times, Aprilia factory teammate Shinya Nakano ended the season in 14th place. Max Biaggi ended his career winning the 2012 title with the RSV4, the Aprilia RSV4 is available as a customer-specified race bike from the factory as a Max Biaggi replica. Sylvain Guintoli won the 2014 Superbike World Championship season riding an RSV4 for the factory Aprilia racing team, lorenzo Savadori won the 2015 FIM Superstock 1000 Cup season. A bike based on the RSV4 was used by Aspar Racing and Paul Bird Motorsports, media related to Aprilia RSV4 at Wikimedia Commons RSV4 website Aprilia RSV at the Open Directory Project
13.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
14.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
15.
Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
16.
Mopeds
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Although mopeds usually have two wheels, some regions classify low-powered three- or four-wheeled vehicles as a moped. Manystates have laws on the books that anyone convicted of a DUI cannot legally operate any motor vehicle powered by gasoline for the length of their sentence. The word moped is a portmanteau of motor and pedal, originally coined in Sweden, like some of the earliest two wheeled motorcycles, all mopeds were once equipped with bicycle pedals. The name moped has now been applied by some governments to vehicles without pedals, based on criteria of restricted engine displacement, speed. This is a misnomer, as they are no longer mopeds at all, and might instead be called a noped if they appear to look exactly like a typical moped, but no longer include pedals. The term moped now only applies to vehicles, but pedals were fitted to some early motorcycles. Pedalling away from stationary was an improvement over run and jump. The earliest mopeds were bicycles with a motor in various locations, for example on top of the front wheel. An example of type is the VéloSoleX brand, which simply has a roller driving the front tire. A more innovative design was known in the UK as the Cyclemaster and this had a complete powered rear wheel which was simply substituted for the bicycle rear wheel, which originated from a design by two DKW engineers in Germany. Slightly larger machines, commonly with a 98 cc engine were known as autocycles, on the other hand, some mopeds, such as the Czech-made Jawa, were derived from motorcycles. A further category of low-powered two-wheelers exists today in some jurisdictions for bicycles with helper motors – these are defined as power-assisted bicycles or motorized bicycles. Other jurisdictions may categorize the same machines as mopeds, creating a certain amount of confusion, in many countries three-wheelers and microcars are classified as mopeds or variations thereof. This practice is not restricted to the world, France. The Ariel 3, a motorised three-wheeler is classed as a moped, the word moped was coined by Swedish journalist Harald Nielsen in 1952, as a portmanteau of motor and pedal. It is however claimed to be derived from motor-velocipede. According to Douglas Harper, the Swedish terms originated from mo ped, other terms used for low-powered cycles include motorbicycle, motorized bicycle, motor-driven cycle, and goped. The term noped is sometimes used for mopeds that do not have pedals, motor scooters are sometimes referred to as mopeds
17.
Motocross
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Motocross is a form of off-road motorcycle racing held on enclosed off-road circuits. The sport evolved from motorcycle trials competitions held in the United Kingdom, Motocross was first evolved in the U. K. from motorcycle trials competitions, such as the Auto-Cycle Clubss first quarterly trial in 1909 and the Scottish Six Days Trial that began in 1912. The first known scramble race took place at Camberley, Surrey in 1924, during the 1930s, the sport grew in popularity, especially in Britain where teams from the Birmingham Small Arms Company, Norton, Matchless, Rudge, and AJS competed in the events. Off-road bikes from that era differed little from those used on the street, the intense competition over rugged terrain led to technical improvements in motorcycles. The period after World War II was dominated by BSA which had become the largest motorcycle company in the world, BSA riders dominated international competitions throughout the 1940s. In 1952, the FIM, motorcyclings international governing body, created an individual European Championship using a 500 cc engine displacement formula, in 1957 it was upgraded to World Championship status. In 1962, a 250 cc world championship was created and it was in the smaller 250 cc category that companies with two-stroke motorcycles came into their own. Companies such as Husqvarna from Sweden, CZ from the former Czechoslovakia and Greeves from England, became popular due to their lightness, stars of the day included BSA works riders Jeff Smith and Arthur Lampkin, with Dave Bickers, Joe Johnson and Norman Brown on Greeves. By the 1960s, advancements in engine technology meant that the heavier. Riders from Belgium and Sweden began to dominate the sport during this period, the following year Hallman was joined by other motocross stars including Roger DeCoster, Joël Robert, and Dave Bickers. They dominated the event placing their lightweight two-strokes into the top six finishing positions, Motocross began to grow in popularity in the United States during this period, which fueled an explosive growth in the sport. By the late 1960s, Japanese motorcycle companies began challenging the European factories for supremacy in the motocross world, Suzuki claimed the first world championship for a Japanese factory when Joël Robert won the 1970250 cc crown. The first stadium motocross event was held in 1972 at the Los Angeles Coliseum, in 1975, a 125 cc world championship was introduced. European riders continued to dominate throughout the 1970s but, by the 1980s, American riders had caught up. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, Japanese motorcycle manufacturers presided over a period in motocross technology. The typical two-stroke air-cooled, twin-shock rear suspension gave way to machines that were water-cooled and fitted with single-shock absorber rear suspension. By 2003, increasingly stringent environmental laws in California forced some manufacturers to develop environmentally friendly four-stroke technology, by 2004, all the major manufacturers have begun competing with four-stroke machines. European firms also experienced a resurgence with Husqvarna, Husaberg, the sport evolved with sub-disciplines such as stadium events known as supercross and arenacross held in indoor arenas
18.
Rotax
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Rotax four-stroke and advanced two-stroke engines are used in a wide variety of small land, sea and airborne vehicles. Bombardier Recreational Products use them in their own range of such vehicles, in the light aircraft class, in 1998 Rotax outsold all other engine manufacturers combined. The company was founded in 1920 in Dresden, Germany, as ROTAX-WERK AG, in 1930, it was taken over by Fichtel & Sachs and transferred its operations to Schweinfurt, Germany. Operations were moved to Wels, Austria, in 1943 and finally to Gunskirchen, Austria, in 1959, the majority of Rotax shares were taken over by the Vienna-based Lohner-Werke, a manufacturer of car and railway wagon bodies. In 1970, Lohner-Rotax was bought by the Canadian Bombardier Inc, the former Bombardier branch, Bombardier Recreational Products, now an independent company, uses Rotax engines in its ground vehicles, personal water craft, and snowmobiles. Rotax supplies aircraft engines for aircraft, light aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles. Rotax engines designed specifically for aircraft include both four-stroke and two-stroke models. This 2-stroke engine series was launched 1997, the company also produces unbranded engines, parts and complete power trains for Original Equipment Manufacturers. Uses include motor bikes and scooters, with complete engines including the Rotax 122, motorcycle manufacturers using Rotax engines include Aprilia, BMW, Buell and KTM. Official Website Rotax Aircraft Engines List of Rotax engines applied to new-build aircraft
19.
