1.
Macrophyte
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A macrophyte is an aquatic plant that grows in or near water and is either emergent, submergent, or floating, and includes helophytes. In lakes and rivers macrophytes provide cover for fish and substrate for aquatic invertebrates, produce oxygen, fringing stands of tall vegetation by water basins and rivers may include helophytes. Examples include stands of Equisetum fluviatile, Glyceria maxima, Hippuris vulgaris, Sagittaria, Carex, Schoenoplectus, Sparganium, Acorus, yellow flag, Typha, an emergent plant is one which grows in water but which pierces the surface so that it is partially in air. Collectively, such plants are emergent vegetation, the emergent habit permits pollination by wind or by flying insects. There are many species of emergent plants, among them, the reed, Cyperus papyrus, Typha species, flowering rush and these may be found growing in fens but usually less well owing to competition from other plants. Some species, such as purple loosestrife, may grow in water as emergent plants, a decline in a macrophyte community may indicate water quality problems and changes in the ecological status of the water body. Such problems may be the result of excessive turbidity, herbicides, conversely, overly high nutrient levels may create an overabundance of macrophytes, which may in turn interfere with lake processing. Macrophyte levels are easy to sample, do not require laboratory analysis, hot water extracts of the stem and root of Ludwigia adscendens, as well as those of the fruit, leaf and stem of Monochoria hastata were found to have lipoxygenase inhibitory activity. Hot water extract prepared from the leaf of Ludwigia adscendens exhibits alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity more potent than that of acarbose, microphyte Aquatic Plant Monitoring in the State of Washington
2.
Nymphaea alba
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Nymphaea alba, also known as the European white water lily, white water rose or white nenuphar, is an aquatic flowering plant of the family Nymphaeaceae. It grows in water that is 30–150 cm deep and likes large ponds, the leaves can be up to 30 cm in diameter and take up a spread of 150 cm per plant. The flowers are white and they have many small stamens inside and they are found all over Europe and in parts of North Africa and the Middle East in fresh water. The red variety is cultivated from lake Fagertärn in the forest of Tiveden, Sweden, the discovery led to a large-scale exploitation which nearly made it extinct in the wild before it was protected. Nymphaea candida J. Presl is sometimes considered a subspecies of N. alba and it contains the active alkaloids nupharine and nymphaeine, and is a sedative and an aphrodisiac/anaphrodisiac depending on sources. Although roots and stalks are used in herbal medicine along with the flower. Alcohol can be used to extract the alkaloids, and it also boosts the sedative effects. The root of the plant was used by monks and nuns for hundreds of years as an anaphrodisiac, in the earliest printed medical textbooks, authors maintained this use, though warning against consuming large and frequent doses
3.
Nymphaeaceae
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Nymphaeaceae /ˌnɪmfiːˈeɪsiː/ is a family of flowering plants, commonly called water lilies. They live as rhizomatous aquatic herbs in temperate and tropical climates around the world, the family contains five genera with about 70 known species. Water lilies are rooted in soil in bodies of water, with leaves, the leaves are round, with a radial notch in Nymphaea and Nuphar, but fully circular in Victoria and Euryale. Genera with more parts, Nuphar, Nymphaea, Victoria, have a beetle pollination syndrome, while genera with fewer parts are pollinated by flies or bees. Thus, the number of relatively unspecialized floral organs in the Nymphaeaceae is not an ancestral condition for the clade. Water lilies do not have leaves in the winter time. The leftover of internal pressure is embodied by the constant streams of bubbles that outbreak when rising leaves are ruptured in the spring. Methane is still penetrating the roots and rhizome in the summer, moving fast up the petioles, the Nymphaeaceae are aquatic, rhizomatous herbs. The family is characterized by scattered vascular bundles in the stems. Hairs are simple, usually producing mucilage, stipules are either present or absent. Flowers are solitary, bisexual, radial, with a pedicel and usually floating or raised above the surface of the water. Sepals are 4-12, distinct to connate, imbricate, and often petal-like, petals lacks or 8 to numerous, inconspicuous to showy, often intergrading with stamens. Stamens are 3 to numerous, the innermost sometimes represented by staminodes, carpels are 3 to numerous, distinct or connate. Fruit is an aggregate of nuts, a berry, or an irregularly dehiscent fleshy capsule, seeds are often arillate, more or less lacking sperm. Nymphaeaceae has been investigated systematically for decades because botanists considered their floral morphology to represent one of the earliest groups of angiosperms, modern genetic analyses by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group researchers has confirmed its basal position among flowering plants. In addition, the Nymphaeaceae are more diverse and geographically dispersed than other basal angiosperms. Nymphaeaceae is placed in the order Nymphaeales, which is the second diverging group of angiosperms after Amborella in the most widely accepted flowering plant classification system, Nymphaeaceae is a small family of three to six genera, Barclaya, Euryale, Nuphar, Nymphaea, Ondinea, and Victoria. The genus Barclaya is sometimes given rank as its own family, Barclayaceae, on the basis of a perianth tube arising from the top of the ovary
4.
Nelumbo nucifera
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Nelumbo nucifera, also known as Indian lotus, sacred lotus, bean of India, Egyptian bean or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. The Linnaean binomial Nelumbo nucifera is the currently recognized name for this species and this plant is an aquatic perennial. Native to Tropical Asia, and Queensland, Australia, it is cultivated in water gardens. It is also the flower of India, and Vietnam. The lotus is often confused with the water lilies, in fact, several older systems, such as the Bentham & Hooker system call the lotus Nymphaea nelumbo or Nymphaea stellata. Far from being in the family, Nymphaea and Nelumbo are members of different orders. The roots of lotus are planted in the soil of the pond or river bottom, the flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. The plant normally grows up to a height of about 150 cm and a spread of up to 3 meters. The leaves may be as large as 60 cm in diameter, researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to regulate the temperature of its flowers to within a narrow range just as humans and other warmblooded animals do. Dr. Roger S. Seymour and Dr and they suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract coldblooded insect pollinators. The study, published in the journal Nature, is the latest discovery in the field of thermoregulation, heat-producing, two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include Symplocarpus foetidus and Philodendron selloum. An individual lotus can live for over a thousand years and has the ability to revive into activity after stasis. In 1994, a seed from a lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ±270 years, was successfully germinated. As mentioned earlier, the traditional Sacred Lotus is only related to Nymphaea caerulea. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and aporphine, the genome of the sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013. The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts of watering cans, are sold throughout the world for decorative purposes. The flowers, seeds, young leaves, and roots are all edible, in Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten. In Korea, the leaves and petals are used as a tisane, yeonkkotcha is made with dried petals of white lotus and yeonipcha is made with the leaves
5.
Plant
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Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
6.
Seawater
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Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the oceans has a salinity of about 3. 5% This means that every kilogram of seawater has approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts. Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/l, seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases, at typical salinity, it freezes at about −2 °C. The coldest seawater ever recorded was in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier, seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater, although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 g/kg and 38 g/kg, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with fresh water runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts precipitation, the most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still, historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the Practical Salinity Scale where salinity was measured in practical salinity units, the current standard for salinity is the Reference Salinity scale with the salinity expressed in units of g/kg. The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature, at a temperature of 25 °C, salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3. Deep in the ocean, under pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity, brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C, seawater pH is limited to the range 7.5 to 8.4. The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s, and varies with temperature, salinity. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C, the thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature. Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater, however, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. Bicarbonate ions also constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0. 14% of all seawater ions, differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes, sodium and chlorine have very long residence times, while calcium tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/l
7.
Fresh water
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Fresh water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water although it does include mineral-rich waters such as chalybeate springs, the term sweet water has been used to describe fresh water in contrast to salt water. The term fresh water does not have the meaning as potable water. Much of the fresh water and ground water is unsuitable for drinking without some form of purification because of the presence of chemical or biological contaminants. It may also be in contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of water on Earth is in ice caps. The source of almost all water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea, in some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers. In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium, significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa. Water is an issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants. Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 20% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes. Swamps have most of the balance only a small amount in rivers. In areas with no water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density. Most of the fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of water, such as deserts
8.
Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
9.
Aerenchyma
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Aerenchyma is a spongy tissue that forms spaces or air channels in the leaves, stems and roots of some plants, which allows exchange of gases between the shoot and the root. The channels of air-filled cavities provide an internal pathway for the exchange of gases such as oxygen. Aerenchyma is also widespread in aquatic and wetland plants which must grow in hypoxic soils, when soil is flooded, hypoxia develops, as soil microorganisms consume oxygen faster than diffusion occurs. The presence of hypoxic soils is one of the characteristics of wetlands. Many wetland plants possess aerenchyma, and in some, such as water-lilies, there are many other chemical consequences of hypoxia. For example, nitrification is inhibited as low oxygen occurs and toxic compounds are formed, as bacteria use nitrate, manganese. The reduction-oxidation potential of the rhizhosphere decreases and metal such as iron. Aerenchyma is a modification of the parenchyma, in general, low oxygen stimulates trees and plants to produce ethylene. Ethylene slows down primary and adventitious root elongation and formation, the large air-filled cavities provide a low-resistance internal pathway for the exchange of gases between the plant organs above the water and the submerged tissues. This allows plants to grow without incurring the costs of anaerobic respiration. Some of the oxygen transported through the aerenchyma leaks through root pores into the surrounding soil, the resulting small rhizosphere of oxygenated soil around individual roots support microorganisms that prevent the influx of potentially toxic soil components such as sulfide, iron, and manganese
10.
