1.
Genetically modified fish
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In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the fish which does not occur naturally in the species, i. e. transgenesis. GM fish are used in research and kept as pets. They are being developed as environmental pollutant sentinels and for use in food production. Some GM fish that have created have promoters driving an over-production of all fish growth hormone. This results in growth enhancement in several species, including salmonids, carps. The first transgenic fish were produced in China in 1985, as of 2013, approximately 50 species of fish have been subject to genetic modification. This has resulted in more than 400 fish/trait combinations, most of the modifications have been conducted on food species, such as Atlantic salmon, tilapia and common carp. Generally, genetic modification entails manipulation of DNA, the process is known as cisgenesis when a gene is transferred between organisms that could be conventionally bred, or transgenesis when a gene from one species is added to a different species. They are also used in drug discovery, GM zebrafish are being explored for benefits of unlocking human organ tissue diseases and failure mysteries. For instance, zebrafish are used to understand heart tissue repair and regeneration in efforts to study, transgenic rainbow trout have been developed to study muscle development. The introduced transgene causes green fluorescence to appear in fast twitch muscle fibres early in development which persist throughout life and it has been suggested the fish might be used as indicators of aquatic pollutants or other factors which influence development. In intensive fish farming, the fish are kept at high stocking densities and this means they suffer from frequent transmission of contagious diseases, a problem which is being addressed by GM research. Cecropin has been used in channel catfish to enhance their protection against several pathogenic bacteria by 2–4 times, GloFish is a patented technology which allows GM fish to express jellyfish and sea coral proteins giving the fish bright red, green or orange fluorescent colors when viewed in ultraviolet light. They became the first genetically modified animal to become available as a pet when introduced for sale in 2003. They were quickly banned for sale in California, however they are now on shelves once again in this state, as of 2013, Glofish are only sold in the US. The ocean pout type III antifreeze protein transgene has been successfully micro-injected and expressed in goldfish, the transgenic goldfish showed higher cold tolerance compared with controls. One area of research with GM fish has aimed to increase food production by modifying the expression of growth hormone. The relative increases in growth differ between species and they range from a doubling in weight, to some fish that are almost 100 times heavier than the wild-type at a comparable age
2.
Atlantic salmon
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The Atlantic salmon is a species of ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. It is found in the northern Atlantic Ocean, in rivers that flow into the north Atlantic and, due to human introduction, the Atlantic salmon was given its scientific binomial name by zoologist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The name, Salmo salar, derives from the Latin salmo, meaning salmon, and salar, meaning leaper, according to M. Barton, lewis and Shorts Latin Dictionary translates salar as a kind of trout from its use in the Idylls of the poet Ausonius. Later, the differently coloured smolts were found to be the same species, other names used to reference Atlantic salmon are, bay salmon, black salmon, caplin-scull salmon, Sebago salmon, silver salmon, fiddler, or outside salmon. At different points in their maturation and life cycle, they are known as parr, smolt, grilse, grilt, kelt, slink, Atlantic salmon that do not journey to sea are known as landlocked salmon or ouananiche. The species is the longest and heaviest in genus Salmo, after two years at sea, the fish average 71 to 76 cm in length and 3.6 to 5.4 kg in weight. But specimens that spend four or more winters feeding at sea can be much larger. An Atlantic salmon netted in 1960 in Scotland, in the estuary of the river Hope, was weighed in at 49.44 kg, the colouration of young Atlantic salmon does not resemble the adult stage. While they live in water, they have blue and red spots. At maturity, they take on a silver-blue sheen, the easiest way of identifying them as an adult is by the black spots predominantly above the lateral line, though the caudal fin is usually unspotted. When they reproduce, males take on a green or red colouration. The salmon has a body, and well-developed teeth. All fins, save the adipose, are bordered with black, the distribution of Atlantic salmon depends on water temperature. Because of climate change, some of the southern populations, in Spain. Before human influence, the breeding grounds of Atlantic salmon were rivers in Europe. When North America was settled by Europeans, eggs were brought on trains to the west coast, other attempts to bring Atlantic salmon to new settlements were made, e. g. But since there are no suitable ocean currents on New Zealand, there is at least one landlocked population of Atlantic salmon on New Zealand, where the fish never go out to sea. Young salmon spend one to four years in their natal river, when they are large enough, they smoltify, changing camouflage from stream-adapted with large, gray spots to sea-adapted with shiny sides
3.
AquaBounty Technologies
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AquaBounty Technologies is a biotechnology company based in Maynard, Massachusetts, United States. The company is notable for its research and development of genetically modified fish and it aims to create products that aim to increase the productivity of aquaculture. The company has developed hybrid salmon, trout, and tilapia designed to grow faster than traditional fish. Their hybrid Atlantic salmon incorporates a gene from a Chinook salmon, AquaBounty has patented and trademarked this fish as the AquAdvantage salmon, a sterile Atlantic salmon female that can grow to market size in half the time of conventional salmon. The company also produces antifreeze proteins, and conducts research and development programs related to the commercialization of cryo preservatives, in 2012, a New York Times article reported the finances of AquaBounty were not in good shape and the company had to reduce staff from 27 to 12. In March 2012, AquaBounty raised US$2 million in new capital, georgian investor Kakha Bendukidze owned 47. 6% of the companys stock before selling to American synthetic biology firm Intrexon in October 2012. Intrexon put up $500,000 in bridge financing and offered to buy the rest of the company, Intrexon acquired majority ownership of Aquabounty in 2013
4.
Growth hormone
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Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals. It is thus important in human development and it is a type of mitogen which is specific only to certain kinds of cells. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is synthesized, stored, GH is a stress hormone that raises the concentration of glucose and free fatty acids. It also stimulates production of IGF-1, a recombinant form of hGH called somatropin is used as a prescription drug to treat childrens growth disorders and adult growth hormone deficiency. In the United States, it is available legally from pharmacies. In recent years in the United States, some doctors have started to prescribe growth hormone in GH-deficient older patients to increase vitality, while legal, the efficacy and safety of this use for HGH has not been tested in a clinical trial. At this time, HGH is still considered a very complex hormone, in its role as an anabolic agent, HGH has been used by competitors in sports since at least 1982, and has been banned by the IOC and NCAA. Blood tests conducted by WADA at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, use of the drug for performance enhancement is not currently approved by the FDA. GH has been studied for use in raising livestock more efficiently in industrial agriculture, in the United States, the only FDA-approved use of GH for livestock is the use of a cow-specific form of GH called bovine somatotropin for increasing milk production in dairy cows. Retailers are permitted to label containers of milk as produced with or without bovine somatotropin, the names somatotropin or somatotropic hormone refer to the growth hormone produced naturally in animals and extracted from carcasses. Hormone extracted from human cadavers is abbreviated hGH, the main growth hormone produced by recombinant DNA technology has the approved generic name somatropin and the brand name Humatrope, and is properly abbreviated rhGH in the scientific literature. Since its introduction in 1992 Humatrope has been a banned sports doping agent, genes for human growth hormone, known as growth hormone 1 and growth hormone 2, are localized in the q22-24 region of chromosome 17 and are closely related to human chorionic somatomammotropin genes. GH, human chorionic somatomammotropin, and prolactin belong to a group of hormones with growth-promoting. The major isoform of the growth hormone is a protein of 191 amino acids. The structure includes four helices necessary for interaction with the GH receptor. It appears that, in structure, GH is evolutionarily homologous to prolactin, despite marked structural similarities between growth hormone from different species, only human and Old World monkey growth hormones have significant effects on the human growth hormone receptor. Several molecular isoforms of GH exist in the gland and are released to blood. This variant has not been identified, but it has suggested to coincide with a 22 kDa glycosylated variant of 23 kDa identified in the pituitary gland
5.
Gene
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A gene is a locus of DNA which is made up of nucleotides and is the molecular unit of heredity. The transmission of genes to an offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes, genotypes along with environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes as well as gene–environment interactions, genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotypical traits, usage of the term having a gene typically refers to containing a different allele of the same, shared gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles, the concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel, from 1857 to 1864, in Brno, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas, although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype and phenotype, charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, from Greek pan and genesis / genos. Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction, de Vries called these units pangenes, after Darwins 1868 pangenesis theory. In 1909 the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen shortened the name to gene, advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid was shown to be the repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities, indivisible by recombination, collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics, in 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene, the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing, an automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project. The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the evolutionary synthesis
6.