Dakar Rally
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The Dakar Rally is an annual rally raid organised by the Amaury Sport Organisation. The race is open to amateur and professional entries, amateurs typically making up about eighty percent of the participants, the race is an off-road endurance event. The terrain that the traverse is much tougher than that used in conventional rallying. Most of the competitive special sections are off-road, crossing dunes, mud, camel grass, rocks, the distances of each stage covered vary from short distances up to 800–900 kilometres per day. 182 vehicles took the start of the rally in Paris, with 74 surviving the 10. Cyril Neveu holds the distinction of being the events first winner, the event rapidly grew in popularity, with 216 vehicles taking the start in 1980 and 291 in 1981. Neveu won the event for a time in 1980, Hubert Auriol taking honours in 1981 for BMW. By this stage, the rally had already begun to attract the participation of famous names from elsewhere in motorsport, such as Henri Pescarolo and Jacky Ickx. Auriol captured his second class victory in 1983, the first year that Japanese manufacturer Mitsubishi competed in the rally. At the behest of 1983 car class winner Jacky Ickx, Porsche entered the Dakar in 1984, the German marque won the event at their first attempt courtesy of René Metge, who had previously won in the car category in 1981, whilst Ickx finished sixth. The 1986 event, won by Metge and Neveu, was marred by the death of event founder Sabine in a helicopter crash, the 1988 event reached its zenith in terms of entry numbers, with 603 starters. Vatanens title defence was derailed when his Peugeot was stolen from the area at Bamako. Though it was found, Vatanen was subsequently disqualified from the event, victory instead going to compatriot. Peugeot and Vatanen returned to winning ways in 1989 and 1990, sister brand Citroën took Peugeots place, Vatanen taking a third consecutive victory in 1991. The 1991 event also saw Stéphane Peterhansel take his first title in the category with Yamaha. For the 1992 event, the line moved to Cape Town, South Africa in a bid to combat a declining number of competitors. Auriol became the first person to win in multiple classes after taking Mitsubishis second victory in the car class, the 1993 rally entry list slumped to 153 competitors, around half of the preceding years figure and around a quarter of that of 1988. The event was the last to be organised by Gilbert Sabine, with the finish line now back in its traditional location of Dakar, Bruno Saby won a third title for Mitsubishi and Peterhansel took a third straight success in the motorcycle category
20.
Loris Reggiani
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Loris Reggiani is an Italian former Grand Prix motorcycle road racer who competed for the Aprilia factory racing team. Reggiani was the first rider to win a Grand Prix for the Aprilia factory when he won the 1987 San Marino Grand Prix, in spite of development problems, Reggiani managed a 10th place in the 1995 season. He retired from competition after the 1995 season and he won a total of 8 Grands Prix during his career. Points system from 1969 to 1987, Points system from 1988 to 1992, Points system from 1993
21.
San Marino Grand Prix
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The San Marino Grand Prix was a Formula One championship race which was run at the Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari in the town of Imola, near the Apennine mountains in Italy, between 1981 and 2006. It was named after nearby San Marino because there already was an Italian Grand Prix held at Monza, in 1980, when Monza was under refurbishment, the Imola track was used for the 51st Italian Grand Prix. The area around Imola is home to racing car manufacturers – namely Ferrari, Lamborghini, Maserati, Minardi, Dallara. Following the Second World War, the town launched a program to try to improve the local economy, four local motor racing enthusiasts proposed the construction of a new road linking existing public roads, which was used by the local car manufacturers to test their prototypes. The first test run took two years later when Enzo Ferrari sent a car to the track and Alberto Ascari ran some demonstrative laps. In April 1953, the first motorcycle races took place at Imola, in April 1963, the first race with Formula One cars took place at Imola, as a non-championship event, won by Jim Clark for Lotus. A further non-championship event took place at Imola in 1979, which was won by Niki Lauda for Brabham-Alfa Romeo. In 1980, the Italian Grand Prix moved from the high-speed Monza circuit to Imola, as a result of 1978s startline pile-up. It was won by Nelson Piquet for Brabham-Ford, the following year, the Italian Grand Prix returned to Monza. This left the owners of the Imola circuit without a Grand Prix and their application was successful and the San Marino Grand Prix was born. The 1981 event saw Canadian Gilles Villeneuve qualify his Ferrari on pole position and he led the race for the first 19 laps until he pitted for fresh tyres. His team-mate Didier Pironi inherited the lead but was caught by Nelson Piquet. 1982 saw another memorable race, it was boycotted by most of the FOCA teams and was a point in Formula Ones history. Only 14 cars competed, and after the Renaults of Alain Prost and René Arnoux retired, Ferrari had no competition, however, Ferraris triumph was not so clean-cut. Villeneuve believed this order meant that the cars were to maintain position on the track. However, Pironi believed that the cars were free to race, Villeneuve believed that Pironi was simply trying to spice up an otherwise dull race, and duly re-passed his teammate, assuming that he would then hold station for the remainder of the race. Thus, Villeneuve failed to protect the line going into the Tosa corner on the final lap. Villeneuve was irate at what he saw as Pironis betrayal, although opinion inside the Ferrari team was split over the meaning of the order to slow down
22.
FIM Trial World Championship
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The FIM Trial World Championship and FIM X-Trial World Championship are the most prestigious motorcycle trials tournaments of the world, organised by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme. The outdoor championship is held since 1964 and the indoor since 1993, from 1964 to 1967 the championship was named Challenge Henry Groutards. From 1968 to 1974, it was the Trial European Championship, note, Green background denotes International Trial Master Championship. Note, Pink background denotes European Championship
23.