Soil
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Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and countless organisms that together support life on Earth. Soil is called the Skin of the Earth and interfaces with the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the term pedolith, used commonly to refer to the soil, literally translates ground stone. Soil consists of a phase of minerals and organic matter, as well as a porous phase that holds gases. Accordingly, soils are often treated as a system of solids, liquids. Soil is a product of the influence of climate, relief, organisms, Soil continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering with associated erosion. Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness soil has been considered as an ecosystem by soil ecologists. Most soils have a dry bulk density between 1.1 and 1.6 g/cm3, while the particle density is much higher. Little of the soil of planet Earth is older than the Pleistocene and none is older than the Cenozoic, Soil science has two basic branches of study, edaphology and pedology. Edaphology is concerned with the influence of soils on living things, pedology is focused on the formation, description, and classification of soils in their natural environment. In engineering terms, soil is referred to as regolith, or loose material that lies above the solid geology. Soil is commonly referred to as earth or dirt, technically, as soil resources serve as a basis for food security, the international community advocates its sustainable and responsible use through different types of soil governance. Soil is a component of the Earths ecosystem. The worlds ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the carried out in the soil, from ozone depletion and global warming, to rainforest destruction. Following the atmosphere, the soil is the next largest carbon reservoir on Earth, as the planet warms, soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to its increased biological activity at higher temperatures. Thus, soil carbon losses likely have a positive feedback response to global warming. Since soil has a range of available niches and habitats. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial, Soil has a mean prokaryotic density of roughly 108 organisms per gram, whereas the ocean has no more than 107 procaryotic organisms per milliliter of seawater. Since plant roots need oxygen, ventilation is an important characteristic of soil and this ventilation can be accomplished via networks of interconnected soil pores, which also absorb and hold rainwater making it readily available for plant uptake
11.
Vascular plant
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They also have a specialized non-lignified tissue to conduct products of photosynthesis. Vascular plants include the clubmosses, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms, scientific names for the group include Tracheophyta and Tracheobionta. Vascular plants are distinguished by two characteristics, Vascular plants have vascular tissues which distribute resources through the plant. This feature allows vascular plants to evolve to a larger size than non-vascular plants, in vascular plants, the principal generation phase is the sporophyte, which is usually diploid with two sets of chromosomes per cell. Only the germ cells and gametophytes are haploid, by contrast, the principal generation phase in non-vascular plants is the gametophyte, which is haploid with one set of chromosomes per cell. In these plants, only the spore stalk and capsule are diploid, in other words, elaboration of the spore stalk enabled the production of more spores, and enabled the development of the ability to release them higher and to broadcast them farther. Such developments may include more photosynthetic area for the structure, the ability to grow independent roots, woody structure for support. A proposed phylogeny of the plants after Kenrick and Crane is as follows. Pteridophyta from Smith et al. and lycophytes and ferns by Christenhusz et al and this phylogeny is supported by several molecular studies. Other researchers state that taking fossils into account leads to different conclusions, water and nutrients in the form of inorganic solutes are drawn up from the soil by the roots and transported throughout the plant by the xylem. Organic compounds such as produced by photosynthesis in leaves are distributed by the phloem sieve tube elements. The xylem consists of vessels in flowering plants and tracheids in other vascular plants, a tracheid cell wall usually contains the polymer lignin. The phloem however consists of living cells called sieve-tube members, between the sieve-tube members are sieve plates, which have pores to allow molecules to pass through. Sieve-tube members lack such organs as nuclei or ribosomes, but cells next to them, the most abundant compound in all plants, as in all cellular organisms, is water which serves an important structural role and a vital role in plant metabolism. Transpiration is the process of water movement within plant tissues. Water is constantly transpired from the plant through its stomata to the atmosphere, the movement of water out of the leaf stomata creates a transpiration pull or tension in the water column in the xylem vessels or tracheids. The pull is the result of surface tension within the cell walls of the mesophyll cells. The draw of water upwards may be passive and can be assisted by the movement of water into the roots via osmosis
12.
Flowering plant
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The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
13.
Monocot
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Monocotyledons, commonly referred to as monocots, are flowering plants whose seeds typically contain only one embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. However, molecular research has shown that while the monocots form a monophyletic group or clade. Monocots have almost always recognized as a group, but with various taxonomic ranks. The APG III system of 2009 recognises a clade called monocots, the monocots include about 60,000 species. The largest family in this group by number of species are the orchids, about half as many species belong to the true grasses, which are economically the most important family of monocots. In agriculture the majority of the biomass produced comes from monocots and these include not only major grains, but also forage grasses, sugar cane, and the bamboos. Other economically important monocot crops include various palms, bananas, gingers and their relatives, turmeric and cardamom, asparagus and the onions and garlic family. Additionally most of the bulbs, plants cultivated for their blooms, such as lilies, daffodils, irises, amaryllis, cannas, bluebells. The monocots or monocotyledons have, as the name implies, a single cotyledon, or embryonic leaf, from a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly useful characteristic, nor is it completely reliable. Nevertheless, monocots are sufficiently distinctive that there has rarely been disagreement as to membership of this group, however, morphological features that reliably characterise major clades are rare. Thus monocots are distinguishable from other angiosperms both in terms of their uniformity and diversity, although largely herbaceous, some arboraceous monocots reach great height, length and mass. The latter include agaves, palms, pandans, and bamboos and this creates challenges in water transport that monocots deal with in various ways. Some such as species of Yucca develop anomalous secondary growth, while palm trees, the axis undergoes primary thickening, that progresses from internode to internode, resulting in a typical inverted conical shape of the basal primary axis. The limited conductivity also contributes to limited branching of the stems, despite these limitations a wide variety of adaptive growth forms has resulted from epiphytic orchids and bromeliads to submarine Alismatales and mycotrophic Burmanniaceae and Triuridaceae. Other monocots, particularly Poales have adopted a life form. Leaves The cotyledon, the primordial Angiosperm leaf consists of a proximal leaf base or hypophyll, in moncots the hypophyll tends to be the dominant part in contrast to other angiosperms. Mature monocot leaves are narrow and linear, forming a sheathing around the stem at its base. There is usually only one leaf per node because the leaf base encompasses more than half the circumference, the evolution of this monocot characteristic has been attributed to developmental differences in early zonal differentiation rather than meristem activity
14.
Dicotyledon
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The dicotyledons, also known as dicots, were one of the two groups into which all the flowering plants or angiosperms were formerly divided. The name refers to one of the characteristics of the group. There are around 200,000 species within this group, the other group of flowering plants were called monocotyledons or monocots, typically having one cotyledon. Historically, these two formed the two divisions of the flowering plants. Rather, a number of lineages, such as the magnoliids and groups now known as the basal angiosperms. The traditional dicots are thus a paraphyletic group, the largest clade of the dicotyledons are known as the eudicots. They are distinguished from all other flowering plants by the structure of their pollen, aside from cotyledon number, other broad differences have been noted between monocots and dicots, although these have proven to be differences primarily between monocots and eudicots. Many early-diverging dicot groups have monocot characteristics such as scattered vascular bundles, trimerous flowers, in addition, some monocots have dicot characteristics such as reticulated leaf veins. Traditionally the dicots have been called the Dicotyledones, at any rank, if treated as a class, as in the Cronquist system, they could be called the Magnoliopsida after the type genus Magnolia. In some schemes, the eudicots were treated as a separate class, the remaining dicots may be kept in a single paraphyletic class, called Magnoliopsida, or further divided. Some botanists prefer to retain the dicotyledons as a class, arguing its practicality. The following lists show the orders in the APG III system traditionally called dicots, together with the older Cronquist system
15.