Chinook salmon
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The Chinook salmon /ʃɪˈnʊk/ is the largest species in the Pacific salmon genus Oncorhynchus. The common name refers to the Chinookan peoples, other vernacular names for the species include king salmon, Quinnat salmon, spring salmon, and Tyee salmon. The scientific species name is based on the Russian common name chavycha and they have been introduced to other parts of the world, including New Zealand, the Great Lakes of North America and Patagonia. A large Chinook is a prized and sought-after catch for a sporting angler, the flesh of the salmon is also highly valued for its dietary nutritional content, which includes high levels of important omega-3 fatty acids. Some populations are endangered, however many are healthy, the Chinook salmon has not been assessed for the IUCN Red List. Historically, the distribution of Chinook salmon in North America ranged from the Ventura River in California in the south to Kotzebue Sound in Alaska in the north. Populations have disappeared from large areas where they flourished, however. In certain areas like Californias Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, it was revealed that the low populations of juvenile Chinook salmon were surviving. In the western Pacific, the ranges from northern Japan in the south to the Arctic Ocean as far as the East Siberian Sea. Nevertheless, they are present and the distribution is well known only in Kamchatka. Elsewhere, information is scarce, but they have a presence in the Anadyr River basin. Also in parts of the northern Magadan Oblast near the Shelikhov Gulf and Penzhina Bay stocks might persist, in 1967, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources planted Chinook in Lake Michigan and Lake Huron to control the alewife, an invasive species of nuisance fish from the Atlantic Ocean. Alewives then constituted 90% of the biota in these lakes, Coho salmon had been planted the year before and the program was a success. Chinook and Coho salmon thrived on the alewives and spawned in the lakes tributaries, after this success, Chinook were planted in the other Great Lakes, where sport fishermen prize them for their aggressive behavior on the hook. The species has established itself in Patagonian waters in South America. Chinook salmon have been spawning in headwater reaches of the Rio Santa Cruz. The population is thought to be derived from a single stocking of juveniles in the river around 1930. Sporadic efforts to introduce the fish to New Zealand waters in the late 1800s were largely failures, early ova were imported from the Baird hatchery of the McCloud River in California
7.
Promoter (genetics)
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In genetics, a promoter is a region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particular gene. Promoters are located near the transcription start sites of genes, on the same strand, promoters can be about 100–1000 base pairs long. For transcription to take place, the enzyme that synthesizes RNA, known as RNA polymerase and these transcription factors have specific activator or repressor sequences of corresponding nucleotides that attach to specific promoters and regulate gene expression. In eukaryotes The process is complicated, and at least seven different factors are necessary for the binding of an RNA polymerase II to the promoter. Promoters represent critical elements that can work in concert with other regions to direct the level of transcription of a given gene. A promoter is induced in response to changes in abundance or conformation of proteins in a cell. In the cell nucleus, it seems that promoters are distributed preferentially at the edge of the chromosomal territories, furthermore, in humans, promoters show certain structural features characteristic for each chromosome. g. The sequence at -10 has the consensus sequence TATAAT, the sequence at -35 has the consensus sequence TTGACA. The above consensus sequences, while conserved on average, are not found intact in most promoters, on average, only 3 to 4 of the 6 base pairs in each consensus sequence are found in any given promoter. The optimal spacing between the -35 and -10 sequences is 17 bp, some promoters contain one or more upstream promoter element subsites. It should be noted that the above promoter sequences are recognized only by RNA polymerase holoenzyme containing sigma-70, RNA polymerase holoenzymes containing other sigma factors recognize different core promoter sequences. Gene promoters are typically located upstream of the gene and can have regulatory elements several kilobases away from the start site. In eukaryotes, the complex can cause the DNA to bend back on itself. The TATA element and BRE typically are located close to the start site. Eukaryotic promoter regulatory sequences typically bind proteins called transcription factors that are involved in the formation of the transcriptional complex, an example is the E-box, which binds transcription factors in the basic helix-loop-helix family. Some promoters that are targeted by multiple transcription factors might achieve a hyperactive state, bidirectional promoters are short intergenic regions of DNA between the 5 ends of the genes in a bidirectional gene pair. A “bidirectional gene pair” refers to two adjacent genes coded on opposite strands, with their 5 ends oriented toward one another, the two genes are often functionally related, and modification of their shared promoter region allows them to be co-regulated and thus co-expressed. Bidirectional promoters are a feature of mammalian genomes
8.
Ocean pout
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The ocean pout is an eelpout in the family Zoarcidae. It is found in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of New England, the fish has antifreeze proteins in its blood, giving it the ability to survive in near-freezing waters. Scientists have done studies wherein genes are taken from the ocean pout, controversy has arisen, as some view the genetically altered salmon as a potential threat to wild salmon stocks should it escape or if it is ever released into the wild. AquaBounty Technologies has attempted to address concerns by stating that all of the transgenic salmon to be raised to adulthood. This strict practice, they maintain, will prevent any chance of the modifications being spread into wild salmon stocks. Were one of the transgenic salmon to escape, they state, it would be incapable of spreading its genes to another generation, lacking knowledge of a spawn point. The genetic modification allows the salmon to grow year-round by increasing production of growth hormone. Transgenic salmon are fully mature in two-thirds of the time that it takes their wild counterparts to reach maturity, chefs and grocers in numerous US states have agreed not to sell the new fish, citing concerns over its safety for human consumption despite no scientific evidence showing risk. Dumb and Dumber, Heres a Fish Story With Legs, fast-growing genetically engineered salmon raise the specter of environmental calamity. Chefs Join Campaign Against Altered Fish, can a bit of Arctic pep up ice cream. Killen, S. S. Brown, J. A. Gamperal, lack of metabolic thermal compensation during the early life stages of ocean pout Zoarces americanus, a benthic, cold-water marine species. Ocean Pout - Status of Fishery Resources off the Northeastern US Ocean pouts and wolf eels
9.
Selective breeding
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Domesticated animals are known as breeds, normally bred by a professional breeder, while domesticated plants are known as varieties, cultigens, or cultivars. Two purebred animals of different breeds produce a crossbreed, and crossbred plants are called hybrids, flowers, vegetables and fruit-trees may be bred by amateurs and commercial or non-commercial professionals, major crops are usually the provenance of the professionals. There are two approaches or types of selection, or selective breeding. The second is called controlled natural selection, which is natural selection in a controlled environment. In this, the breeder does not choose which individuals being tested survive or reproduce, there are also selection experiments, which is a third approach and these are conducted in order to determine the strength of natural selection in the wild. However, this is often an observational approach as opposed to an experimental approach. In animal breeding, techniques such as inbreeding, linebreeding, in plant breeding, similar methods are used. Charles Darwin discussed how selective breeding had been successful in producing change over time in his 1859 book and its first chapter discusses selective breeding and domestication of such animals as pigeons, cats, cattle, and dogs. Darwin used artificial selection as a springboard to introduce and support the theory of natural selection, the deliberate exploitation of selective breeding to produce desired results has become very common in agriculture and experimental biology. Selective breeding can be unintentional, e. g. resulting from the process of human cultivation, for example, in some grains, an increase in seed size may have resulted from certain ploughing practices rather than from the intentional selection of larger seeds. Most likely, there has been an interdependence between natural and artificial factors that have resulted in plant domestication, Selective breeding was practiced by the Romans. Treatises as much as 2,000 years old give advice on selecting animals for different purposes, the notion of selective breeding was later expressed by the Persian Muslim polymath Abu Rayhan Biruni in the 11th century. He noted the idea in his book titled India, which included various examples, the agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those branches which he perceives to be excellent, the bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work in their beehive. Selective breeding was established as a practice by Robert Bakewell during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. Arguably, his most important breeding program was with sheep, using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The Lincoln Longwool was improved by Bakewell, and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New Leicester and it was hornless and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines. Bloodlines of these original New Leicesters survive today as the English Leicester, Bakewell was also the first to breed cattle to be used primarily for beef
10.