Max Biaggi
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Massimiliano Max Biaggi is a former Grand Prix motorcycle road racing World Champion and winner of the 2010 and 2012 World Superbike Championship. Throughout his racing career, he has won the 250cc World Championship four consecutive times, Biaggi announced his retirement from racing on 7 November 2012. He has been nicknamed il Corsaro and the Roman Emperor, Biaggi was more interested in football as a child. But in 1989, after he was given a motorcycle for his seventeenth birthday, in 1990 he won the Italian Sport Production Championship. Following his success in 125cc, Biaggi moved up to the 250cc class, in 1992, Biaggi completed his first entire season in 250cc Grand Prix for Aprilia, and finished the season fifth overall. In that same season he took his first victory in Kyalami, the following season, Biaggi joined Honda, and finished fourth in the championship standings, including a single victory in Barcelona. In 1994 he returned to Aprilia and dominated the 250cc Grand Prix class by winning three world championships in 1994,1995 and 1996. In 1997, Biaggi again returned to Honda, riding for Erv Kanemotos team, following that, he moved up to the 500cc class. He was also victorious at the Czech Republic Grand Prix and finished the season in place behind Mick Doohan. Biaggi then joined Yamaha to battle against the dominant Hondas and he finished fourth in 1999, third in 2000, and second in 2001. In 2002, Biaggi rode the four-stroke for the first time as development on the new motorcycle remained strong throughout the season and he won in Brno, Czech Republic and Sepang, Malaysia to clinch runner-up in the championship behind rival Valentino Rossi. In 2003, Biaggi finished third in the MotoGP championship after rejoining Honda on the Camel Pramac Pons team and won races in Pacific Grand Prix and it was expected that Biaggi would be one of the main candidates for the title in 2004. He won in Germany but a crash in Estoril saw his season begin to fade, at the end of the 2004 MotoGP season Biaggi finished the championship in third place, behind Sete Gibernau and series winner, Rossi. Biaggi started the 2005 MotoGP season as an official factory Honda rider and it was hoped that continued cooperation with Kanemoto and the full factory support from Honda would make Biaggi one of the main title contenders in 2005. However, Biaggi finished the season in fifth place. Biaggi lost his ride for the 2006 season, his position filled by 2005 250cc Grand Prix champion, on January 10,2006, Biaggi posted on his website that he would not take part in the 2006 MotoGP season. As a result, he took a sabbatical, but on 14 September 2006 Biaggi announced he had signed to replace Corser in the team for 2007, Biaggi began the season by winning the first race at the Losail International Circuit in Qatar and finishing second in race two. He then finished 3rd and 4th at Phillip Island, Australia, after a hard championship Biaggi finished third, behind World Champion James Toseland and Yamaha top rider Noriyuki Haga
24.
Loris Capirossi
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Loris Capirossi is an Italian former Grand Prix motorcycle road racer, who competed between 1990 and 2011. He is a former 250cc World Champion for Aprilia, and is the first Grand Prix rider to make at least 300 race starts, currently Capirossi is the Safety Advisor to Dorna Sports, the commercial rights holder of Grand Prix motorcycle racing. Capirossi made his World Championship debut at 125cc level, and in his first full season of Grands Prix he took his first title aged only seventeen. He finished in the top six on ten occasions, eight of them on the podium, the massed Italian contingent helped him out in the final round, but it was still an impressive achievement, with 182 points scored. His second season was better, and saw him defend the 125 title fairly comfortably. He was only once off the front row of the grid, from thirteen rounds, he was on the rostrum for twelve, and finished sixth in the other. He came second five times, and was a winner in Australia, Malaysia and his 225 points,200 of them counted, were enough to help him move up to the 250cc class. During this second season, Capirosssi and his team were sponsored by AGV Helmets, Capirossi moved up to 250cc class for the 1992 season on a year-old bike. In 1993 Capirossi made his first win at Netherlands and added two in San Marino and United States, but finished second and only four points behind Harada. It was the same in 1994, this time one more win. He finished third at the end of the season behind Max Biaggi, the 1995 season was Capirossis first season in the top-level 500cc championship. He was aboard a Pileri Honda, and although he often qualified better than he raced, in 1996 Capirossi retired from five of the first seven races, but thereafter he was often in the points and won the final race in Australia riding for Wayne Raineys Yamaha team. Capirossi returned to the 250cc championship for 1997 and he battled his Aprilia team-mate, Tetsuya Harada down to the final race of the 1998 season when the two riders were involved in a controversial incident in Argentina. Harada was leading the race into the corner of the final lap when Haradas bike was rammed from behind by Capirossis machine. Valentino Rossi took the victory whilst Capirossi recovered to second place. Aprilia would release him during the off-season and he moved to Honda for the 1999 season, taking third in the championship with three victories. Capirossi returned to the 500cc championship for 2000, and remained there through its evolution to the 800cc four-stroke MotoGP era and he won at his home race and finished 7th overall, one point behind Carlos Checa. The 2001 season was better than the year before, although without a win during the year, also it was the last season for the 500cc class, but for the 2002 season Capirossi found that he would ride inferior bikes from 2001
25.