Seaweed
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Seaweed refers to several species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of red, brown, and green algae, seaweed can also be classified by use. Seaweed is a term and lacks a formal definition. A seaweed may belong to one of groups of multicellular algae, the red algae, green algae. As these three groups do not have a common ancestor, the seaweed are in a polyphyletic group. In addition, some tuft-forming bluegreen algae are sometimes considered to be seaweed, seaweeds appearance somewhat resembles non-arboreal terrestrial plants. Two specific environmental requirements dominate seaweed ecology and these are the presence of seawater and the presence of light sufficient to drive photosynthesis. Another common requirement is an attachment point, although some genera such as Sargassum. As a result, seaweed most commonly inhabit the part of a sea that is close to the shore, seaweed occupy a wide range of ecological niches. The highest elevation is only wetted by the tops of sea spray, in some areas, littoral seaweed can extend several miles out to sea. The limiting factor in such cases is sunlight availability, the deepest living seaweed are some species of red algae. Others have adapted to live in rock pools. In this habitat seaweed must withstand rapidly changing temperature and salinity, seaweed has a variety of purposes, for which it is farmed or foraged from the wild. At the beginning of 2011, Indonesia produced 3 million tonnes of seaweed and surpassed the Philippines as the worlds largest seaweed producer, by 2011, the production was estimated to have reached 10 million tonnes. Seaweed is consumed by people, particularly in East Asia, e. g. Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan. In Asia, Gim, nori, zicai are sheets of dried Porphyra used in soups, chondrus crispus is another red alga used in producing food additives, along with Kappaphycus and gigartinoid seaweed. Porphyra is a red alga used in Wales to make laver, laverbread, made from oats and the laver, is a popular dish there. In northern Belize, edible seaweed are mixed with milk, nutmeg, cinnamon, seaweed are also harvested or cultivated for the extraction of alginate, agar and carrageenan, gelatinous substances collectively known as hydrocolloids or phycocolloids
16.
Ocean
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An ocean is a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, the word sea is often used interchangeably with ocean in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water partly or fully enclosed by land. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored, the total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters. As the world ocean is the component of Earths hydrosphere, it is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the origin of Earths oceans remains unknown, oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds, the only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many planets and natural satellites, notably. The Solar Systems giant planets are thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection, Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases, though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the World are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, the continuous mountain range is 65,000 km long, and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km long
17.
Algae
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Algae is an informal term for a large, diverse group of photosynthetic organisms which are not necessarily closely related, and is thus polyphyletic. Included organisms range from unicellular genera, such as Chlorella and the diatoms, to forms, such as the giant kelp. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem, and phloem. No definition of algae is generally accepted, one definition is that algae have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells. Some authors exclude all prokaryotes thus do not consider cyanobacteria as algae, Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction. Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes. Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago, the singular alga is the Latin word for seaweed and retains that meaning in English. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algēre, be cold, a more likely source is alliga, binding, entwining. The Ancient Greek word for seaweed was φῦκος, which could mean either the seaweed or a red dye derived from it, the Latinization, fūcus, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. It could be any color, black, red, green, accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name Fucus appears in a number of taxa, most algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and presumably represent reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, however, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right, many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic
18.
Saline water
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Saline water is water that contains a significant concentration of dissolved salts. The salt concentration is expressed in parts per thousand or parts per million. The United States Geological Survey classifies saline water in three salinity categories. Salt concentration in slightly saline water is around 1,000 to 3,000 ppm, in saline water 3,000 to 10,000 ppm. Seawater has a salinity of roughly 35,000 ppm, equivalent to 35 grams of salt per one liter of water, the saturation level is dependent on the temperature of the water. At 20 °C one milliliter of water can dissolve about 0.357 grams of salt, at boiling the amount that can be dissolved in one milliliter of water increases to about 0.391 grams or 28. 1% saline solution. Some industries make use of water, such as mining. In the United States,14 percent of all used in 2000 was saline. Almost all saline withdrawals, over 92 percent, were used by the power industry to cool electricity-generating equipment. About three percent of the saline water was used for mining and other industrial purposes. Due to their proximity to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, states near the coast make the most use of saline water, almost 40% of all saline water use in 2000 occurred in California, Florida, and Maryland. The use of water, as with freshwater, has been trending downward since a peak in 1968. But, in the period between 1950 and 1968, the use of water increased at a much higher rate than freshwater use. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C, brackish water Brine Media related to Saline water at Wikimedia Commons
19.
Seagrass
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Seagrasses are flowering plants belonging to four families, all in the order Alismatales, which grow in marine, fully saline environments. There are 12 genera with some 60 species known, like all autotrophic plants, seagrasses photosynthesize so are limited to growing in the submerged photic zone, and most occur in shallow and sheltered coastal waters anchored in sand or mud bottoms. Most species undergo submarine pollination and complete their life cycle underwater. Seagrasses form extensive beds or meadows, which can be either monospecific or in mixed beds where more than one species coexist. In temperate areas, usually one or a few species dominate, whereas tropical beds usually are more diverse, some fish species that visit/feed on seagrasses raise their young in adjacent mangroves or coral reefs. Also, seagrasses trap sediment and slow down water movement, causing suspended sediment to fall out, the trapping of sediment benefits coral by reducing sediment loads in the water. Their importance for associated species is due to provision of shelter. Seagrass meadows account for more than 10% of the total carbon storage. Per hectare, it twice as much carbon dioxide as rain forests. Yearly, seagrasses sequester about 27.4 million tons of CO2, global warming models suggest, some seagrasses will go extinct – Posidonia oceanica is expected to go extinct, or nearly so, by 2050. This would result in CO2 release, historically, seagrasses were collected as fertilizer for sandy soil. This was an important use in the Ria de Aveiro, Portugal and it was also used for bandages and other purposes. Currently, seagrass is used in furniture, and woven like rattan, natural disturbances, such as grazing, storms, ice-scouring, and desiccation, are an inherent part of seagrass ecosystem dynamics. Seagrasses display a high degree of phenotypic plasticity, adapting rapidly to changing environmental conditions. Seagrasses are in decline, with some 30,000 km2 lost during recent decades. The main cause is human disturbance, most notably eutrophication, mechanical destruction of habitat, excessive input of nutrients is directly toxic to seagrasses, but most importantly, it stimulates the growth of epiphytic and free-floating macro- and micro-algae. This weakens the sunlight, reducing the photosynthesis that nourishes the seagrass, decaying seagrass leaves and algae fuels increasing algal blooms, resulting in a positive feedback. This can cause a regime shift from seagrass to algal dominance
20.
Zostera
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Zostera is a small genus of widely distributed seagrasses, commonly called marine eelgrass or simply eelgrass. The genus Zostera contains 15 species, Zostera marina is found on sandy substrates or in estuaries, usually submerged or partially floating. They have long, bright green, ribbon-like leaves, the width of which are about 1 centimetre, short stems grow up from extensive, white branching rhizomes. The flowers are enclosed in the sheaths of the leaf bases, Zostera often forms beds in bay mud in the estuarine setting. It is an important food for Brent geese and wigeons, the slime mold Labyrinthula zosterae can cause the wasting disease of Zostera, with Z. marina being particularly susceptible, causing a decrease in the populations of the fauna that depend on Zostera. Zostera is able to maintain its turgor at a constant pressure in response to fluctuations in environmental osmolarity and it achieves this by losing solutes as the tide goes out and gaining solutes as the tide comes in. The genus as a whole is widespread throughout seashores of much of the Northern Hemisphere as well as Australia, New Zealand, Southeast Asia, the discovery of Z. chilensis in 2005 adds an isolated population on the Pacific coast of South America to the distribution. One species occurs along the land-locked Caspian Sea, eelgrass once grew in abundance in Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, where it was harvested, dried and used for insulation in houses, such as the governors summer mansion in Island Beach State Park. A blight decimated the eelgrass, which ended harvesting of the plant, the plant is making a gradual comeback. Eelgrass has been used for food by the Seri tribe of Native Americans on the coast of Sonora, the rhizomes and leaf-bases of eelgrass were eaten fresh or dried into cakes for winter food. It was also used for smoking deer meat, the Seri language has many words related to eelgrass and eelgrass-harvesting. The month of April is called xnoois ihaat iizax, literally the month when the seed is mature. Zostera has also used as packing material and as stuffing for mattresses. On the Danish island of Læsø it has used for thatching roofs. Roofs of eelgrass are said to be heavy, but also much longer-lasting and easier to thatch, Zostera can also be utilized to produce biomass energy using the Jean Pain method. LI
21.