Polyploid
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Polyploid cells and organisms are those containing more than two paired sets of chromosomes. Most species whose cells have nuclei are diploid, meaning they have two sets of chromosomes—one set inherited from each parent, however, polyploidy is found in some organisms and is especially common in plants. In addition, polyploidy occurs in tissues of animals that are otherwise diploid. Species whose cells do not have nuclei, that is, Prokaryotes, may be polyploid organisms, hence ploidy is defined with respect to a cell. Most eukaryotes have diploid somatic cells, but produce haploid gametes by meiosis, a monoploid has only one set of chromosomes, and the term is usually only applied to cells or organisms that are normally diploid. Male bees and other Hymenoptera, for example, are monoploid, unlike animals, plants and multicellular algae have life cycles with two alternating multicellular generations. The gametophyte generation is haploid, and produces gametes by mitosis, polyploidy refers to a numerical change in a whole set of chromosomes. Organisms in which a particular chromosome, or chromosome segment, is under- or overrepresented are said to be aneuploid, polyploidy may occur due to abnormal cell division, either during mitosis, or commonly during metaphase I in meiosis. Polyploidy occurs in highly differentiated human tissues in the liver, heart muscle and it occurs in the somatic cells of some animals, such as goldfish, salmon, and salamanders, but is especially common among ferns and flowering plants, including both wild and cultivated species. Many agriculturally important plants of the genus Brassica are also tetraploids, oryzalin will also double the existing chromosome content. Polyploid types are labeled according to the number of sets in the nucleus. The letter x is used to represent the number of chromosomes in a single set, examples in animals are more common in non-vertebrates such as flatworms, leeches, and brine shrimp. Within vertebrates, examples of stable polyploidy include the salmonids and many cyprinids, some fish have as many as 400 chromosomes. Polyploidy also occurs commonly in amphibians, for example the biomedically-important Xenopus genus contains many different species with as many as 12 sets of chromosomes, polyploid lizards are also quite common, but are sterile and must reproduce by parthenogenesis. While mammalian liver cells are polyploid, rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, an octodontid rodent of Argentinas harsh desert regions, known as the plains viscacha rat has been reported as an exception to this rule. However, careful analysis using chromosome paints shows that there are two copies of each chromosome in T. barrerae, not the four expected if it were truly a tetraploid. This rodent is not a rat, but kin to guinea pigs and its new diploid number is 102 and so its cells are roughly twice normal size. Its closest living relation is Octomys mimax, the Andean Viscacha-Rat of the same family and it was therefore surmised that an Octomys-like ancestor produced tetraploid offspring that were, by virtue of their doubled chromosomes, reproductively isolated from their parents
11.
Ploidy
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Ploidy is the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Cells are described according to the number of present, monoploid, diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid, hexaploid, heptaploid or septaploid. The generic term polyploid is used to describe cells with three or more sets of chromosomes, humans are diploid organisms, carrying two complete sets of chromosomes, one set of 23 chromosomes from their father and one set of 23 chromosomes from their mother. The two sets combined provide a complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of chromosomes is called the chromosome number, when a species has a varying chromosome number, e. g. a diploid and tetraploid form, the chromosome number is called diploid number in the diploid form, and tetraploid number in the tetraploid form. The number of found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called the monoploid number. The haploid number is unique to gametes, and refers to the number of chromosomes found in a gamete. The haploid number for humans is 23, and the monoploid number equals 46 divided by the level of 2. When a human germ cell undergoes meiosis the two sets of 23 chromosomes are split in half to form gametes, after fusion of a male and a female gamete both containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes, the resulting zygote has 46 chromosomes,2 sets of 23 chromosomes. The common potato is an example of an organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. The potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a complement of 48 chromosomes. The monoploid number equals the number divided by the ploidy level,48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Because the chromosome number is reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their number by means of endoreduplication as an aspect of cellular differentiation. When a germ cell with an number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis. Triploid organisms for instance are usually sterile, because of this, triploidy is a common way of making seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in 3 sets of chromosomes the condition is called triploid syndrome, the term ploidy is a back-formation from haploidy and diploidy
12.
Parental investment
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Components of fitness include the wellbeing of existing offspring, parents future sexual reproduction, and inclusive fitness through aid to kin. Parental investment may be performed by both the male and female, the mother alone or the father alone. Initially introduced in 1930 by the English biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher, parental care is found in a range of taxonomic groups. An alternative to Fishers theory is Trivers parental investment theory proposed in 1972 and this theory has been influential in explaining sex differences in phenomena such as sexual selection and mate preference. The main premise of this theory is the investment of males and females. Another aspect of the theory is mate preferences of each sex, for example female choosiness, Parental investment theory is a branch of life history theory. Clutton-Brock expanded the concept of PI to include costs to any other component of parental fitness, however, such expenditure is typically beneficial to the offspring, enhancing their condition, survival, and reproductive success. These differences may lead to parent-offspring conflict, Parental investment can be provided by the female, the male, or both. Parents are naturally selected to maximize the difference between the benefits and the costs, and parental care will tend to exist when the benefits are greater than the costs. Penguins are an example of a species that drastically sacrifices their own health and well-being in exchange for the survival of their offspring. This altruistic behavior, one that not necessarily benefit the individual. Although some animals do exhibit altruistic behaviors towards individuals that are not of direct relation, while breeding, males remain in a fasting-period at the breeding site for five weeks, waiting for the female to return for her own incubation shift. However, during time period, males may decide to abandon their egg if the female is delayed in her return to the breeding grounds. In a study, Olof Olsson investigated the correlation between how many experiences in breeding an individual has and the duration an individual will wait until abandoning his egg. He proposed that the more experienced the individual, the better that individual will be at replenishing his exhausted body reserves, a study found that male dunnocks tend to not discriminate between their own young and those of another male in polyandrous or polygynandrous systems. This indiscriminative parental care by males is also observed in redlip blennies, in iteroparous species, where individuals may go through several reproductive bouts during their lifetime, a tradeoff may exist between investment in current offspring and future reproduction. Parents need to balance their offsprings demands against their own self-maintenance, the benefits of parental investment to the offspring are large and are associated with the effects on condition, growth, survival, and ultimately on reproductive success of the offspring. In doing this, her young are larger, heavier, and these benefits are very advantageous since it lowers their risk of being eaten by predators and size is usually the determining factor in conflicts over resources
13.
Panama
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Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain
14.
Aquaculture
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Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats. According to the FAO, aquaculture Farming implies some form of intervention in the process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated, further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon. Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture, particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and plant farming. The indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia, may have raised eels as early as 6000 BC, Aquaculture was operating in China circa 2500 BC. When the waters subsided after river floods, some fish, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes, early aquaculturists fed their brood using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the emergence of goldfish during the Tang dynasty, japanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. Romans bred fish in ponds and farmed oysters in coastal lagoons before 100 CE, in central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural practices. Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages since away from the seacoasts, improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fresh fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, making aquaculture less popular. The 15th-century fishponds of the Trebon Basin in the Czech Republic are maintained as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a remarkable example is a fish pond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. Legend says that it was constructed by the mythical Menehune dwarf people, in first half of 18th century, German Stephan Ludwig Jacobi experimented with external fertilization of brown trouts and salmon. He wrote an article Von der künstlichen Erzeugung der Forellen und Lachse, by the latter decades of the 18th century, oyster farming had begun in estuaries along the Atlantic Coast of North America. The word aquaculture appeared in an 1855 newspaper article in reference to the harvesting of ice, in 1859, Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began experiments with brook trout. By 1864, Seth Green had established a commercial fish-hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, by 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord, Massachusetts, artificial fish hatcheries were under way in both Canada and the United States. When the Dildo Island fish hatchery opened in Newfoundland in 1889, the word aquaculture was used in descriptions of the hatcheries experiments with cod and lobster in 1890. By the 1920s, the American Fish Culture Company of Carolina, Rhode Island, during the 1940s, they had perfected the method of manipulating the day and night cycle of fish so that they could be artificially spawned year around. Californians harvested wild kelp and attempted to supply around 1900
15.