Valentino Rossi
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Valentino Rossi is an Italian professional motorcycle road racer and multiple MotoGP World Champion. He is considered to be the greatest and one of the most successful racers of all time. Following his father, Graziano Rossi, Valentino started racing in Grand Prix in 1996 for Aprilia in the 125cc category, from there, he moved up to the 250cc category with Aprilia and won the 250cc World Championship in 1999. He left Yamaha to join Ducati for the 2011 season, and he suffered two winless seasons while at Ducati. Márquezs manoeuvres exasperated Rossi, prompting a response, although Lorenzo eventually stated to the media he was helped by Márquez not making serious moves trying to overtake him. However, the rivalries between Rossi and Márquez appeared to come to an end at the 2016 Catalan Grand Prix. Rossi is first in all time 500cc/MotoGP race wins standings, with 88 victories, Valentino Rossi was born in Urbino, Marche, and he was still a child when the family moved to Tavullia. Son of Graziano Rossi, a motorcycle racer, he first began riding at a very young age. Rossis first racing love was karting, fuelled by his mother, Stefanias, concern for her sons safety, Graziano purchased a kart as substitute for the bike. However, the Rossi family trait of perpetually wanting to go faster prompted a redesign, Rossi won the regional kart championship in 1990. After this he took up minimoto and before the end of 1991 had won numerous regional races, Rossi continued to race karts and finished fifth at the national kart championships in Parma. However, the high cost of racing karts led to the decision to race minimoto exclusively, through 1992 and 1993, Valentino continued to learn the ins and outs of minimoto racing. He finished ninth that race weekend, although his first season in the Italian Sport Production Championship was varied, he achieved a pole position in the seasons final race at Misano, where he would ultimately finish on the podium. By the second year, Rossi had been provided with a factory Mito by Lusuardi, in 1994, Aprilia by way of Peppino Sandroni, used Rossi to improve its RS125R and in turn allowed him to learn how to handle the fast new pace of 125 cc racing. At first he found himself on a Sandroni, with a Rotax-Aprilia engine in the 1994 Italian championship, Rossi had some success in the 1996 World Championship season, failing to finish five of the seasons races and crashing several times. Despite this, in August he won his first World Championship Grand Prix at Brno in the Czech Republic on an AGV Aprilia RS125R. He finished the season in position and proceeded to dominate the 125 cc World Championship in the following 1997 season. By 1998, the Aprilia RS250 was reaching its pinnacle and had a team of riders in Valentino Rossi, Loris Capirossi and he later concluded the 1998250 cc season in second place,23 points behind Capirossi
26.
Catalytic converter
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A catalytic converter is an emissions control device that converts toxic gases and pollutants in exhaust gas to less toxic pollutants by catalyzing a redox reaction. Catalytic converters are used with internal combustion engines fueled by either petrol or diesel—including lean-burn engines as well as kerosene heaters, the first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. These two-way converters combined oxygen with carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons to produce carbon dioxide, in 1981, two-way catalytic converters were rendered obsolete by three-way converters that also reduce oxides of nitrogen, however, two-way converters are still used for lean-burn engines. This is because three-way-converters require either rich or stoichiometric combustion to successfully reduce NOx and they are also used on some wood stoves to control emissions. This is usually in response to government regulation, either through direct environmental regulation or through health, the catalytic converter was invented by Eugene Houdry, a French mechanical engineer and expert in catalytic oil refining, who moved to the United States in 1930. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for smoke stacks called cats for short, in the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines used on cars. He was awarded United States Patent 2,742,437 for his work, widespread adoption of catalytic converters did not occur until more stringent emission control regulations forced the removal of the anti-knock agent tetraethyl lead from most types of gasoline. Lead is a catalyst poison and would disable a catalytic converter by forming a coating on the catalysts surface. Pfefferle developed a catalytic combustor for gas turbines in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of nitrogen oxides, the catalytic converters construction is as follows, The catalyst support or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is usually a ceramic monolith with a honeycomb structure, metallic foil monoliths made of Kanthal are used in applications where particularly high heat resistance is required. Either material is designed to provide a surface area. A washcoat is a carrier for the materials and is used to disperse the materials over a large surface area. Aluminum oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, or a mixture of silica, the catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core. Washcoat materials are selected to form a rough, irregular surface and this in turn maximizes the catalytically active surface available to react with the engine exhaust. The coat must retain its surface area and prevent sintering of the metal particles even at high temperatures. These oxides are added as oxygen storage promoters. The catalyst itself is most often a mix of precious metal, platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and high cost. Palladium and rhodium are two precious metals used
27.
Philippe Starck
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Philippe Starck is a French designer known since the start of his career in the 1980s for his interior, product, industrial and architectural design including furniture. The son of an engineer, Starck studied at the École Camondo in Paris. An inflatable structure he imagined in 1969 was a first incursion into questions of materiality, Starcks designs brought him to the attention of Pierre Cardin who offered him a job as artistic director of his publishing house. His concept of design led him to focus on mass-produced consumer goods rather than one-off pieces, seeking ways to reduce cost. In 1983, the French President François Mitterrand, on the recommendation of his Minister of Culture Jack Lang, the following year he designed the Café Costes. The buildings he designed in Japan, starting in 1989, went against the grain of traditional forms, the first, Nani Nani, in Tokyo, is an anthropomorphic structure, clad in a living material that evolves over time. The thesis being, design should take its place within the environment but without impinging on it, a year later he designed the Asahi Beer Hall in Tokyo, a building topped with a golden flame. This was followed in 1992 by Le Baron Vert office complex in Osaka, Starcks buildings, while dedicated to work, are no less instilled with life and its constant effervescence. In France he designed the extension of the École Nationale Supérieure des Arts Décoratifs in Paris, the Alhondiga, a more recent project, is a 43,000 sq. m culture and leisure venue in Bilbao that opened in 2010. Starck, who loves ships and the sea, designed the new infrastructure for the Port Adriano harbour on the south-west bay of Palma de Mallorca and he also designed Steve Jobs yacht, Venus, which launched in October 2012. In South America, Philippe Starck designed the inside and outside of the Hotel Fasano in Rio de Janeiro in 2007 using materials such as wood, glass and he then turned his attention to luxury hotels, in 2008, Hôtel Meurice and the Royal Monceau in 2010. From 1990, Philippe Starck has worked to democratize quality designer hotels, offering rooms at $100/night, it became a classic in its genre. In 2008, Starck brought this humanist concept to Paris as the Mama Shelter, a second Mama Shelter opened in Marseille in 2012. In April 2015, Mama Shelter had six hotels with new locations in Bordeaux, Istanbul, Los Angeles, in 2010, Philippe Starck opened the Coriche Hotel at the Dune du Pyla. In North America, in the 2000s, Philippe Starck with entrepreneur Sam Nazarian created the concept for SLS, the Bazaar lobby at SLS Hotel in Beverly Hills quickly became a public space with its tapas restaurants, Norwegian health bar, pâtisserie and a Moss concept store. The Atrego opened in Cap dAil in 2011 and he designed the interior and exterior of Ma Cocotte, a restaurant that launched in September 2012 at the Saint-Ouen flea market near Paris. In 2013, he designed Miss Ko, an Asian-centric concept restaurant in Paris, in November 2011, Lodha Group appointed Phillippe Starck for yoo inspired by Starck, to design the residential development at New Cuffe Parade, Mumbai. In November 2012, Starck published his first book of interviews, Impression dAilleurs, with Gilles Vanderpooten
28.