Victoria amazonica
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Victoria amazonica is a species of flowering plant, the largest of the Nymphaeaceae family of water lilies. The species has large leaves, up to 3 m in diameter. The species was once called Victoria regia after Queen Victoria, V. amazonica is native to the shallow waters of the Amazon River basin, such as oxbow lakes and bayous. It is depicted in the Guyanese coat of arms, the flowers are white the first night they are open and become pink the second night. They are up to 40 cm in diameter, and are pollinated by beetles and this process was described in detail by Sir Ghillean Prance and Jorge Arius. It is the largest waterlily in the world. A member of the genus Victoria placed in the Nymphaeaceae family or, sometimes, the first published description of the genus was by John Lindley in October 1837, based on specimens of this plant returned from British Guiana by Robert Schomburgk. Lindley named the genus after the newly ascended Queen Victoria, the spelling in Schomburgks description in Athenaeum, published the month before, was given as Victoria Regina. Despite this spelling being adopted by the Botanical Society of London for their new emblem, an earlier account of the species, Euryale amazonica by Eduard Friedrich Poeppig, in 1832 described an affinity with Euryale ferox. A collection and description was made by the French botanist Aimé Bonpland in 1825. In 1850 James De Carle Sowerby recognised Poeppigs earlier description and transferred its epithet amazonica, the new name was rejected by Lindley. The current name, Victoria amazonica, did not come into use until the twentieth century. Victoria regia, as it was named, was discovered by Tadeáš Haenke in 1801 and it was once the subject of rivalry between Victorian gardeners in England. The species captured the imagination of the public, and was the subject of several dedicated monographs, the botanical illustrations of cultivated specimens in Fitch and W. J. Hookers 1851 work Victoria Regia received critical acclaim in the Athenaeum, they are accurate, and they are beautiful. The Duke of Devonshire presented Queen Victoria with one of the first of these flowers, the lily, with ribbed undersurface and leaves veining like transverse girders and supports, was Paxtons inspiration for The Crystal Palace, a building four times the size of St. Peters in Rome
22.
Lemnoideae
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Duckweed, or water lens, are flowering aquatic plants which float on or just beneath the surface of still or slow-moving bodies of fresh water and wetlands. Also known as bayroot, they arose from within the arum or aroid family, classifications created prior to the end of the 20th century classify them as a separate family, Lemnaceae. These plants are simple, lacking an obvious stem or leaves. The greater part of plant is a small organized thallus or frond structure only a few cells thick. Depending on the species, each plant may have no root or may have one or more simple rootlets, reproduction is mostly by asexual budding, which occurs from a meristem enclosed at the base of the frond. Occasionally, three tiny flowers consisting of two stamens and a pistil are produced, by sexual reproduction occurs. Some view this flower as a pseudanthium, or reduced inflorescence, evolution of the duckweed inflorescence remains ambiguous due to the considerable evolutionary reduction of these plants from their earlier relatives. The flower of the duckweed genus Wolffia is the smallest known, the fruit produced through this occasional sexual reproduction is a utricle, and a seed is produced in a sac containing air that facilitates flotation. One of the important factors influencing the distribution of wetland plants. Duckweeds tend to be associated with fertile, even eutrophic conditions and they can be spread by waterfowl and small mammals, transported inadvertently on their feet and bodies, as well as by moving water. In water bodies with constant currents or overflow, the plants are carried down the water channels, in some locations, a cyclical pattern driven by weather patterns exists in which the plants proliferate greatly during low water-flow periods, then are carried away as rainy periods ensue. Duckweed is an important high-protein food source for waterfowl and also is eaten by humans in some parts of Southeast Asia, as it contains more protein than soybeans, it is sometimes cited as a significant potential food source. The tiny plants provide cover for fry of many aquatic species, the plants are used as shelter by pondwater species such as bullfrogs and fish such as bluegills. They also provide shade and, although confused with them. For these reasons, they are touted as water purifiers of untapped value, the same publication provides an extensive list of references for many duckweed-related topics. These plants also may play a role in conservation of water because a cover of duckweed will reduce evaporation of water compared to the rate of a similarly sized water body with a clear surface. The duckweeds have long been a mystery, and usually have been considered to be their own family. Flowers, if present at all, are small, roots are either very much reduced, or absent entirely
23.
Nymphoides
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Nymphoides, or floatingheart, is a genus of aquatic flowering plants in the family Menyanthaceae. The genus name refers to their resemblance to the water lily Nymphaea, Nymphoides are aquatic plants with submerged roots and floating leaves that hold the small flowers above the water surface. Flowers are sympetalous, most often divided into five lobes, the petals are either yellow or white, and may be adorned with lateral wings or covered in small hairs. The inflorescence consists of either a cluster of flowers or a lax raceme. Species of Nymphoides are sold as aquarium plants, including the plant, N. aquatica. Species native to the United States are N. cordata in the northeast, Nymphoides peltata is native to Europe and Asia, but can be found in the United States as an invasive aquatic weed. The non-native species N. cristata and N. indica also reportedly occur in Florida, Nymphoides hydrophylla slim stem are used as vegetable at Meinong District, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Numerous species of Nymphoides grow in Australia, and others exist in Africa, America, and Asia
24.
Nelumbo
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Nelumbo is a genus of aquatic plants with large, showy flowers. Members are commonly called lotus, though lotus is a name applied to various other plants and plant groups. Members outwardly resemble those in the family Nymphaeaceae, but Nelumbo is actually very distant to Nymphaeaceae, Nelumbo is derived from the Sinhalese word Sinhalese, නෙළුම් neḷum, the name for the lotus Nelumbo nucifera. There are only two living species of lotus, Nelumbo nucifera is native to Asia and is better-known. It is commonly cultivated, it is eaten and used in traditional Chinese medicine and this species is the floral emblem of both India and Vietnam. The other lotus is Nelumbo lutea and is native to North America, horticultural hybrids have been produced between these two allopatric species. A third, extinct species, Nelumbo aureavallis, is known from Eocene fossils from North Dakota in the United States, †N. aureavallis Hickey – Eocene, described from leaves found in the Golden Valley Formation in North Dakota, USA. – American lotus N. nucifera Gaertn, – sacred or Indian lotus, also known as the Rose of India and the sacred water lily of Hinduism and Buddhism. It is the flower of India and Vietnam. Its roots and seeds are used widely in Asian cooking. There is residual disagreement over which family the genus should be placed in, in the older classification systems it was recognized under the biological order Nymphaeales or Nelumbonales. Nelumbo is currently recognized as a taxon, Nelumbonaceae, one of several distinctive families in the eudicot order of the Proteales. Its closest living relatives, the, are shrubs or trees, the leaves of Nelumbo can be distinguished from those of genera in the Nymphaeaceae as they are peltate, that is they have fully circular leaves. Nymphaea, on the hand, has a single characteristic notch from the edge in to the center of the lily pad. The seedpod of Nelumbo is very distinctive, the APG II system of 2003, recognizes Nelumbonaceae as a distinct family and places it in the order Proteales in the eudicot clade. The Cronquist system of 1981 recognizes the family but places it in the water lily order Nymphaeales, the Dahlgren system of 1985 and Thorne system of 1992 both recognize the family and place it in its own order, Nelumbonales. The leaves of nelumbo are highly water-repellent and have given the name to what is called the lotus effect, N. nucifera regulates its temperature in order to benefit insect pollinators. When the plant flowers, it heats its blossoms to above 30 °C for as long as four days even when the air is as cool as 10 °C, the heat releases an aroma that attracts certain insects, which fly into the flower to feed on nectar and pollen
25.
Eichhornia crassipes
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Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as water hyacinth, is an aquatic plant native to the Amazon basin, and is often a highly problematic invasive species outside its native range. Water hyacinth is a perennial aquatic plant native to tropical and sub-tropical South America. With broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves, water hyacinth may rise above the surface of the water as much as 1 meter in height, the leaves are 10–20 cm across, and float above the water surface. They have long, spongy and bulbous stalks, the feathery, freely hanging roots are purple-black. An erect stalk supports a single spike of 8-15 conspicuously attractive flowers, when not in bloom, water hyacinth may be mistaken for frogs-bit. One of the fastest growing plants known, water hyacinth reproduces primarily by way of runners or stolons, each plant additionally can produce thousands of seeds each year, and these seeds can remain viable for more than 28 years. Some water hyacinths were found to grow up to 2 to 5 metres a day in some sites in Southeast Asia, the common water hyacinth are vigorous growers known to double their population in two weeks. In their native range these flowers are pollinated by long tongued bees, the invasiveness of the hyacinth is related to its ability to clone itself and large patches are likely to all be part of the same genetic form. There are three morphs of water hyacinth, long medium and short, however, the short morph is restricted to the native range due to founder events during its distribution. Its habitat ranges from desert to subtropical or warm temperate desert to rainforest zones.0 to 7.5. It does not tolerate water temperatures >35 °C, leaves are killed by frost and salt water, the latter trait being used to kill some of it by floating rafts of the cut weed to the sea. Water hyacinths do not grow when the salinity is greater than 15% that of sea water. In brackish water, its leaves show epinasty and chlorosis, because of E. Neochetina eichhorniae causes a substantial reduction in water hyacinth production, it reduces plant height, weight, root length, and makes the plant produce fewer daughter plants. N. eichhorniae was introduced from Argentina to Florida in 1972, a semi-aquatic grasshopper, Cornops aquaticum, is being investigated in South Africa as an additional control agent. Azotobacter chroococcum, an N-fixing bacteria, is concentrated around the bases of the petioles. But the bacteria do not fix nitrogen unless the plant is suffering extreme N-deficiency and this plant is reported to contain HCN, alkaloid, and triterpenoid, and may induce itching. Plants sprayed with 2, 4-D may accumulate lethal doses of nitrates, Water hyacinth has been widely introduced in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and New Zealand. In many areas it is has become an important and pernicious invasive species, in New Zealand it is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord which prevents it from being propagated, distributed or sold
26.