Beef
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Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle. Humans have been eating beef since prehistoric times, Beef is a complete source of protein, and provides many of the essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that humans need. Beef skeletal muscle meat can be cut into roasts, short ribs or steak, Some cuts are processed, and trimmings, usually mixed with meat from older, leaner cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in varieties of blood sausage. Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is, but are often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock, Beef from steers and heifers is very similar. According to the most recent National Beef Quality Audit, heifer carcasses had slightly more marbling than steer carcasses, depending on economics, the number of heifers kept for breeding varies. The meat from older bulls is usually tougher, so it is used for mince. Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. According to the data from OECD, the average Uruguayan ate over 42 kg of beef or veal in 2014, cattle are considered sacred in the culture of India and there is prohibition on selling and consumption of beef in much of India. Though India is the largest producer and exporter of meat in the world. In 2015, the worlds largest exporters of beef including the meat, were India, Brazil. Beef production is important to the economies of Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Belarus. The word beef is from the Latin bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou, after the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal by the peasants, Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. People have eaten the flesh of bovines from prehistoric times, some of the earliest known paintings, such as those of Lascaux. People domesticated cattle around 8000 BC to provide access to beef, milk. Most cattle originated in the Old World, with the exception of bison hybrids, examples include the Wagyū from Japan, Ankole-Watusi from Egypt, and longhorn Zebu from the Indian subcontinent
16.
Aquaculture of salmonids
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The aquaculture of salmonids is the farming and harvesting of salmonids under controlled conditions for both commercial and recreational purposes. Salmonids, along with carp, are the two most important fish groups in aquaculture, the most commonly commercially farmed salmonid is the Atlantic salmon. In the U. S. Chinook salmon and rainbow trout are the most commonly farmed salmonids for recreational, in Europe, brown trout are the most commonly reared fish for recreational restocking. Commonly farmed non-salmonid fish groups include tilapia, catfish, sea bass, in 2007 the aquaculture of salmonids was worth US$10.7 billion globally. Salmonid aquaculture production grew over ten-fold during the 25 years from 1982 to 2007, leading producers of farmed salmonids are Norway with 33 percent, Chile with 31 percent, and other European producers with 19 percent. There is currently controversy about the ecological and health impacts of intensive salmonids aquaculture. There are particular concerns about the impacts on salmon and other marine life. The aquaculture or farming of salmonids can be contrasted with capturing wild salmonids using commercial fishing techniques, however, the concept of wild salmon as used by the Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute includes stock enhancement fish produced in hatcheries that have historically been considered ocean ranching. The percentage of the Alaska salmon harvest resulting from ocean ranching depends upon the species of salmon and location, methods of salmonid aquaculture originated in late 18th century fertilization trials in Europe. In the late 19th century, salmon hatcheries were used in Europe, from the late 1950s, enhancement programs based on hatcheries were established in the United States, Canada, Japan and the USSR. The contemporary technique using floating sea cages originated in Norway in the late 1960s, salmonids are usually farmed in two stages and in some places maybe more. First, the salmon are hatched from eggs and raised on land in freshwater tanks, increasing the accumulated thermal units of water during incubation reduces time to hatching. When they are 12 to 18 months old, the smolt are transferred to floating sea cages or net pens anchored in sheltered bays or fjords along a coast and this farming in a marine environment is known as mariculture. There they are fed pelleted feed for another 12 to 24 months, Norway produces 33 percent of the worlds farmed salmonids, and Chile produces 31 percent. The coastlines of countries have suitable water temperatures and many areas well protected from storms. Chile is close to large forage fisheries which supply fish meal for salmon aquaculture, Scotland and Canada are also significant producers. Modern salmonid farming systems are intensive and their ownership is often under the control of huge agribusiness corporations, operating mechanized assembly lines on an industrial scale. In 2003, nearly half of the farmed salmon was produced by just five companies
17.
Genetically modified food controversies
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The dispute involves consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of fuels and pharmaceuticals. No reports of ill effects have been documented in the population from genetically modified food. Nonetheless, members of the public are much less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe, the legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation. Consumer concerns about food quality first became prominent long before the advent of GM foods in the 1990s, upton Sinclairs novel The Jungle led to the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act, the first major US legislation on the subject. The public came to see the latter as unnatural which created a reverse halo effect, specific perceptions include genetic engineering as meddling with naturally evolved biological processes, scientific limitations on comprehending potential negative ramifications. An opposing perception is that genetic engineering is itself an evolution of traditional selective breeding, a diffuse sense that social and technological change is accelerating and that people cannot affect this change context becomes focused when such changes affect food. Religious groups have raised concerns over whether genetically modified food will remain kosher or halal, in 2001 no such foods had been designated as unacceptable by Orthodox rabbis or Muslim leaders. However, some Jewish groups dispute this designation, Environmental groups such as Friends of the Earth, include genetic engineering in general as an environmental and political concern. Other groups such as GMWatch and The Institute of Science in Society concentrate mostly or solely on opposing genetically modified crops, to address these problems, Pollan has brought up the idea of open sourcing GM foods. The idea has since been adopted to varying degrees by companies like Syngenta, some organizations, like The BioBricks Foundation, have already worked out open-source licenses that could prove useful in this endeavour. A2003 EMBO Reports article reported that the Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe project found the public neither accepting nor rejecting GMOs, instead, PABE found that public had key questions about GMOs, Why do we need GMOs. Who decided that they should be developed and how, why were we not better informed about their use in our food, before their arrival on the market. Why are we not given a choice about whether or not to buy these products. Have potential long-term and irreversible consequences been seriously evaluated, and by whom, do regulatory authorities have sufficient powers to effectively regulate large companies. Who wishes to develop these products, can controls imposed by regulatory authorities be applied effectively. Who will be accountable in cases of unforeseen harm, PABE also found that the publics scientific knowledge does not control public opinion, since scientific facts do not answer these questions. Rather than zero risk, what they demanded was a realistic assessment of risks by regulatory authorities
18.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
19.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
20.
Wild type
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Wild type refers to the phenotype of the typical form of a species as it occurs in nature. Originally, the type was conceptualized as a product of the standard normal allele at a locus, in contrast to that produced by a non-standard. Mutant alleles can vary to an extent, and even become the wild type if a genetic shift occurs within the population. Continued advancements in genetic mapping technologies have created an understanding of how mutations occur. In general, however, the most prevalent allele – i. e. the one with the highest gene frequency – is the one deemed as wild type. Wild-type alleles are indicated with a + superscript, for example w+ and vg+ for red eyes and full-size wings, manipulation of the genes behind these traits led to the current understanding of how organisms form and how traits mutate within a population. Research involving the manipulation of wild-type alleles has application in fields, including fighting disease. The genetic sequence for wild-type versus mutant phenotypes and how these genes interact in expression is the subject of much research, better understanding of these processes is hoped to bring about methods for preventing and curing diseases that are currently incurable such as infection with the herpes virus. One example of such promising research in these fields was the study examining the link between wild-type mutations and certain types of lung cancer. Research is also being done dealing with the manipulation of certain traits in viruses to develop new vaccines. This research may lead to new ways to combat deadly viruses such as the Ebola virus, research using wild-type mutations is also being done to establish how viruses transition between species to identify harmful viruses with the potential to infect humans. Selective breeding to enhance the most beneficial traits is the structure upon which agriculture is built, Genetic manipulation expedited the evolution process to make crop plants and animals larger and more disease resistant. Research into wild-type mutations has allowed the creation of modified crops that are more efficient food producers. Utilization of these wild-type mutations has led to plants capable of growing in extremely arid environments. As more is understood about these genes, agriculture will continue to become an efficient process. Amplification of advantageous genes allows the best traits in a population to be present at much higher percentages than normal and these changes have also been the reason behind certain plants and animals being almost unrecognizable when compared to their ancestral lines. – The Telegraph Wild Type Learning Activity Wild-Type vs. Mutant Genetic Background
21.