Two-stroke engine
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A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to an engine, which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke, two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band. Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a reduced number of moving parts. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, however, unlike most later two-stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke engine is attributed to Yorkshireman Alfred Angas Scott, gasoline versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. In a two-stroke engine, the transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke. Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, the Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s. Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, with direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore, the cycle has also been used in large diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks. Although the principles remain the same, the details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder, piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All functions are controlled solely by the covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some principles for this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the amount as raising the port. However, there is a limit to the width of a single exhaust port
29.
Aprilia SL1000 Falco
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The Aprilia SL1000 Falco, is a sports motorcycle powered by a liquid-cooled Rotax 998 cc 60° V-twin engine, manufactured from 1999 to 2003 by Aprilia in Noale, Italy. The Falcos 118 hp engine was a version of the 128 hp RSV Mille engine. The Falcos dual exhausts and remapped fuel injection reduced peak power slightly but bolstered bottom, the Falco has a half-fairing, a twin-beam alloy frame,53 mm USD forks from Showa and twin Brembo 320 mm semi-floating front brake discs. The clutch simulated a slipper clutch using a device activated by inlet manifold vacuum, although the Falco proved to be reliable and powerful, sales were disappointing and production ceased in 2003, with sales continuing into 2004. A Motor Cycle News review of the Falco declared, Less is sometimes more, by making its roadster less extreme than the RSV Mille sportster its based on, Aprilia broadened its appeal and produced a motorcycle thats both easier and more fun to ride
30.
Sport touring motorcycle
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A sport touring motorcycle is a type of motorcycle that combines the performance of a sport bike with the long-distance capabilities and comfort of a touring motorcycle. The first sport-tourer is said to be the fully faired 1977 BMW R100RS, journalist Peter Egan defines the sport-tourer as a café racer that doesnt hurt your wrists and a touring bike that doesnt feel like a tank, and identified the R100RS as the first example he owned. Sport-tourer engines could be detuned versions of its sport bike sibling, for example, the Triumph Sprint motorcycle shared its engine with the Daytona, Speed Triple, and Tiger models, and Ducatis ST4 sport-tourer used the 916s motor. The sport-tourer Aprilia SL1000 Falco used a version from the Aprilia RSV Mille sport bike. As consumer expectations changed, some sportbikes were redefined as sport touring bikes, the 2000 Kawasaki ZX-6R sportbike became the 2004 ZZR600 with just a change to a fairing bracket
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Aprilia RST1000 Futura
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The Aprilia RST1000 Futura is a sport touring motorcycle that was produced by Aprilia from 2001 to 2004. It is equipped with a 113 horsepower four-stroke 60° V-twin engine with electric-start, liquid cooling, the engine is broadly similar to that fitted to the Aprilia SL1000 Falco. With its hard-shelled panniers, the Futura was intended to compete with the similarly styled Honda VFR800, production ended in 2003, although the bike remained in the range until 2005. The Futura incorporated an aluminium-alloy, double-parallel-beam frame with a swinging arm. Transmission is via a gearbox and chain-final drive. The Futuras dry weight is 210 kg, the chief designer in charge of the project was Pierluigi Marconi. He would design the Futura around the motor used in the Mille. Among major changes from the Mille were the side swing arm. Marconi also specified an increase in the generator in order to cope with accessories that touring riders were sure to add. Electrical capacity was increased by 30% over that of the Mille, Marconi directed his design team to spend an extensive amount of time on the exhaust system. The result was that it did not heat up the seat as other undertail exhausts did and it also passed Euro 1 standard emissions without the catalytic converter. The design team moved to supplier Sagem to provide the fuel injection, Marconi would later quit to work with Benelli and then later Gas-Gas. It is his leaving Aprilia that caused promised updates like ABS, the bikes large, angular shape divided critics, some thought it was innovative and made it look like an F-117 while others said it was just too bulky. MCN reviewed the Futura, saying, The Aprilia RST1000 Futura is desperately underestimated, sadly short lived, aprilia’s ambitious rival for Honda’s polished VFR sports-tourer is able, well-specced and potent
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Touring motorcycle
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A touring motorcycle is a type of motorcycle designed for touring. Although almost any motorcycle can be used for purpose, manufacturers have developed specific models designed to address the particular needs of these riders. Particularly in the USA, touring motorcycles may be given such as bagger, full bagger, full dresser, full dress tourer. These monikers originally applied to cruisers with full sets of saddlebags or panniers such as Harley-Davidsons, full-dress touring motorcycles are generally characterized by extremely large fairings and ample bodywork compared to other types of tourers. Beyond what manufacturers supply, full dressers are often customized by owners with additional accessories, full-dress tourers are designed specifically for riding on pavement. A recent type, the adventure touring motorcycle is a motorcycle that allows long-range touring both on-road and off-road capabilities. Adventure tourers have high ground clearance, large capacity, under-stressed engines for high reliability. They may have rugged GPS navigation systems, wire-spoked wheels with road-legal knobby tyres, skid plates, modified adventure tourers are sometimes used in gruelling rally events, such as the Dakar Rally. Mainstream adventure tourers include the best-selling BMW R1200GS, the KTM990 Adventure series, although most modern adventure tourers are large capacity bikes, that has not always been so, the first winner of the Dakar Rally did so on a Yamaha XT500. An recent ultra-lightweight adventure tourer for solo riders that has received positive reviews is the CCM GP450, the Kawasaki KLR650 has also been classified as an adventure tourer, and OEM luggage is supplied by Kawasaki with this in mind. Newer entry-level adventure touring motorcycles also include the 410 cc Royal Enfield Himalayan, sport tourers are a hybrid form of motorcycle between superbikes and tourers. Forming a niche market, sport tourers combine the performance of a bike with the long-distance capabilities. They exhibit much greater emphasis on sporting performance than conventional tourers, sports-tourers may feature hard luggage as a standard fitment or as an optional extra