Wild rice
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Wild rice are four species of grasses forming the genus Zizania, and the grain that can be harvested from them. The grain was historically gathered and eaten in both North America and China, while now a delicacy in North America, the grain is eaten less in China, where the plants stem is used as a vegetable. Wild rice is not directly related to Asian rice, whose wild progenitors are O. rufipogon and O. nivara, although they are close cousins, wild-rice grains have a chewy outer sheath with a tender inner grain that has a slightly vegetal taste. The plants grow in water in small lakes and slow-flowing streams, often. The grain is eaten by dabbling ducks and other aquatic wildlife, wild rice, also an annual, grows in the Saint Lawrence River and on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States. Texas wild rice is a plant found only in a small area along the San Marcos River in central Texas. One species is native to Asia, Manchurian wild rice, is a native to China. Texas wild rice is in danger of extinction due to loss of habitat in its limited range. The pollen of Texas wild rice can only travel about 30 inches away from a parent plant, if pollen does not land on a receptive female flower within that distance, no seeds are produced. Manchurian wild rice has almost disappeared from the wild in its native range, the species most commonly harvested as grain are annual species, Zizania palustris is now grown commercially, but Zizania aquatica was also used extensively in the past by Indians. Native Americans and others harvest wild rice by canoeing into a stand of plants, the size of the knockers, as well as other details, are prescribed in state and tribal law. By Minnesota statute, knockers must be at most 1 in diameter,30 in long, the plants are not beaten with the knockers but require only a gentle brushing to dislodge the mature grain. The Ojibwa people call this plant manoomin, meaning harvesting berry, some seeds fall to the muddy bottom and germinate later in the year. Several Native American cultures, such as the Ojibwa, consider wild rice to be a component in their culture. Tribes that are recorded as historically harvesting Zizania aquatica are the Dakota, Menominee, Meskwaki, Ojibwa, Omaha, Ponca, Thompson, Native people who utilized Zizania palustris are the Chippewa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi. The rice is harvested with a canoe, one person vans rice into the canoe with two small poles while the other paddles slowly or uses a push pole, for these groups, this harvest is an important cultural event. The Menominee tribe were named Omanoominii by the neighboring Ojibwa after this plant, because of its nutritional value and taste, wild rice increased in popularity in the late 20th century, and commercial cultivation began in the U. S. and Canada to supply the increased demand. In 1950, James and Gerald Godward started experimenting with wild rice in a meadow north of Brainerd
27.
Water caltrop
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The water caltrop is any of three extant species of the genus Trapa, Trapa natans, T. bicornis and the endangered Trapa rossica. It is also known as water chestnut, buffalo nut, bat nut, devil pod, ling nut, lin kok, ling kio nut, or singhara. The species are floating annual aquatic plants, growing in slow-moving water up to 5 m deep, native to temperate parts of Eurasia. They bear ornately shaped fruits, which in the case of T. bicornis resemble the head of a bull or the silhouette of a flying bat, each fruit contains a single very large, starchy seed. T. natans and T. bicornis have been cultivated in China, the generic name Trapa is derived from the Latin word for thistle, calcitrappa, as also is another common name for the water caltrop. The Chinese name is língjiǎo, líng meaning caltrop and jiǎo meaning horn and this is often rendered as ling nut by English-speakers. In India, the plant has different regional names, such as singhada, pani-phal, or shingoda, Heikrak. This fruits Bengali name is Paniphal, the plants name in Japanese is hishi, a word meaning diamond- or lozenge-shaped. The water caltrops submerged stem reaches 12 to 15 ft in length and it has two types of leaves, finely divided, feather-like submerged leaves borne along the length of the stem, and undivided floating leaves borne in a rosette at the waters surface. The floating leaves have saw-tooth edges and are ovoid or triangular in shape, 2–3 cm long, on inflated petioles 5–9 cm long, four-petalled white flowers form in early summer and are insect-pollinated. The fruit is a nut with four 0. 5-in, barbed spines, seeds can remain viable up to 12 years, although most germinate within the first two years. The plant spreads by the rosettes and fruits detaching from the stem and floating to another area on currents or by clinging to objects. This plant should not be confused with the unrelated Eleocharis dulcis, Eleocharis is also an aquatic plant raised for food since ancient times in China. E. dulcis is a sedge, whose round, crisp-fleshed corms are common in Western-style Chinese food, the genus has an extensive fossil record, with numerous, distinctive species. Undisputed fossilized seeds have been found in Cenozoic strata starting from the Eocene throughout Europe, China, Water caltrop has been an important food for worship as prayer offerings since the Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Rites of Zhou mentioned that a worshipper should use a basket containing dried water caltrops. The Chinese Herbal Medicine Summary indicates that water caltrop can help fever, in India and Pakistan, it is known as singhara or paniphal and is widely cultivated in freshwater lakes. The fruits are eaten raw or boiled, when the fruit has been dried, it is ground to a flour called singhare ka atta, used in many religious rituals and can be consumed as a phalahar on the Hindu fasting days, the navratas. It was possible to buy water chestnuts in markets all over Europe until 1880, in northern Italy, the nuts were offered roasted, much as sweet chestnuts are still sold today
28.
Eleocharis dulcis
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The Chinese water chestnut or water chestnut is a grass-like sedge native to Asia, Australia, tropical Africa, and various islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is grown in countries for its edible corms. The water chestnut is not a nut at all, but a vegetable that grows in marshes, under water. It has stem-like, tubular green leaves grow to about 1.5 m. The water caltrop, which also is referred to by the name, is unrelated. The small, rounded corms have a crisp, white flesh and may be raw, slightly boiled, or grilled. They are an ingredient in Chinese dishes. In China, they are most often eaten raw, sometimes sweetened and they also may be ground into a flour form used for making water chestnut cake, which is common as part of dim sum cuisine. This property is shared by other vegetables that remain crisp in this manner, including the tiger nut, the corms contain the antibiotic agent puchiin, which is stable to high temperature. Apart from the edible corms, the leaves can be used for cattlefeed, the corms are rich in carbohydrates, especially starch, and are also a good source of dietary fiber, riboflavin, vitamin B6, potassium, copper, and manganese. If eaten uncooked, potentially, the surface of the plants may transmit fasciolopsiasis, raw water chestnuts are slightly sweet and very crunchy. They often are combined with bamboo shoots, coriander, ginger, sesame oil, steamed or sauteed vegetable medleys frequently contain water chestnuts. They often are used in noodle or rice dishes, the Chinese water chestnut is native to China and is cultivated widely in flooded paddy fields in southern China and parts of the Philippines, where it is called apulid. In Vietnam, it is called củ mã thầy and củ năng and is the ingredient of bánh củ năng hấp. In Thailand, it is called somwang and it often is used in a dessert named tabtim krob, in India, it is known commonly as singhada, shingada, or singoda. The crop can be cultivated in paddies or in a hydroponic culture, as it is an aquatic plant, it should always be submerged in approx. The crop needs continuously high soil temperatures, ideally 14-15.5 °C, at 13.6 °C, the corms begin to sprout. Soil is ideally a sandy loam with pH6.5 to 7.2, the plant produces two types of subterranean rhizomes
29.
Ipomoea aquatica
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Ipomoea aquatica is a semiaquatic, tropical plant grown as a vegetable for its tender shoots and leaves. It is found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, in Suriname it is known as dagoeblad or dagublad. I. aquatica grows in water or on moist soil and its stems are 2–3 metres or more long, rooting at the nodes, and they are hollow and can float. The leaves vary from typically sagittate to lanceolate, 5–15 cm long, the flowers are trumpet-shaped, 3–5 cm in diameter, and usually white in colour with a mauve centre. Propagation is either by planting cuttings of the shoots that will root along nodes or planting the seeds from flowers that produce seed pods. Ipomoea aquatica is most commonly grown in East, South and Southeast Asia and it flourishes naturally in waterways and requires little, if any, care. It is used extensively in Burmese, Thai, Lao, Cambodian, Malay, Vietnamese, Filipino, the vegetable is also extremely popular in Taiwan, where it grows well. During the Japanese occupation of Singapore in World War II, the vegetable grew remarkably easily in many areas, and became a popular wartime crop. In the Philippines, a variety of kangkong is grown in canals dug during the American occupation after the Spanish–American War, in non-tropical areas, it is easily grown in containers given enough water in a bright sunny location. I. aquatica is listed on the USDA internet site as a Class A noxious weed, especially in the states of Florida, California, and Hawaii, I. aquatica has been extensively cultivated in Texas for over 30 years, having been originally brought there by Asian immigrants. In Sri Lanka, it invades wetlands, where its long, floating stems form dense mats which can block the flow of water, the vegetable is a common ingredient in Southeast Asian dishes. Stir-fried water spinach is a vegetable dish in Southeast Asia. In Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia, the tender shoots along with the leaves are usually stir-fried with chili pepper, garlic, ginger, dried shrimp paste, in Penang and Ipoh, it is cooked with cuttlefish and a sweet and spicy sauce. Also known as eng cai in the Hokkien dialect, it can also be boiled with preserved cuttlefish, boiled eng cai also can be served with fermented krill noodle belacan bee hoon and prawn noodle. In Indonesian cuisine it is called kangkung, boiled or blanched together with other vegetables it forms the ingredient of gado-gado or pecel salads in peanut sauce, some recipes that use kangkung is plecing kangkung from Lombok, and mie kangkung from Jakarta. In Thailand, where it is called phak bung, it is raw, often along with green papaya salad or nam phrik, in stir-fries. In Vietnam, I. aquatica is an ingredient and garnish in Vietnamese cuisine and was once served as a staple vegetable of the poor. In the South, the spinach is julienned into thin strips
30.