Whole Foods Market
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Whole Foods Market Inc. is an American supermarket chain exclusively featuring foods without artificial preservatives, colors, flavors, sweeteners, and hydrogenated fats. It opened on September 20,1980, in Austin, Texas, as of September 2015, it has 91,000 employees and 431 supermarkets in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, and has its main produce procurement office in Watsonville, California. As of 2015, founder John Mackey and Walter Robb were co-CEOs of the publicly traded company, in November 2016, the company announced that Walter Robb would be stepping down as co-CEO at the end of year and would remain with the company as a director. It became a Fortune 500 company in March 2005 and is the 30th largest retailer in the U. S. based on 2014 revenue. In 1978, Mackey and Renee Lawson borrowed $45,000 from family, when the two were evicted from their apartment for storing food products in it, they decided to live at the store. Because it was zoned for use, there was no shower stall. Two years later, John Mackey partnered with Craig Weller and Mark Skiles to merge SaferWay with the latters Clarksville Natural Grocery, resulting in the opening of the original Whole Foods Market. At 10,500 square feet and with a staff of 19, the following Memorial Day, on May 25,1981, the most damaging flood in 70 years devastated Austin. Whole Foods inventory was ruined, and most of the equipment was damaged, the loss was approximately $400,000 and Whole Foods Market had no insurance. Customers, neighbors, and staff pitched in to repair and clean up the damage, creditors, vendors, and investors assisted in helping the store recover, and the store reopened 28 days later. Beginning in 1984, Whole Foods Market expanded out of Austin, first to Houston and Dallas, in 1989, the company expanded to the West Coast with a store in Palo Alto, Calif. The companys 100th store was opened in Torrance, California, in 1999, the company started its third decade with additional acquisitions. The first was Natural Abilities in 2000, which did business as Food for Thought in Northern California and this led to the promotion of three new regional presidents and a new era for the company. David Lannon became president of the Northeast region, Anthony Gilmore became president of the Southwest region, Ron Megehan became president of the Northern California region, in 2001, Whole Foods also moved into Manhattan. Later that year Ken Meyer became president of the newly formed South region and Whole Foods Market acquired the assets of Harry’s Farmers Market, in 2002, the company continued its expansion in North America and opened its first store in Toronto, Ontario. Further continuing its expansion, Select Fish of Seattle was acquired in 2003, in 2005, Whole Foods opened its 80,000 sq ft flagship store in downtown Austin. The companys headquarters moved into offices above the store, Whole Foods Markets expansion has increased the need for products and processing plants. In response, the company added its 365 Everyday Value product line and it also began to acquire seafood processing plants in 2003
22.
Trader Joe's
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Trader Joes is a privately held chain of neighborhood grocery stores based in Monrovia, California, in Greater Los Angeles. As of February 16,2017, Trader Joes had 461 stores nationwide in 41 states and in Washington, by 2015, it was a competitor in fresh format grocery stores in the United States. Trader Joes was founded by Joseph Joe Coulombe, after 1979, it is owned by Aldi Nords owner Theo Albrecht in Germany. The company has offices in Monrovia, California, and Boston, Trader Joes is named after its founder, Joe Coulombe. The chain began in 1958 as a Greater Los Angeles area chain of Pronto Market convenience stores, the original Pronto Markets were so similar to 7-Eleven that Coulombe felt the competition with 7-Eleven would be ruinous. He is said to have developed the idea of the Trader Joes South Seas motif while on vacation in the Caribbean, the Tiki culture fad of the 1950s and 1960s was fresh in the cultural memory, and Trader Vics was at its height with 25 locations worldwide. He had noticed that Americans were traveling more and returning home with tastes for food, the first store branded as Trader Joes opened in 1967. This store, on Arroyo Parkway in Pasadena, California, remains in operation, in the first few decades of operation, some of the stores offered fresh meats provided by butchers who leased space in the stores. Trader Joes at one time had sandwich shops, freshly cut cheese, germanys Theo Albrecht of Aldi Nord bought the company in 1979 as a personal investment for his family. Coulombe was succeeded as CEO by John Shields in 1987, under his leadership the company expanded beyond California, moving into Arizona in 1993 and into the Pacific Northwest two years later. In 1996, the company opened its first stores on the East Coast, in Brookline, Shields retired in 2001 when Dan Bane succeeded him as CEO after being the President of the Western Division. When Bane became CEO there were 156 stores in 15 states, BusinessWeek reported that Trader Joes quintupled the number of its stores between 1990 and 2001, and multiplied its profits by ten. Supermarket News estimated Trader Joes sales for 2015 at $13 billion, in 2016, Fortune magazine estimated Trader Joes sales per square foot of floor space to be $1,750 — more than double that generated by Whole Foods Market. The May 2009 issue of Consumer Reports ranked Trader Joes the second-best supermarket chain in the United States, in June 2009, MSN Money released its third annual Customer Service Hall of Fame survey results. Trader Joes ranked second in customer service, although Ethisphere magazine listed Trader Joes among its most ethical companies in the United States from 2008 to 2010, Trader Joes did not make the list in 2011. In 2014, Consumer Reports again ranked Trader Joes a top-scoring supermarket chain, as of February 16,2017, Trader Joes had 461 stores in the United States with stores being added regularly. Most locations averaged between 10,000 and 15,000 sq ft, in February 2008, BusinessWeek reported that the company had the highest sales per square foot of any grocer in the United States. Two-and-a-half years later, Fortune magazine estimated sales to be $1,750 in merchandise per square foot, each location is designed to represent the area specifically
23.
Aldi
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Aldi is the common brand of two leading global discount supermarket chains with over 10,000 stores in 18 countries, and an estimated combined turnover of more than €50 billion. Based in Germany, the chain was founded by brothers Karl, the two operate independently, each within distinct geographical areas. Both are among the worlds largest privately owned companies, in 1962, they introduced the name Aldi, which is pronounced. The formal business name is Aldi Einkauf GmbH & Compagnie, oHG, the individual groups were originally owned and managed jointly by the brothers. Dieter Schwarz, owner of Lidl and Kaufland came in third, Trader Joes in the USA is owned by members of the Albrecht family but is not part of Aldi. One of Aldis direct competitors internationally is Lidl, the earliest roots of the company trace back to 1913, when the mother of Karl and Theo Albrecht opened a small store in a suburb of Essen. Their father was employed as a miner and later as a bakers assistant, Karl Albrecht was born in 1920, Theo Albrecht in 1922. Theo Albrecht completed an apprenticeship in his mothers store, while Karl Albrecht worked in a delicatessen, Karl Albrecht took over a food shop formerly run by F. W. Judt who already advertised that they were the cheapest food source. Karl Albrecht served in the German Army during World War II, in 1946, the brothers took over their mothers business and soon opened another retail outlet nearby. By 1950, the Albrecht brothers owned 13 stores in the Ruhr Valley, the brothers idea, which was new at the time, was to subtract the legal maximum rebate of 3% before sale. The market leaders at the time, which often were co-operatives, required their customers to collect rebate stamps, when the brothers split the company in 1960 over a dispute whether they should sell cigarettes, they owned 300 shops with a cash flow of DM90 million yearly. In 1962, they introduced the name Aldi—short for Albrecht-Diskont, Aldi Nord and Aldi Süd have been financially and legally separate since 1966, although both divisions names may appear with certain store brands or when negotiating with contractor companies. After German reunification and the fall of the Iron Curtain Aldi experienced a rapid expansion, the brothers retired as CEOs in 1993, control of the companies was placed in the hands of private family foundations, the Siepmann Foundation and the Markus Foundation. The Aldi Nord group currently consists of 35 independent regional branches with approximately 2,500 stores, Aldi Süd is made up of 31 companies with 1,600 stores. The border between their territories is commonly known as ″Aldi-Äquator″ and runs from the Rhine via Mülheim an der Ruhr, Wermelskirchen, Marburg, Siegen, and Gießen east to just north of Fulda. The former East Germany is served by Aldi Nord, except for one Aldi Süd in Sonneberg, Thuringia, the regional branches are organised as limited partnerships with a regional manager for each branch who reports directly to the head office in Essen or Mülheim an der Ruhr. The Aldi group operates over 8,000 stores worldwide, a store opens roughly every week in Britain alone. Aldi Nord is responsible for its stores in Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Poland, Spain, Denmark, and Portugal, Aldi Süds responsibilities are in the United States, Austria and Slovenia, United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, and Switzerland
24.