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Aprilia Tuono
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The Aprilia Tuono is a naked motorcycle manufactured by Aprilia from 2002. It is based heavily upon the Aprilia RSV Mille and its successor, the Tuono was succeeded by the Aprilia Tuono V4 R for model year 2011, though the V2 model continued in production into the 2011 model year. Following the 2001 Bologna Motor Show, the Aprilia Tuono made its debut in a series of 200 individually numbered bikes, specs included Öhlins Racing suspension, OZ forged alloy wheels, Brembo 4-pad brake calipers and an Aprilia Racing titanium exhaust system with matching EEPROM. The roots of the RSV Tuono lie with the 1998 -2003 RSV Mille superbike, the original 2003-2005 RSV Tuono uses the 2002 Mille frame, engine, suspension and brakes. The majority of parts are interchangeable between Mille and Tuono models up until the introduction of the RSV1000 R which replaced the Mille, one minor difference is that the RSV Tuono is fitted with a steering damper as standard whereas the RSV Mille is not. The main difference is the lack of significant bodywork, the base model Tuono and the high spec Tuono Factory all share the same frame-mounted bikini fairing and body covers, either in plastic for the base model or carbon fibre for the Factory models. The frame and swingarm of the 2003 Tuono was a bronze color, whereas the 2004 and 2005 models sported a black frame. This contrasted with the used on the RSV Mille which were a chrome finish for the base models. The Tuono base models feature an adjustable Sachs rear shock absorber, the RSV Tuono uses the Austrian built BRP-Rotax V990 60° V-Twin engine which can also be found in numerous other Aprilia models. It sports dual overhead cams, double balance shafts,4 valves per cylinder, electronic injection, twin spark ignition. In the RSV Tuono, the V990 delivers 92 kW @9500 rpm and 10.3 kg·m @7250 rpm and its fuel tank will hold 18 L and has a maximum range of 280 km on the highway before the low fuel indicator turns on. Fuel consumption increases significantly with aggressive throttle use, the RSV Tuono Factory is a high spec model based upon the Aprilia RSV Mille R. The 2nd generation Tuono, the Tuono 1000 R, is based upon the 2004 -2009 Aprilia RSV1000R superbike. One technical difference between the Tuono 1000 R and the RSV1000R is that the latter has a rear shock providing control of both inbound- and outbound damping, as well as preload control, the Tuono 1000 R only provides control of preload and inbound damping. This directly implies that the stock Tuono is less usable as a bike when compared to the Mille. However, since the parts between the two are interchangeable and abundant this should not hinder anyone wanting to use the Tuono as a bike from changing the rear shock. Other differences are purely cosmetic and consist of the lack of a full fairing, like the first generation Tuono, the Tuono 1000 R also employs a steering damper as standard.8 kW @9500 rpm. Torque increased to 11.9 kg·m @8500 rpm, the 2006 -2010 Aprilia Tuono is offered in two versions, the Tuono 1000 R is the standard version, based upon the Aprilia RSV1000R
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MV Agusta
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MV Agusta, originally Meccanica Verghera Agusta, is a motorcycle manufacturer founded on 12 February 1945 near Milan in Cascina Costa, Italy. The company began as an offshoot of the Agusta aviation company formed by Count Giovanni Agusta in 1923, the Count died in 1927, leaving the company in the hands of his wife and sons, Domenico, Vincenzo, Mario and Corrado. The acronym MV stands for Meccanica Verghera, the hamlet where the first MVs were made, the company manufactured small-displacement, café racer-style motorcycles through the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1960s, small motorcycle sales declined, and MV started producing larger displacement cycles in more limited quantities. A250 cc, and later a 350 cc twin were produced, much like Enzo Ferrari, they produced and sold motorcycles almost exclusively to fund their racing efforts. They were determined to have the best Grand Prix motorcycle racing team in the world, MV Agusta produced their first prototype, called Vespa 98, in 1945. After learning that the name had already registered by Piaggio for its Vespa motorscooter. In 1948, the built an 125 cc two-stroke single. Bertoni won the event held in Monza and instantly put the new motorcycle manufacturer on the map, in the 1949 season, the 125 cc, or ultra light weight class, gained new prestige. More motorcycle manufacturers were competing in the world championships that were held in Switzerland, Netherlands. The Mondial 125 cc DOHC design dominated the 1949 season, the MV riders placed ninth and tenth in the final standings. In 1950, Arturo Magni and Piero Remor joined the company working with Gilera. Magni was the mechanic and Remor was chief designer. The 1950 season and 1951 season were development years, as the company adopted the 125 Dohc four-stroke engine, Racing efforts only produced a fifth-place finish at the Dutch TT in 1950. The 1951 results were slightly better. The 1952 season saw the introduction of telescopic forks, full width alloy brake hubs, power was 15 bhp @10800 rpm. Britains Cecil Sandford piloted the new MV125 to a 1952 Isle of Man TT victory, with the success of the 1952 season, independent or privateer riders could now purchase a catalog version of the 125 DOHC, now available through the company. The Sport Competizione racer had many of the features as the factory bike
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Motorcycle sport
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Motorcycle sport is a broad field that encompasses all sporting aspects of motorcycling. The disciplines are not all races or timed-speed events, as several disciplines test a competitors various riding skills, Motorcycle racing is a motorcycle sport involving racing motorcycles. Motorcycle racing can be divided into two categories, tarmac-based road disciplines and off-road, track racing is a motorcycle sport where teams or individuals race opponents around an oval track. There are differing variants, with each variant racing on a different surface type, a road rally is a navigation event on public roads whereby competitors must visit a number of checkpoints in diverse geographical locations while still obeying road traffic laws. Speedway is a sport in which the motorcycles have one gear. Land speed is where a single rider accelerates over a 1 to 3-mile long straight track and is timed for top speed through a trap at the end of the run. The rider must exceed the top speed record for that class or type of bike for their name to be placed on the record books. The courses are run over thick wooded terrain, sometimes with large obstacles such as logs, ditches. A competition based upon points for acrobatic ability on an MX bike over jumps, known in the US as Observed Trials, it is not racing, but a sport nevertheless. Trials is a test of skill on a motorcycle whereby the rider attempts to traverse an observed section without placing a foot on the ground, the winner is the rider with the least penalty points. Time and observation trials are trials with a time limit, the person who completes the route the quickest sets the standard time and all other competitors must finish within a certain amount of time of the standard time to be counted as a finisher. One of the most famous time and observation trials is the Scott trial held annually in North Yorkshire, indoor trials held in stadiums which by their very nature use man-made artificial sections in contrast to outdoor trials which rely heavily on the natural terrain. Similar to car Autocross, Motorcycle Gymkhana is a time trial sport round cones on a paved area. The winner is the competitor who completes the course in the shortest time, time penalties are incurred by putting a foot down, hitting a cone, or going outside the designated area. Similar to football, but all players are riding motorcycles, Motorcycle Polo first began as an officially-organized sport in the mid-1930s. In France, there are organized competitions, and the sport was included in the inaugural Goodwill Games. In the United States the completions are usually held on off-road courses, in some cases, few riders actually complete the course and results are judged on the distance that they manage to achieve. Of those that do complete the course, the rider to reach the top with the shortest elapsed time wins, the motorcycle of choice in the early decades was the Harley-Davidson 45 cubic inch model due to its high torque at low rpms, similar to farm engines