Watercress
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Watercress is an aquatic plant species with the botanical name Nasturtium officinale. This should not be confused with the quite different group of plants with the name of nasturtium. Watercress is a growing, aquatic or semi-aquatic, perennial plant native to Europe and Asia. It is a member of the family Brassicaceae, botanically related to garden cress, mustard, radish, the hollow stems of watercress will float, the leaf structure is pinnately compound. Small, white and green flowers are produced in clusters and are visited by insects. Cultivation of watercress is practical on both a large-scale and a garden-scale, being semi-aquatic, watercress is well-suited to hydroponic cultivation, thriving best in water that is slightly alkaline. It is frequently produced around the headwaters of chalk streams, Watercress can be sold in supermarkets in sealed plastic bags, containing a little moisture and lightly pressurised to prevent crushing of contents. This has allowed national availability with a storage life of one to two days in chilled/refrigerated storage. Also sold as sprouts, the shoots are harvested days after germination. If unharvested, watercress can grow to a height of 50 to 120 centimetres, like many plants in this family, the foliage of watercress becomes bitter when the plants begin producing flowers. In some regions, watercress is regarded as a weed, in regions as an aquatic vegetable or herb. Watercress has been grown in many locations around the world, in the United Kingdom, watercress was first commercially cultivated in 1808 by the horticulturist William Bradbery, along the River Ebbsfleet in Kent. Watercress is now grown in a number of counties of the United Kingdom, most notably Hertfordshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire and Dorset. The town of Alresford, near Winchester, holds a Watercress Festival that brings in more than 15,000 visitors every year, Alresford in the U. K. is considered to be that nations watercress capital. In the United States in the 1940s, Huntsville, Alabama, was known as the watercress capital of the world. A 100-gram serving of watercress provides 11 calories and is rich in vitamin K. It also contains significant amounts of vitamin A, vitamin C, riboflavin, vitamin B6, calcium, manganese, Watercress has low contents of carbohydrates, protein, fat and dietary fiber. Watercress crops grown in the presence of manure can be an environment for such as the liver fluke
31.
Isoetid
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Isoetids are aquatic plants or wetland plants named for their superficial similarity to the quillworts, Isoetes. They occur in wetlands and on shorelines with low nutrient availability, owing to their slow growth rates, they are also often found in areas with low rates of sediment deposition. Many have evergreen leaves, and CAM photosynthesis, often they are exposed during periods of low water. Common examples include Lobelia dortmanna and Eriocaulon septangulare
32.
Pleuston
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Pleuston are the organisms that live in the thin surface layer existing at the air-water interface of a body of water as their habitat. Examples include some cyanobacteria, some gastropods, the ferns Azolla and Salvinia, some fungi and fungi-like protists may be also found. The term Neuston is used either, As a synonym for Pleuston, hence and that subset of floating organisms that are microscopic or those that rely on surface tension to float. This is in comparison with the term pleuston, which is then its superset, neustons, broadly defined, are made up of some species of fish, beetles, protozoans, bacteria and spiders. Collembola in the genera Podura and Sminthurides are almost exclusively neustonic, a water strider, Gerris, is a common example of an insect that supports its weight on waters surface tension. By extension, the term may refer to non-organismal floating aggregations. Contrast the terms plankton, nekton, and benthos
33.
Marchantiales
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As in other bryophytes, the gametophyte generation is dominant, with the sporophyte existing as a short-lived part of the life cycle, dependent upon the gametophyte. The genus Marchantia is often used to typify the order, although there are many species of Asterella. The majority of genera are characterized by the presence of special stalked vertical branches called archegoniophores or carocephala, based on the work by Villarreal et al.2015 Taxonomy based on work by Söderström et al.2016 and synomyms from Collection of genus-group names in a systematic arrangement. Marchantiaceae Lindley 1836 Bucegia Radian 1903 Preissia Corda 1829 Marchantia Linnaeus 1753 Aytoniaceae Cavers 1911 Cryptomitrium Austin ex Underwood 1884 Mannia Corda 1829 nom. cons, plagiochasma Lehmann & Lindenberg 1832 nom. cons. cons. & Stotler, Raymond E. Morphology and classification of the Marchantiophyta, jonathan Shaw & Bernard Goffinet, Bryophyte Biology. Nomina generica Hepaticarum, references, types and synonymies, life cycle Photos of various species Additional photos of species
34.
Pistia
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Pistia is a genus of aquatic plant in the arum family, Araceae. The single species it comprises, Pistia stratiotes, is called water cabbage, water lettuce, Nile cabbage. Its native distribution is uncertain, but probably pantropical, it was first discovered from the Nile near Lake Victoria in Africa and it is now present, either naturally or through human introduction, in nearly all tropical and subtropical fresh waterways. The genus name is derived from the Greek word πιστός, meaning water and it is a perennial monocotyledon with thick, soft leaves that form a rosette. It floats on the surface of the water, its roots hanging submersed beneath floating leaves, the leaves can be up to 14 cm long and have no stem. They are light green, with veins, wavy margins and are covered in short hairs which form basket-like structures which trap air bubbles. The flowers are dioecious, and are hidden in the middle of the plant amongst the leaves, small green berries form after successful fertilization. The plant can also undergo asexual reproduction, mother and daughter plants are connected by a short stolon, forming dense mats. Water lettuce is among the worlds most productive freshwater aquatic plants, in waters with high nutrient content, particularly those that have been contaminated with human loading of sewage or fertilizers, water lettuce can often exhibit weedy overgrowth behavior. It may also commonly become weedy in hydrologically altered systems such as canals and it is a common aquatic plant in the southeast United States, particularly in Florida. Severe overgrowth of water lettuce can block gas exchange at the interface, reducing the oxygen in the water. Large mats can also light, shade native submerged plants. Mosquitoes of the genus Mansonia complete their life cycle only in the presence of plants such as Pistia. The emerging larvae fall into the water within 24 hours and stay attached to the Pistia root with the help of a siphon tube for respiration. The pupa is attached to the pistia root with the serrated piercing siphon tube. The egg to adult mosquito development is completed within 7 days, Pistia can be controlled by mechanical harvesters that remove the water lettuce from the water and transport it to disposal on shore. Aquatic herbicides may also be used, two insects are also being used as a biological control. Adults and larvae of the South American weevil Neohydronomous affinis feed on Pistia leaves, both are proving to be useful tools in the management of Pistia
35.
Lysichiton americanus
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The plant is called skunk cabbage because of the distinctive skunky odor that it emits when it blooms. This odor will permeate the area where the plant grows, and can be detected even in old, the distinctive odor attracts its pollinators, scavenging flies and beetles. Although similarly named and with a smell, the plant is easy to distinguish from the eastern skunk cabbage. The plant grows from rhizomes that measure 30 cm or longer, the short-stalked leaves are the largest of any native plant in the region, 30–150 cm long and 10–70 cm wide when mature. Its flowers are produced in a spadix contained within a 7–12 cm, large, the flowers are numerous and densely packed. It is among the first flowers to bloom in winter or early spring. Unlike the genus Symplocarpus, the flowers of Lysichiton species do not produce heat, L. americanus is found from Kodiak Island and Cook Inlet, Alaska south through British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and Northern California as far south as Santa Cruz County. Isolated populations are found in northeastern Washington, northern Idaho, Montana. It has been used as a garden plant in Britain and Ireland. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, hybrids with Lysichiton camtschatcense, called Lysichiton × hortensis, are also cultivated. These have larger spathes than either of the parents, while some consider the plant to be a weed, its roots are food for bears, who eat it after hibernating as a laxative or cathartic. The plant was used by people as medicine for burns and injuries, and for food in times of famine. The leaves have a spicy or peppery taste. Although the plant was not typically part of the diet under normal conditions, its large, waxy leaves were important to food preparation and they were commonly used to line berry baskets and to wrap around whole salmon and other foods when baked under a fire. It is also used to cure sores and swelling
36.