Allergen
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An allergen is a type of antigen that produces an abnormally vigorous immune response in which the immune system fights off a perceived threat that would otherwise be harmless to the body. In technical terms, an allergen is a capable of stimulating a type-I hypersensitivity reaction in atopic individuals through Immunoglobulin E responses. Most humans mount significant Immunoglobulin E responses only as a defense against parasitic infections, however, some individuals may respond to many common environmental antigens. This hereditary predisposition is called atopy, in atopic individuals, non-parasitic antigens stimulate inappropriate IgE production, leading to type I hypersensitivity. Sensitivities vary widely from one person to another, a very broad range of substances can be allergens to sensitive individuals. Allergens can be found in a variety of sources, such as dust mite excretion, pollen, Food allergies are not as common as food sensitivity, but some foods such as peanuts, nuts, seafood and shellfish are the cause of serious allergies in many people. Officially, the United States Food and Drug Administration does recognize eight foods as being common for reactions in a large segment of the sensitive population. These include peanuts, tree nuts, eggs, milk, shellfish, fish, wheat and their derivatives, see the FDA website for complete details. Canada recognizes all eight of the allergens recognized by the US, and also recognizes sesame seeds, the European Union additionally recognizes celery. Various trees and wood products such as paper, cardboard, MDF etc. can also cause mild to severe allergy symptoms through touch or inhalation of sawdust such as asthma, other common causes of serious allergy are wasp, fire ant and bee stings, penicillin, and latex. An extremely serious form of a reaction is called anaphylaxis. This depends on the kind of tree or grass, for instance, some trees such as oak, elm, and maple pollinate in the spring, while grasses such as Bermuda, timothy and orchard pollinate in the summer. Grass allergy is generally linked to hay fever because their symptoms, symptoms include rhinitis, which causes sneezing and a runny nose, as well as allergic conjunctivitis, which includes watering and itchy eyes. Also an initial tickle on the roof of the mouth or in the back of the throat may be experienced, also, depending on the season, the symptoms may be more severe and people may experience coughing, wheezing, and irritability. A few people even become depressed, lose their appetite, or have problems sleeping, moreover, since the sinuses may also become congested, some people experience headaches. The immune system also has influence on seasonal allergies, since it reacts differently to diverse allergens like pollen. When an allergen enters the body of an individual that is predisposed to allergies, it triggers an immune reaction and these allergen antibodies migrate to mast cells lining the nose, eyes and lungs. Some symptoms that differentiate allergies from a cold include, No fever, mucous secretions are runny and clear
25.
Parvalbumin
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Parvalbumin is a calcium-binding albumin protein with low molecular weight. It has three EF hand motifs and is related to calmodulin and troponin C. Parvalbumin is found in fast-contracting muscles, where its levels are highest, as well as in the brain, parvalbumin is a small, stable protein containing EF-hand type calcium binding sites. It is involved in calcium signaling, typically, this protein is broken into three domains, domains AB, CD and EF, each individually containing a helix-loop-helix motif. The AB domain houses a two amino-acid deletion in the region, whereas domains CD and EF contain the N-terminal and C-terminal. Parvalbumin is present in GABAergic interneurons in the system, especially the reticular thalamus. In the cerebellum, PV is expressed in Purkinje cells and molecular layer interneurons, in the hippocampus, PV+ interneurons are subdivided into basket, axo-axonic, bistratified, and oriens-lacunosum moleculare cells, each subtype targeting distinct domains of pyramidal cells. PV interneurons connections are mostly perisomatic, most of the PV interneurons are fast-spiking. They are also thought to rise to gamma waves recorded in EEG. PV-expressing interneurons represent approximately 25% of GABAergic cells in the primate DLPFC, other calcium-binding protein markers are calretinin and calbindin. Interneurons are also divided into subgroups by the expression of such as somatostatin, neuropeptide Y. Decreased PV and GAD67 expression was found in PV+ GABAergic interneurons in schizophrenia, PV has been identified as an allergen causing fish allergy. Parvalbumins at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings Baig, gupta, Y. K. Lee, Y. M. Luchinat, C. Quattrone, A. Paramagnetism-Based Refinement Strategy for the Solution Structure of Human α-Parvalbumin†
26.
In vitro
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In vitro studies are performed with microorganisms, cells, or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. In contrast, in studies are those conducted in animals, including humans. In vitro studies are conducted using components of an organism that have been isolated from their biological surroundings, such as microorganisms, cells. For example, microrganisms or cells can be studied in artificial culture media, colloquially called test-tube experiments, these studies in biology, medicine, and their subdisciplines are traditionally done in test tubes, flasks, Petri dishes, etc. They now involve the range of techniques used in molecular biology. In contrast, studies conducted in living beings are called in vivo, polymerase chain reaction is a method for selective replication of specific DNA and RNA sequences in the test tube. Protein purification involves the isolation of a protein of interest from a complex mixture of proteins. In vitro fertilization is used to allow spermatozoa to fertilize eggs in a culture dish before implanting the resulting embryo or embryos into the uterus of the prospective mother and these ADME process parameters can then be integrated into so called physiologically based pharmacokinetic models or PBPK. In vitro studies permit a species-specific, simpler, more convenient, just as studies in whole animals more and more replace human trials, so are in vitro studies replacing studies in whole animals. This complexity makes it difficult to identify the interactions between individual components and to explore their basic biological functions, in vitro work simplifies the system under study, so the investigator can focus on a small number of components. Another advantage of in vitro methods is that cells can be studied without extrapolation from an experimental animals cellular response. Investigators doing in vitro work must be careful to avoid over-interpretation of their results, for example, scientists developing a new viral drug to treat an infection with a pathogenic virus may find that a candidate drug functions to prevent viral replication in an in vitro setting. However, before this drug is used in the clinic, it must progress through a series of in vivo trials to determine if it is safe and effective in intact organisms. Results obtained from in vitro experiments cannot usually be transposed, as is, building a consistent and reliable extrapolation procedure from in vitro results to in vivo is therefore extremely important. However, increasingly sophisticated in vitro experiments collect increasingly numerous, complex, mathematical models, such as systems biology models, are much needed here. In pharmacology, IVIVE can be used to approximate pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics and that indicates that extrapolating effects observed in vitro needs a quantitative model of in vivo PK. Physiologically based PK models are generally accepted to be central to the extrapolations, in these conditions, developing a simple PD model of the dose–response relationship observed in vitro, and transposing it without changes to predict in vivo effects is not enough
27.
Antibiotic
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Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, a limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics, sometimes the term antibiotic is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic, antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine, Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. All classes of antibiotics in use today were first discovered prior to the mid 1980s, substances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times. Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore, mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials, more recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics. In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field, Louis Pasteur conducted research showing that Bacillus anthracis would not grow in the presence of the related mold Penicillium notatum. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by the fungus Penicillium glaucum when they were grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum. Unfortunately Duchesnes army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research, Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics. In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a mold, Penicillium chrysogenum
28.
National Environmental Policy Act
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The National Environmental Policy Act is a United States environmental law that promotes the enhancement of the environment and established the Presidents Council on Environmental Quality. The law was enacted on January 1,1970, as the bill was an early step towards the development of the United States environmental policy, NEPA is referred to as the “environmental Magna Carta”. NEPAs most significant outcome was the requirement that all federal agencies prepare environmental assessments. These reports state the potential effects of proposed federal agency actions. NEPA does not apply to the President, Congress, or the federal courts, NEPA grew out of the increased appreciation and concern for the environment that resulted from the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill. During this time, environmental interest group efforts and the movement resulting from Rachel Carsons 1962 book, Silent Spring, helped to pass the Wilderness, Clean Air, and Clean Water Acts. The act also promotes the CEQ to advise the President in the preparation of a report on the progress of federal agencies in implementing NEPA. It also established the CEQ to advise the president on environmental policy, NEPA establishes this national environmental policy by requiring federal agencies to prepare an environmental impact statement to accompany reports and recommendations for Congressional funding. This impact statement is known as an EIS, NEPA is an action-forcing piece of legislation, meaning the act itself does not carry any criminal or civil sanctions, and therefore, all enforcement of NEPA must occur through the court system. In practice, a project is required to meet NEPA guidelines when a federal agency provides any portion of financing for the project. However, review of a project by an employee can be viewed as a federal action. NEPA covers a vast array of federal agency actions, but the act does not apply to state action where there is an absence of federal influence or funding. Exemptions and exclusions are also present within NEPAs guidelines, including specific federal projects detailed in legislation, exemptions also apply when compliance with other environmental laws require an impact analysis similar to that mandated by NEPA. Such laws can include but are not limited to the Clean Air Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act. The NEPA process is the evaluation of the relevant environmental effects of a project or action mandated by NEPA. This process begins when an agency develops a proposal addressing a need to take action, if it is determined that the proposed action is covered under NEPA, there are three levels of analysis that a federal agency must undertake to comply with the law. A Categorical Exclusion is a list of actions an agency has determined do not individually or cumulatively affect the quality of the human environment. If a proposed action is included in an agencys CatEx, the agency must make sure that no extraordinary circumstances might cause the action to affect the environment
29.
Food and Drug Administration
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The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
30.