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Grand Prix motorcycle racing
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The FIM Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix is the premier class of motorcycle road racing, held since 1949. Grand Prix motorcycles are purpose-built racing machines that are available for purchase by the general public nor able to be ridden legally on public roads. The championship is divided into three classes, MotoGP, Moto2 and Moto3. All three classes use four-stroke engines, in 2010 the 250cc class was replaced by the new Moto2600 cc four-stroke class. After that, MotoGP gave the four-strokes a 490cc advantage over the two-strokes, a 2 stroke engine produces power with every rotation of the crank, where as the 4 stroke engine produces power every fourth rotation. In theory, a 500cc 2stroke produces the power as a 1000cc 4 stroke. Carburation vs fuel injection, engine mapping, power/torque curves, practice showed the 4 strokes generating 10 to 15 more Hp and turning in much faster lap times then their 2 stroke counterparts. 4 stroke engines would be the choice for years to come. Moto2 and 3 are four-stroke only, a FIM Road Racing World Championship Grand Prix was first organized by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme in 1949. The commercial rights are now owned by Dorna Sports, with the FIM remaining as the sanctioning body. Teams are represented by the International Road Racing Teams Association and manufacturers by the Motorcycle Sport Manufacturers Association, rules and changes to regulations are decided between the four entities, with Dorna casting a tie-breaking vote. In cases of technical modifications, the MSMA can unilaterally enact or veto changes by unanimous vote among its members and these four entities compose the Grand Prix Commission. There have traditionally been several races at each event for various classes of motorcycles, based on engine size, and one class for sidecars. Classes for 50 cc,80 cc,125 cc,250 cc,350 cc, and 500 cc solo machines have existed at some time, up through the 1950s and most of the 1960s, four-stroke engines dominated all classes. In part this was due to rules, which allowed a multiplicity of cylinders, in the 1960s, two-stroke engines began to take root in the smaller classes. In 1969, the FIM — citing high development costs for non-works teams — brought in new rules restricting all classes to six gears, by this time, two-strokes completely eclipsed the four-strokes in all classes. The 50 cc class was replaced by an 80 cc class, then the class was dropped entirely in the 1990s, after being dominated primarily by Spanish, the 350 cc class vanished in the 1980s. Sidecars were dropped from world events in the 1990s, reducing the field to 125s, 250s
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Superbike World Championship
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Superbike World Championship is the worldwide Superbike racing Championship. The championship was founded in 1988, the Superbike World Championship consists of a series of rounds held on permanent racing facilities. Each round has two races and the results of each race are combined to two annual World Championships, one for riders and one for manufacturers. The motorcycles that race in the championship are tuned versions of motorcycles available for sale to the public, MotoGP is the motorcycle worlds equivalent of Formula One, whereas Superbike racing is similar to touring car racing. Europe is Superbike World Championships traditional centre and leading market, an Indonesian race was also proposed for the 2008 season, but this was later canceled by the FIM. The championship is regulated by the FIM, the governing body of motorcycle racing. FGSport became part of the Infront Group in 2007 and in 2008 was rebranded as Infront Motor Sports, as of 2013 the championship is organised by Dorna. The Superbike World Championship began in 1988, being open to modified versions of road bike models available to the public, for many years, the formula allowed for machines with 1,000 cc V-twin engines to go up against the 750 cc four-cylinder engines. For the first few seasons Honda won with the RC30, using 1,000 cc V-twin engines benefited Ducati and it was able to dominate the championship for many years, but the 750 cc was second or third each year between 1994 and 1999. Held under the FIM, the Formula TT from 1977 to 1989 once constituted the official motorcycle World Cup. Having proven itself both popular and commercially viable, it was decided by the end of the 1990 season to end the Formula TT, from 1993 to 1999 Carl Fogarty and Ducati dominated, Fogarty won the title a record 4 times and finished as runner-up twice on factory Ducatis. Troy Corser also won the 1996 title and finished as runner-up in 1995, realizing that 1,000 cc V-twin engines suited the superbike racing formula more, Honda introduced its own V-Twin powered motorcycle the VTR1000 SPW in 2000. The result was clear right away as Colin Edwards won the championship in the bikes first year of competition, Ducati regained the title in 2001 with Troy Bayliss. Colin Edwards again reclaimed the title in 2002 on the same VTR1000 SPW bike, Colin Edwards won his 2nd championship in what was arguably the most impressive comeback in the history of motorcycle racing. The season started with Troy Bayliss winning the first 6 races, Race 2 at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca was the start of Colin Edwards comeback, he went on to win all 9 remaining races and Edwards won the championship at the final race of the season at Imola. The final race of the season saw both riders fighting wheel to wheel for the entire race, the race is known by fans as the Showdown at Imola. The manufacturers championship was won by Ducati, during these years the Superbike World Championship reached the zenith of its popularity, with global fan and full factory support. In 2003 the FIM changed the rules to allow 1,000 cc machines to race, rule changes in MotoGP to allow four-stroke engines meant that the Japanese manufacturers focused their resources there, leaving the Superbike World Championship with limited factory involvement
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2009 Superbike World Championship
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The 2009 Superbike World Championship was the twenty-second season of the Superbike World Championship. It was the season in which HANNspree had been the title sponsor of the championship. In addition, changing bike during a race was allowed in order to avoid interruptions caused by weather conditions. Ben Spies won the championship in his season, bettering Noriyuki Haga in a final round decider. Ducati were the winners of the championship, winning eleven races