Marsh
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A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species. Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams and they are often dominated by grasses, rushes or reeds. If woody plants are present they tend to be low-growing shrubs, Marshes provide a habitat for many species of plants, animals, and insects that have adapted to living in flooded conditions. The plants must be able to survive in wet mud with low oxygen levels, many of these plants therefore have aerenchyma, channels within the stem that allow air to move from the leaves into the rooting zone. Marsh plants also tend to have rhizomes for underground storage and reproduction, familiar examples include cattails, sedges, papyrus and sawgrass. Aquatic animals, from fish to salamanders, are able to live with a low amount of oxygen in the water. Some can obtain oxygen from the air instead, while others can live indefinitely in conditions of low oxygen, Marshes provide habitats for many kinds of invertebrates, fish, amphibians, waterfowl and aquatic mammals. Marshes have extremely high levels of production, some of the highest in the world. Marshes also improve water quality by acting as a sink to filter pollutants, Marshes are able to absorb water during periods of heavy rainfall and slowly release it into waterways and therefore reduce the magnitude of flooding. The pH in marshes tends to be neutral to alkaline, as opposed to bogs, Marshes differ depending mainly on their location and salinity. Both of these factors influence the range and scope of animal and plant life that can survive. The three main types of marsh are salt marshes, freshwater marshes, and freshwater marshes. These three can be found worldwide and each contains a different set of organisms, saltwater marshes are found around the world in mid to high latitudes, wherever there are sections of protected coastline. They are located close enough to the shoreline that the motion of the tides affects them and they flourish where the rate of sediment buildup is greater than the rate at which the land level is sinking. Salt marshes are dominated by specially adapted rooted vegetation, primarily salt-tolerant grasses, salt marshes are most commonly found in lagoons, estuaries, and on the sheltered side of shingle or sandspit. The currents there carry the fine particles around to the side of the spit. These locations allow the marshes to absorb the nutrients from the water running through them before they reach the oceans. Coastal development and urban sprawl has caused significant loss of these essential habitats, although considered a freshwater marsh, this form of marsh is affected by the ocean tides
37.
Wetland
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A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, carbon sink, Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica, the largest including the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian Plain, the water found in wetlands can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater. The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens, and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin, the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth. International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to people about wetland issues. Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff and they may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design. A patch of land that develops pools of water after a storm would not be considered a wetland. Wetlands have unique characteristics, they are distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants. A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil, Wetlands have also been described as ecotones, providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic processes, There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog and fen. Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types, the largest wetlands in the world include the swamp forests of the Amazon and the peatlands of Siberia. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as follows, Article 2.1, may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands. Although the general definition given above applies around the world, each county, Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas. This definition has been used in the enforcement of the Clean Water Act, some US states, such as Massachusetts and New York, have separate definitions that may differ from the federal governments. It is not uncommon for a wetland to be dry for long portions of the growing season, the most important factor producing wetlands is flooding
38.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
39.
Missouri Botanical Garden
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The Missouri Botanical Garden is a botanical garden located at 4344 Shaw Boulevard in St. Louis, Missouri. It is also informally as Shaws Garden for founder and philanthropist Henry Shaw. Founded in 1859, the Missouri Botanical Garden is one of the oldest botanical institutions in the United States and a National Historic Landmark. as well as the National Register of Historic Places. The Garden is a center for research and science education of international repute, as well as an oasis in the city of St. Louis. It is adjacent to Tower Grove Park, another of Shaw’s legacies, in 1983, the Botanical Garden was added as the fourth subdistrict of the Metropolitan Zoological Park and Museum District. For part of 2006, the Missouri Botanical Garden featured Glass in the Garden, four pieces were purchased to remain at the gardens. In 2008 sculptures of the French artist Niki de Saint Phalle were placed throughout the garden, in 2009, the 150th anniversary of the Garden was celebrated, including a floral clock display. After 40 years of service to the Garden, Dr. Peter Raven retired from his presidential post on September 1,2010, Dr. Peter Wyse Jackson replaced him as President. The Garden is a place for many cultural festivals, including the Japanese Festival. During this time, there are showcases of the cultures botanics as well as arts, crafts, music. The Japanese Festival features sumo wrestling, taiko drumming, koma-mawashi top spinning, the Garden is known for its bonsai growing, which can be seen all year round, but is highlighted during the multiple Asian festivals. Major garden features include, Tower Grove House and Herb Garden - Shaws Victorian country house designed by prominent local architect George I, victory of Science Over Ignorance - Marble statue by Carlo Nicoli, a copy of the original by Vincenzo Consani in the Pitti Palace, Florence. Linnean House - Said to be the oldest continually operated greenhouse west of the Mississippi River, originally Shaws orangery, in the late 1930s it was converted to house mostly camellias. Gladney Rose Garden - Circular rose garden with arbors, climatron and Reflecting Pools - the worlds first geodesic dome greenhouse designed by architect and engineer Thomas C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc, lowland rain forest with approximately 1500 plants. English Woodland Garden - aconite, azaleas, bluebells, dogwoods, hosta, trillium, seiwa-en Japanese Garden - is a 14-acre chisen kaiyu-shiki with lawns and path set around a 4-acre central lake. It was designed by Koichi Kawana and is the largest Japanese Garden in North America, blanke Boxwood Garden - walled parterre with a fine boxwood collection. Ottoman garden with features and xeriscape. Missouri Botanical Garden also operates the Sophia M. Sachs Butterfly House in Chesterfield, the Butterfly House includes an 8, 000-square-foot indoor butterfly conservatory as well as an outdoor butterfly garden
40.
Aquatic ecosystem
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An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water. Communities of organisms that are dependent on other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main types of ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems. Marine ecosystems cover approximately 71% of the Earths surface and contain approximately 97% of the planets water and they generate 32% of the worlds net primary production. They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, approximately 85% of the dissolved materials in seawater are sodium and chlorine. Seawater has a salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems, marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, the benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides, in this figure it is termed the littoral zone, other near-shore zones can include estuaries, salt marshes, coral reefs, lagoons and mangrove swamps. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web, classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, and sharks. Fishes caught in marine ecosystems are the biggest source of commercial foods obtained from wild populations, environmental problems concerning marine ecosystems include unsustainable exploitation of marine resources, marine pollution, climate change, and building on coastal areas. Freshwater ecosystems cover 0. 78% of the Earths surface and inhabit 0. 009% of its total water and they generate nearly 3% of its net primary production. Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the known fish species. There are three types of freshwater ecosystems, Lentic, slow moving water, including pools, ponds. Lotic, faster moving water, for example streams and rivers, wetlands, areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time. Lake ecosystems can be divided into zones, one common system divides lakes into three zones. The first, the zone, is the shallow zone near the shore. This is where rooted wetland plants occur, the offshore is divided into two further zones, an open water zone and a deep water zone
41.
Acoustic ecology
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Acoustic ecology, sometimes called ecoacoustics or soundscape studies, is a discipline studying the relationship, mediated through sound, between human beings and their environment. Acoustic ecology studies started in the late 1960s with R. Murray Schafer, the original WSP team included Barry Truax and Hildegard Westerkamp, Bruce Davies and Peter Huse, among others. The first study produced by the WSP was titled The Vancouver Soundscape, the interest in this area grew enormously after this pioneer and innovative study and the area of acoustic ecology raised the interest of researchers and artists all over the world. In 1993, the members of the by now large and active international acoustic ecology community formed the World Forum of Acoustic Ecology, every three years since the WFAEs founding at Banff, Canada in 1993, an international symposium has taken place. Stockholm, Amsterdam, Devon, Peterborough, and Melbourne followed, in November 2006, the WFAE meeting took place in Hirosaki, Japan. Koli, Finland, was the place of the latest WFAE world conference. From its roots in the sociology and radio art of Schafer and his colleagues. While most have taken inspiration from Schafers writings, in recent years there have also been healthy divergences from the initial ideas. Acoustic ecology finds expression in different fields, including niches as unique as historical soundscapes. Dominion takes listeners on a journey across Canada. At the Center for New Media the acoustic ecological setting of the jazz scene in Oakland. A composition recreating the acoustic profile of community sounds unique to Canadian locales, serdang, Universiti Putra Malaysia Press,2013, 1–31. Acoustic Ecology and the Soundscape Bibliography created by Maksymilian Kapelanski for Leonardo/ISAST Bazilchuk, choral Reefs, An inexpensive device monitors ocean health through sound. An Introduction to Acoustic Ecology by Kendall Wrightson Science of sound Canadian Geographic Mailman, seven Metaphors for Listening, DRAMaTIC in Journal of Sonic Studies v.2
42.