Barack Obama
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Barack Hussein Obama II is an American politician who served as the 44th President of the United States from 2009 to 2017. He is the first African American to have served as president and he previously served in the U. S. Senate representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008, and in the Illinois State Senate from 1997 to 2004. Obama was born in Honolulu, Hawaii, two years after the territory was admitted to the Union as the 50th state and he grew up mostly in Hawaii, but also spent one year of his childhood in Washington State and four years in Indonesia. After graduating from Columbia University in 1983, he worked as a community organizer in Chicago, in 1988 Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. After graduation, he became a civil rights attorney and professor, Obama represented the 13th District for three terms in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004, when he ran for the U. S. Senate. In 2008, Obama was nominated for president, a year after his campaign began and he was elected over Republican John McCain, and was inaugurated on January 20,2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate, during his first two years in office, Obama signed more landmark legislation than any Democratic president since LBJs Great Society. Main reforms were the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, after a lengthy debate over the national debt limit, Obama signed the Budget Control and the American Taxpayer Relief Acts. In foreign policy, Obama increased U. S. troop levels in Afghanistan, reduced nuclear weapons with the U. S. -Russian New START treaty, and ended military involvement in the Iraq War. He ordered military involvement in Libya in opposition to Muammar Gaddafi, after winning re-election over Mitt Romney, Obama was sworn in for a second term in 2013. Obama also advocated gun control in response to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and issued wide-ranging executive actions concerning climate change and immigration. In foreign policy, Obama ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL after the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60% approval rating. He currently resides in Washington, D. C and his presidential library will be built in Chicago. Obama was born on August 4,1961, at Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital in Honolulu and he is the only President to have been born in Hawaii. He was born to a mother and a black father. His mother, Ann Dunham, was born in Wichita, Kansas, of mostly English descent, with some German, Irish, Scottish, Swiss and his father, Barack Obama Sr. was a married Luo Kenyan man from Nyangoma Kogelo. Obamas parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii on February 2,1961, six months before Obama was born. In late August 1961, Obamas mother moved him to the University of Washington in Seattle for a year
31.
Genetically modified organism
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A genetically modified organism is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. GMOs are used to produce many medications and genetically modified foods and are used in scientific research. The term GMO is very close to the legal term, living modified organism, defined in the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. A more specifically defined type of GMO is a transgenic organism and this is an organism whose genetic makeup has been altered by the addition of genetic material from an unrelated organism. The first genetically modified mouse was created in 1974, and the first plant was produced in 1983, genetic modification involves the mutation, insertion, or deletion of genes. Inserted genes usually come from a different species in a form of horizontal gene-transfer, in nature this can occur when exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. This can be accomplished artificially by, attaching the genes to a virus, physically inserting the extra DNA into the nucleus of the intended host with a very small syringe. Firing small particles from a gene gun, other methods exploit natural forms of gene transfer, such as the ability of Agrobacterium to transfer genetic material to plants, or the ability of lentiviruses to transfer genes to animal cells. Humans have domesticated plants and animals since around 12,000 BCE, various advancements in genetics allowed humans to directly alter the DNA and therefore genes of organisms. In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a virus with that of the lambda virus. Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen made the first genetically modified organism in 1973 and they took a gene from a bacterium that provided resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin, inserted it into a plasmid and then induced another bacteria to uptake the plasmid. The bacteria was then able to survive in the presence of kanamycin, Boyer and Cohen expressed other genes in bacteria. This included genes from the toad Xenopus laevis in 1974, creating the first GMO expressing a gene from an organism from different kingdom, in 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world’s first transgenic animal. However it took eight years before transgenic mice were developed that passed the transgene to their offspring. Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carried cloned oncogenes, mice with genes knocked out were created in 1989. The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985 and the first animal to synthesise transgenic proteins in their milk were mice, in 1983 the first genetically engineered plant was developed by Michael W. Bevan, Richard B. They infected tobacco with Agrobacterium transformed with a resistance gene. The gene gun was invented in 1987, allowing transformation of plants not susceptible to Agrobacterium infection, in 2000, Vitamin A-enriched golden rice, was the first plant developed with increased nutrient value
32.
Environment and Climate Change Canada
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Its ministerial headquarters is located in les Terrasses de la Chaudière, Gatineau, Quebec. The department is responsible for international environmental issues. CEPA was the piece of Canadas environmental legislation but was replaced when budget implementation bill entered into effect in June 2012. Under the Constitution of Canada, responsibility for management in Canada is a shared responsibility between the federal government and provincial/territorial governments. For example, provincial governments have primary authority for resource management including permitting industrial waste discharges, the federal government is responsible for the management of toxic substances in the country. Environment Canada continues to undergo a transformation to centralize authority and decision-making. In 2003, responsibility for Parks Canada was returned to the Minister of the Environment, Environment Canada Enforcement Branch is responsible for ensuring compliance with several federal statues. The Governor-in-Council appoints enforcement officers and pursuant to section 217 of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, there are two designations of enforcement officers, Environmental Enforcement and Wildlife Enforcement. The former administers the Canadian Environmental Protection Act and pollution provisions of the Fisheries Act, the latter enforces Migratory Birds Convention Act, Canada Wildlife Act, Species at Risk Act and The Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act. All officers wear green uniform with black ties and a badge. Environmental Enforcement Officers only carry baton and OC spray whereas Wildlife Enforcement Officers are also equipped with firearm, on March 4,2009, a bill to increase the enforcement capabilities of Environment Canada was introduced into the House of Commons. The various annexes define hazardous waste in Canada, and also deem any waste that is, the loophole in the regulations that allows tons of e-waste to be exported from Canada is the use of the definition of intact vs functional. A non-functioning electronic device that is intact can be exported under the current legislation, what cant be exported without prior informed consent is a non-functioning but no longer intact electronic device. The principal problem being, the non-functioning but intact electronic device is at risk of being disassembled in some far away e-waste dumping ground. The Canadian governments use of an interpretation of the Basel Convention obligations intact. See Canadian fact sheet and associated links, there have been 19 prosecutions undertaken for non-compliance with the provisions of the EIHWHRMR some of which are still before the courts. Electronic waste by country Bill C-38, replaced the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act with the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act,2012, by placing the emphasis on jobs, growth and prosperity significant changes have been made to the federal environmental assessment regime and environmental regulatory framework. The Durban talks were leading to a new binding treaty with targets for all countries to take effect in 2020, Environment minister Peter Kent argued that, The Kyoto protocol does not cover the worlds largest two emitters, the United States and China, and therefore cannot work
33.
Canadian Food Inspection Agency
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The establishment of the CFIA consolidated the delivery of all federal food safety, animal health, and plant health regulatory programs. The agency is part of the federal public service. According to the CFIA statement of values, science is the basis for regulatory decisions, one of the main acts and regulations that CFIA uses is the Food and Drugs Act, which was last updated in 1985. There have been ongoing regulatory amendments brought forward with the most recent attempt at modernizing the Food, other Acts and Regulations also specify inspection requirements and for certain trade requirements, the need to register with CFIA to conduct business. Such companies are termed registered establishments as opposed to those non-federally registered establishments that fall solely under the Food and Drugs Act. While the Food and Drugs Act provide for core food safety standards and these standards are closely adhered to due to the potential loss of business. The Food and Drugs Act does not provide the power to recall food products, CFIA rates their recalls in three classifications. Class I is a situation in which there is a probability that the use of, or exposure to. Class III is a situation in which the use of, or exposure to, public notification of Class I and sometimes class II recalls is done by the CFIA. Lower risk recalls are listed in a database on the CFIA web site. Recall classifications are conducted by the Office of Food Safety and Recall based on advice from Health Canada. Provincial authorities and local health units carry out inspections and work with the CFIA to manage food safety risks. There is no requirement in the Food and Drugs Act for importers to directly notify the CFIA of their existence, import notification is required for other commodities such as fish and meat. All commercial importers must have an account with Canada Border Services Agency who refers food, animal. Although most cases were in Ontario, illnesses occurred in seven provinces, the report identified response actions that worked well at the federal and provincial levels and gaps in the system should be corrected. Canada Border Services Agency Canadian Food Inspection Agency Scientist fired for sharing secret memo
34.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
35.