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2012 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season
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The 2012 Grand Prix motorcycle racing season was the 64th F. I. M. Casey Stoner started the season as the defending World Champion, while Honda was the defending Manufacturers Champion, Moto2 champion Stefan Bradl joined the MotoGP grid with LCR Honda and 125cc champion Nicolás Terol entered Moto2, racing for Aspar. In the premier MotoGP class, the championship battle revolved around Yamaha rider Jorge Lorenzo and Honda pairing Dani Pedrosa, in the next race, Stoner crashed out of the German Grand Prix on the final lap and allowed Pedrosa to take his first win of the season. Stoner struggled in the few races – despite a victory at the United States Grand Prix – with his championship challenge ended by a qualifying crash at Indianapolis. After ankle surgery, he returned to the series and won his race of his career at his home race. Pedrosa went on a run of five victories in six races, with the streak being interrupted by a crash at Misano. Lorenzo finished second to Pedrosa on each occasion that he had won, Lorenzo ultimately won the title with a second-place finish to Stoner in Australia, after Pedrosa had crashed out of the lead early on. Márquezs result was enough to give Suter the constructors title for the class, Cortese also became the first rider to win any Grand Prix title for the Austrian manufacturer KTM. KTM also won the championship at the Australian Grand Prix. The MotoGP class changes to allow up to 1,000 cc in capacity, with a limit of 4 cylinders, the 2012 season will see the introduction of four-stroke bikes in the new Moto3 class. In 2012 the MotoGP class saw the introduction of Claiming Rule Teams to allow for participation by independent teams with lower budgets, the sports governing body received applications from sixteen new teams looking to join the MotoGP class. However, Interwetten Paddock, Marc VDS, and Kiefer Racing were absent from the revised grid released by FIM in January 2012, the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme released an 18-race provisional calendar on 14 September 2011. Another provisional calendar was released three months later, with the Qatar Grand Prix moved forward by a week, notes, ^1 — Races held at night. ^2 — Races held on Saturday, rather than Sunday, ^3 — Only MotoGP race held. A provisional entry list was released by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme on 13 January 2012, notes ‡ — Gresini Honda nominated to run Michele Pirro on a Honda-powered FTR chassis under CRT regulations. Andrea Dovizioso left Repsol Honda Team to join Monster Yamaha Tech 3, colin Edwards moved from Monster Yamaha Tech 3 to NGM Mobile Forward Racing. Stefan Bradl moved up from Moto2, joining LCR Honda MotoGP, Héctor Barberá still rode a Ducati, but he moved from Aspar Racing Team to Pramac Racing Team. 2011 FIM Superstock 1000 Cup runner-up Danilo Petrucci debuted in the MotoGP category with Came IodaRacing Project, randy de Puniet exchanged with Barberá, entering Power Electronics Aspar from Pramac Racing Team
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Supermoto
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Supermoto was originally conceived by Gavin Trippe in 1979 as a segment of the TV show Wide World of Sports. Today supermoto is a genre of its own and riders in the other classes do not routinely cross over into supermoto. Races are commonly held on road racing or medium-sized go-kart tracks with a section in the infield. Most supermoto race tracks have a size of 50-75% and the remaining percentage of the course is off-road. The dirt sections are constructed of packed clay and feature motocross style obstacles like bermed corners. This type of racing is very portable in that an entire track can be constructed anywhere there is a large area of open asphalt. Supermoto races have also successfully held in busy urban centers using closed city streets for the road course. The motorcycles used are frequently custom-created combinations of off-road motorcycles and road-racing wheels/tires, riders also wear a combination of road race and offroad equipment, normally road racing leathers and motocross helmets and boots. Unlike normal motorcycle racing, the lies on slower speeds—typically less than 100 mph — on short. Here, where flat-out acceleration and high top-speeds are less common, Supermoto has its origins in the 1970s when ABC’s Wide World of Sports was the highest-rated sports show in the United States. Superbikers was then manifested as an event run at southern Californias Carlsbad Raceway. The shows tarmac-and-dirt courses were intended to draw on talent from the worlds of off-road, flat track, World and National Championship-winning motorcycling greats such as Kenny Roberts and Jeff Ward, whose respective sports at the time were road-racing and motocross, participated in the races. The European racers who participated in the sport at Carlsbad, however, brought it back to Europe with them, where it quickly gained popularity in countries such as France. The 2000s signalled the resurrection of the sport in the United States, with the birth of the AMA Supermoto Championship in 2003, both competitions were cancelled after the 2009 season. The motorcycles currently used for Supermoto racing are predominantly single-cylinder four-stroke powered dirtbikes with 17-inch, the 17-inch wheels allow the use of up to 7. 0-inch-wide superbike road racing slick tires. These are often hand-grooved on the tire to facilitate slightly better acceleration on the dirt stretches of a supermoto course. Suspension is lowered and slightly stiffened in comparison with a dirt bike. Despite the lack of trees on supermoto courses, hand guards are frequently added to supermoto bikes due the extreme cornering angles achieved by riders, in 1991, Italian manufacturer Gilera released the Nordwest model, the first factory produced supermoto
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Motocross World Championship
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FIM Motocross World Championship is the premier championship of motocross racing, organized by the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme, currently divided into two distinct classes, MX1 and MX2. Race duration is 30 minutes plus 2 laps per moto, the series runs 18 events with two motos at each round. The Motocross World Championship is a motocross series sanctioned by the F. I. M. It was inaugurated in 1957 using a 500 cc engine displacement formula, in 1962 a 250cc class was added and in 1975, a 125cc class was introduced. Prior to 1957, the championship was known as the European Championship, changed the displacement formulas to reflect the changes in engine technology and as a move towards environmentally friendlier four-stroke engines. The new MX1 class became the class, allowing two-stroke engines of up to 250cc. The MX2 class allowed two-stroke engines of up to 125cc and four-stroke motors of up to 250cc, the MX3 class allowed two-stroke engines of up to 500cc and four stroke engines of up to 650cc. Note, Pink background denotes European Championship only, Last updated,12 September 2016 Last updated,12 September 2016 Including also the European Championships. Countries that have held Grand Prix as of the 2017 season, countries in bold currently hold a Grand Prix
Alessandro Gramigni
Kazuto Sakata
Arnaud Vincent
Manuel Poggiali
Álvaro Bautista
Gábor Talmácsi