Aquatic adaptation
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Several animal groups have undergone aquatic adaptation, going from being purely terrestrial animals to living at least part of the time in water. The adaptations in early speciation tend to develop as the ventures into water in order to find available food. As successive generations spend more time in the water, natural causes the acquisition of more adaptations. Animals of later generations may spend the majority of their life in the water, finally, fully adapted animals may take to mating and birthing in water. Archelon is a type of giant sea turtle dating from the Cretaceous Period and its smaller cousins survive as the sea turtles of today. Mesosaurus were another group of reptiles to secondarily return to the sea, eschewing shells. Living at the time as, but not closely related to, dinosaurs. They became extinct 66 million years ago, at the time as the dinosaurs. Modern diapsids which have made their own adaptions to them to spend significant time in the water include marine iguanas. Sea snakes are extensively adapted to the environment, giving birth to live offspring in the same way as the Euryapsida and are largely incapable of terrestrial activity. The arc of their adaptation is evident by observing the primitive Laticauda genus and these marine reptiles had ancestors who moved back into the oceans. In the case of ichthyosaurs adapting as fully as the dolphins they superficially resemble, during the Paleocene Epoch, a group of wolf-like artiodactyls related to Pakicetus began pursuing an amphibious lifestyle in rivers or shallow seas. They were the ancestors of modern whales, dolphins, and porpoises, the cetacea are extensively adapted to marine life and cannot survive on land at all. Their adaptation can be seen in many unique characteristics such as the dorsal blowhole, baleen teeth. The closest extant terrestrial relative to the whale is the hippopotamus, the ancestors of the dugong and manatees first appeared in the fossil record about 45 to 50 million years ago in the ocean. The fossil records show that phocids existed 12 to 15 million years ago and their common ancestor must have existed even earlier than that. Although polar bears spend most of their time on the ice rather than in the water, polar bears show the beginnings of aquatic adaptation to swimming, diving, distinctly polar bear fossils can be dated to about 100,000 years ago. The polar bear has thick fur and layers of fat on its body to protect it from the cold, the idea is not accepted by most scholars who study human evolution
43.
Agent-based model in biology
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Agent-based models have many applications in biology, primarily due to the characteristics of the modeling method. Agent-based modeling is a rule-based, computational modeling methodology that focuses on rules, the goal of this modeling method is to generate populations of the system components of interest and simulate their interactions in a virtual world. Agent-based models start with rules for behavior and seek to reconstruct, through computational instantiation of those behavioral rules, several of the characteristics of agent-based models important to biological studies include, Modular structure, The behavior of an agent-based model is defined by the rules of its agents. Existing agent rules can be modified or new agents can be added without having to modify the entire model, abstraction, Either by excluding non-essential details or when details are not available, agent-based models can be constructed in the absence of complete knowledge of the system under study. This allows the model to be as simple and verifiable as possible, stochasticity, Biological systems exhibit behavior that appears to be random. The probability of a behavior can be determined for a system as a whole. Before the agent-based model can be developed, one must choose the appropriate software or modeling toolkit to be used, madey and Nikolai provide an extensive list of toolkits in their paper Tools of the Trade, A Survey of Various Agent Based Modeling Platforms. Some of the commonly used toolkits include Swarm, NetLogo, RePast. Listed below are summaries of articles describing agent-based models that have been employed in biological studies. The summaries will provide a description of the space, an overview of the agent-based model and the agents involved. About two-thirds of the land in British Columbia, Canada is covered by forests that are constantly being modified by natural disturbances such as fire, disease, and insect infestation. Forest resources make up approximately 15% of the economy, so infestations caused by insects such as the MPB can have significant impacts on the economy. The MPB outbreaks are considered a natural disturbance that can result in widespread mortality of the lodgepole pine tree. Insect outbreaks have resulted in the death of trees over areas of several square kilometers. Three management strategies were considered by the model, 1) no management, 2) sanitation harvest, the Beetle Agent follows a series of rules to decide where to fly within the forest and to select a healthy tree to attack, feed, and breed. The MPB typically kills host trees in its environment in order to successfully reproduce. The beetle larvae feed on the bark of mature host trees. In order for the beetles to reproduce, the host tree must be large and have thick inner bark
44.
Algal bloom
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An algal bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in freshwater or marine water systems, and is recognized by the discoloration in the water from their pigments. Cyanobacteria were mistaken for algae in the past, so cyanobacterial blooms are also called algal blooms. Blooms which can injure animals or the ecology are called harmful algal blooms, since algae is a broad term including organisms of widely varying sizes, growth rates and nutrient requirements, there is no officially recognized threshold level as to what is defined as a bloom. For some species, algae can be considered to be blooming at concentrations reaching millions of cells per milliliter, bright green blooms in freshwater systems are frequently a result of cyanobacteria such as Microcystis. Blooms may also consist of macroalgal species and these blooms are recognizable by large blades of algae that may wash up onto the shoreline. Such blooms often take on a red or brown hue and are known colloquially as red tides, freshwater algal blooms are the result of an excess of nutrients, particularly some phosphates. The excess of nutrients may originate from fertilizers that are applied to land for agricultural or recreational purposes and they may also originate from household cleaning products containing phosphorus. These nutrients can then enter watersheds through water runoff, excess carbon and nitrogen have also been suspected as causes. Presence of residual sodium carbonate acts as catalyst for the algae to bloom by providing dissolved carbon dioxide for enhanced photosynthesis in the presence of nutrients, when phosphates are introduced into water systems, higher concentrations cause increased growth of algae and plants. Algae tend to very quickly under high nutrient availability, but each alga is short-lived. The decay process consumes dissolved oxygen in the water, resulting in hypoxic conditions, without sufficient dissolved oxygen in the water, animals and plants may die off in large numbers. Use of an Olszewski tube can help combat problems with hypolimnetic withdrawal. Blooms may be observed in freshwater aquariums when fish are overfed and these are generally harmful for fish, and the situation can be corrected by changing the water in the tank and then reducing the amount of food given. A harmful algal bloom is a bloom that causes negative impacts to other organisms via production of natural toxins, mechanical damage to other organisms. HABs are often associated with large-scale marine mortality events and have associated with various types of shellfish poisonings. In studies at the population level bloom coverage has been related to the risk of non-alcoholic liver disease death. In the marine environment, single-celled, microscopic, plant-like organisms naturally occur in the surface layer of any body of water. These organisms, referred to as phytoplankton or microalgae, form the base of the food web upon which all other marine organisms depend
45.
Anoxic waters
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Anoxic waters are areas of sea water, fresh water, or groundwater that are depleted of dissolved oxygen and are a more severe condition of hypoxia. The US Geological Survey defines anoxic groundwater as those with dissolved oxygen concentration of less than 0.5 milligrams per litre and this condition is generally found in areas that have restricted water exchange. Anoxic conditions will occur if the rate of oxidation of organic matter by bacteria is greater than the supply of dissolved oxygen, Anoxic waters are a natural phenomenon, and have occurred throughout geological history. In fact, some postulate that the Permian–Triassic extinction event, an extinction of species from worlds oceans. At present anoxic basins exist, for example, in the Baltic Sea, recently, there have been some indications that eutrophication has increased the extent of the anoxic zones in areas including the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and Hood Canal in Washington State. Anoxic conditions result from factors, for example, stagnation conditions, density stratification, inputs of organic material. Examples of which are fjords and deep ocean western boundaries where circulation is especially low while production at upper levels is exceptionally high. In wastewater treatment, the absence of oxygen alone is indicated anoxic while the term anaerobic is used to indicate the absence of any common electron acceptor such as nitrate, sulfate or oxygen. When oxygen is depleted in a basin, bacteria first turn to the second-best electron acceptor, denitrification occurs, and the nitrate will be consumed rather rapidly. After reducing some other elements, the bacteria will turn to reducing sulfate. This results in the byproduct of hydrogen sulfide, a toxic to most biota and responsible for the characteristic rotten egg smell. Below a few centimeters from the surface the water is oxygen free. Anoxia is further influenced by biochemical oxygen demand, which is the amount oxygen used by organisms in the process of breaking down organic matter. BOD is influenced by the type of present, the pH of the water, temperature. BOD is directly related to the amount of dissolved oxygen available, especially in smaller bodies of such as rivers. As BOD increases, available oxygen decreases and this causes stress on larger organisms. BOD comes from natural and anthropogenic sources, including, dead organisms, manure, wastewater, in the Baltic Sea, the slowed rate of decomposition under anoxic conditions has left remarkably preserved fossils retaining impressions of soft body parts, in Lagerstätten. Eutrophication, an influx of nutrients, often a byproduct of agricultural run-off and sewage discharge, can result in large, upon a bloom’s conclusion, the dead algae sink to the bottom and are broken down until all oxygen is expended