ABC News
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ABC News is the news division of the American Broadcasting Company, owned by the Disney Media Networks division of The Walt Disney Company. Television broadcasting was suspended, however, during World War II, regular television news broadcasts on ABC began soon after the network signed on its initial owned-and-operated television station and production center in New York City in August 1948. ABC news broadcasts have continued as the network expanded nationwide. However, from the 1950s through the early 1970s, ABC News programs consistently ranked third in viewership behind news programs on CBS and NBC. Arledge, known for experimenting with the broadcast model, created many of ABC News most popular and enduring programs, including 20/20, World News Tonight, This Week, Nightline and Primetime Live. In June 1998, ABC News, Nine Network and ITN sold their interests in Worldwide Television News to the Associated Press. 20/20 ABC World News Tonight America This Morning Good Morning America Nightline This Week What Would You Do, formerly known as ABC Radio News, ABC News Radio feeds, through Skyview Networks with newscasts on the hour to its affiliates. ABC News Radio is the largest commercial radio news organization in the US, Satellite News Channel was a joint venture between ABC News and Group W that started on June 21,1982 as a satellite-delivered cable television network. SNC used footage from ABC News and 7 Washington, D. C. -based crews, however, this channel had difficulty getting clearance from cable systems, so ABC News and Group W decided to sell it to its competitor, CNN. CNN ceased Satellite News Channels operations on October 27,1983, SNC was either replaced by CNN or CNN2 on most cable systems. Group W would eventually shut down 7 years later, in 1999 and it was offered via digital television, broadband and streaming video at ABCNews. com and on mobile phones. It delivered breaking news, headline news each hour, and wide range of entertainment. The channel was available in the United States and Europe and its Talk Back feature allowed viewers to voice their own input through the submission of videos and personal thoughts on controversial issues and current topics. It was shut down as a digital subchannel when Live Well Network was launched, ABC News Now was replaced on cable providers with Fusion on October 28,2013. Fusion is a cable and satellite network that is owned & operated by Fusion Media Network, LLC. ABC and Univision formally announced its launch on May 2,2012, Fusion was ABC News third attempt in the 24-hour cable news world after Satellite News Channel in 1982 and ABC News Now in 2004. In December 2015, it was reported that Disney was in talks to sell its stake in Fusion to Univision, the split was complete on April 21,2016. Several ABC News programs are broadcast daily on OSN News in MENA countries
36.
Monthly Review
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The Monthly Review, established in 1949, is an independent socialist magazine published monthly in New York City. The publication remains the longest continuously published socialist magazine in the United States, the journal has an impact factor of 0.460. Following the failure of the independent 1948 Presidential campaign of Henry A. Wallace, the two men were literary scholar and Christian socialist F. O. Matty Matthiessen and Marxist economist Paul Sweezy, who were former colleagues at Harvard University. Matthiessen came into an inheritance after his father died in an accident in California and had no pressing need for the money. Matthiessen made the offer to Sweezy to underwrite that magazine and Leo Huberman were always talking about, although Matthiessen was the financial angel of the new publication, from the outset the editorial task was handled by Sweezy and his co-thinker, the left wing popular writer Leo Huberman. Briefly joining Sweezy and Huberman as a founding editor of Monthly Review — although not listed as such on the publications masthead — was German émigré Otto Nathan. Another key contributor during the first 15 years of MR was economist Paul Baran, frequently considered as the member of an editorial troika including Sweezy. A tenured professor at Stanford University, Baran was one of a very few self-identified Marxists to teach economics at American universities during the Cold War period. Baran worked closely with Sweezy on a book regarded as a landmark in Marxist theory entitled Monopoly Capital, Monthly Review launched in 1949 with a circulation of just 450 copies, most of whom were personal acquaintances of either Huberman or Sweezy. The magazines ideology and readership closely paralleled that of the independent Marxist weekly newspaper The National Guardian, established in 1948. Despite a conservative climate in the United States, the magazine quickly reached a critical mass of subscribers, with its paid circulation rising to 2,500 in 1950. During the McCarthyism of the early 1950s, editors Paul Sweezy, sweezys case, tried by New Hampshire Attorney General, went all the way to the Supreme Court and became a seminal case on freedom of speech when the Court ruled in his favor. In 1953 the magazine added veteran radical Scott Nearing to the magazines ranks, from that date and for nearly 20 years Nearing authored a monthly column descriptively entitled World Events. From the middle years of the 1960s, radical political theory saw a resurgence in association with the emergence of a New Left in Europe, Monthly Review grew in stature in tandem with this resurgence. Among those associated with the 1960s New Left published by the Monthly Review were C. Wright Mills, Herbert Marcuse, Todd Gitlin, Carl Oglesby, David Horowitz, and Noam Chomsky. The Monthly Review editorial staff was joined in May 1969 by radical economist Harry Magdoff, replacing Leo Huberman, certain Maoist influence made itself felt in the content of the publication in this period. In the latter case, Sweezy declared the incident had proved beyond doubt that, despite an apparent decline of the American Left in the 1980s, MRs circulation hovered in the 8,000 range throughout the decade. Since 2006 John Bellamy Foster has been the editor, together with Michael D. Yates, as associate editor
37.
Salmon
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Salmon /ˈsæmən/ is the common name for several species of ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. Other fish in the family include trout, char, grayling. Salmon are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, many species of salmon have been introduced into non-native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America and Patagonia in South America. Salmon are intensively farmed in parts of the world. Typically, salmon are anadromous, they are born in water, migrate to the ocean. However, populations of species are restricted to fresh water through their lives. Various species of salmon display anadromous life strategies while others display freshwater resident life strategies, folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they were born to spawn, tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems. The percent of straying depends on the species of salmon, homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory. The term salmon comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn may have originated from salire, the nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the north Atlantic, the genus Oncorhynchus contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon, Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have established in Patagonia. † Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout, within Salmo, additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English, i. e. the Adriatic salmon and Black Sea salmon. The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea, also a number of other species have common names which refer to them as being salmon. The British Columbia salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago, Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred by 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record rejects the theory of salmon divergence. Atlantic salmon reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, landlocked salmon live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee
38.
Salmonidae
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Salmonidae is a family of ray-finned fish, the only living family currently placed in the order Salmoniformes. It includes salmon, trout, chars, freshwater whitefishes, and graylings, the Atlantic salmon and trout of the genus Salmo give the family and order their names. Salmonids have a primitive appearance among the teleost fish, with the pelvic fins being placed far back. They are slender fish, with rounded scales and forked tails and their mouths contain a single row of sharp teeth. Although the smallest species is just 13 cm long as an adult, most are much larger, all salmonids spawn in fresh water, but in many cases, the fish spend most of their lives at sea, returning to the rivers only to reproduce. This lifecycle is described as anadromous and they are predators, feeding on small crustaceans, aquatic insects, and smaller fish. Current salmonids comprise three lineages, taxonomically treated as subfamilies, whitefish, graylings, and the char, trout, generally, all three lineages are accepted to allocate a suite of derived traits indicating a monophyletic group. This genus shares traits found in the Salmoninae, whitefish, hence, E. driftwoodensis is an archaic salmonid, representing an important stage in salmonid evolution. A gap appears in the fossil record after E. driftwoodensis until about seven million years ago, in the late Miocene. Several of these appear to be Oncorhynchus—the current genus for Pacific salmon. Consequently, the split between Oncorhynchus and Salmo must have occurred well before the Pliocene, suggestions have gone back as far as the early Miocene. Based on the most current evidence, salmonids diverged from the rest of teleost fish no later than 88 million years ago and this divergence was marked by a whole-genome duplication event in the ancestral salmonid, where the diploid ancestor became tetraploid. Extant salmonids all show evidence of partial tetraploidy, as show the genome has undergone selection to regain a diploid state. Work done in the trout has shown that the genome is still partially-tetraploid. This pattern of partial tetraploidy is thought to be reflected in the rest of extant salmonids, the first fossil species representing a true salmonid fish does not appear until the middle Eocene. This fossil is also younger than the proposed salmonid divergence from the rest of the teleost fishes. This means that the salmonids have a ghost lineage of approximately 33 million years and this more precise dating and examination of the salmonid whole-genome duplication event has allowed more speculation on the radiation of species within the group. Historically, the duplication event was thought to be the reason for the variation within Salmonidae
39.
Black Sea salmon
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The Black Sea salmon is a fairly small species of salmon, at about 20 inches long on average and rarely reaching over 30 in. It inhabits the northern Black Sea coasts and inflowing rivers, there are anadromous, lacustrine and resident river populations. This fish is a relative of the brown trout. While it is the native species of Salmo present in the northern Black Sea basin. Sea-run populations are currently at low numbers, but the resident river stocks are doing well
. PMID 20878546.