1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Sportswear (activewear)
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Sportswear or activewear is clothing, including footwear, worn for sport or physical exercise. Sport-specific clothing is worn for most sports and physical exercise, for practical, typical sport-specific garments include shorts, tracksuits, T-shirts, tennis shirts and polo shirts. Specialized garments include swimsuits, wet suits, ski suits and leotards and it also includes some underwear, such as the jockstrap and sports bra. Sportswear is also at times worn as fashion clothing. For most sports the athletes wear a combination of different items of clothing, e. g. sport shoes, in some sports, protective gear may need to be worn, such as helmets or American football body armour. Sportswear is typically designed to be lightweight so as not to encumber the wearer, the best athletic wear for some forms of exercise, for example cycling, should not create drag or be too bulky. On the other hand, sportswear should be enough so as not to restrict movement. Some sports have specific requirements, for example the keikogi used in karate. Various physically dangerous sports require protective gear, e. g. for fencing, American football, standardized sportswear may also function as a uniform. In team sports the opposing sides are usually identified by the colors of their clothing, in some sports, specific items of clothing are worn to differentiate roles within a team. For example, in volleyball, the libero wears a different colour to that of their team mates, in sports such as soccer and GAA codes, a contrasting colour or pattern is worn by the goalkeeper. In other sports, clothing may indicate the current status or past achievements of a participant, spandex is the preferred material for form-fitting sportswear, such as used in wrestling, track & field, dance, gymnastics, speed skating, and swimming. Sportswear design must consider the thermal insulation needs of the wearer, in hot situations, sportswear should allow the wearer to stay cool, while in cold situations, sportswear should help the wearer to stay warm. Sportswear should also be able to transfer away from the skin, using, for example. Spandex is a material used as base layers to soak up sweat. Moisture-wicking fabrics are a class of fabrics that provide moisture control for an athletes skin. They move perspiration away from the body to the outer surface where it can evaporate. These fabrics typically are soft, lightweight, and stretchy—in other words, moisture-wicking means that the fabric is absorbent and this can leave a barrier of wet fabric on your skin
3.
Backpack
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Lightweight types of backpacks are sometimes worn on only one shoulder strap. This improves the potential to carry loads, as the hips are stronger than the shoulders. In ancient times, the backpack was used as a means to carry the larger game and other types of prey. They were also easy to carry and made of cloths, the bag itself would be made up of animal hide and skin and sewn together by animal intestines, which would be woven together tightly to make a sturdy thread-like material. The word backpack was coined in the United States in the 1910s, moneybag and packsack were used prior, and now occur mainly as regionalisms. The word rucksack is a German loanword mainly used in the UK, in German, Rücken means back and Sack means bag. The name rucksack is cognate with the Danish rygsæk, Norwegian ryggsekk, Dutch rugzak, Afrikaans rugsak, the word knapsack was the usual name for a rucksack or backpack up until the middle of the 20th century. Alternative names include haversack, Kraxe, and bergen, in fact, Britons used to call Alpine-style backpacks Bergen rucksacks, maybe from the name of their creator, Norwegian Ole F. Bergan, combined with the name of the Norwegian city of Bergen. Backpacks in general fall into one of four categories, frameless, external frame, internal frame, and bodypack. A pack frame, when present, serves to support the pack and distribute the weight of its contents across the more appropriately, by transferring much of the weight to the hips. Most of the weight is taken off the shoulders, reducing the chance of injury from shoulder strap pressure. Most backpacks are capable of being closed with either a buckle mechanism, a zipper, or a dry-bag type closure though a few models use a drawstring fitted with a cord lock for the main compartment. A bodypack is a backpack fitted with one or more pockets that are suspended on the wearers chest and loaded in such a way that the load in the front, the majority of the load in a bodypack is carried by the hips. The ideal load carrying system should not disturb the wearers natural posture, balance, the load must be dispersed onto the skeletal structure in an even manner, and should not produce unbalanced forces on the body. The simplest backpack design is a bag attached to a set of shoulder straps, such packs are used for general transportation of goods, and have variable capacity. The simplest designs consist of one main pocket and these packs are generally produced inexpensively. Some outdoor packs, particularly those sold for day hikes, ultralight backpacking and mountaineering are sometimes frameless as well. Sports and hydration backpacks are smaller with a closer to the body, wider straps and can come with water bladders
4.
Rock-climbing equipment
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A wide range of equipment is used during rock or any other type of climbing. The most popular types of climbing equipment are briefly described in this article, the article on protecting a climb describes equipment commonly used to protect a climber against the consequences of a fall. See also the Glossary of climbing terms for more equipment descriptions, climbing ropes are typically of kernmantle construction, consisting of a core of long twisted fibres and an outer sheath of woven coloured fibres. The core provides about 80% of the strength, while the sheath is a durable layer that protects the core. Ropes used for climbing can be divided into two classes, dynamic ropes and low elongation ropes, dynamic ropes are designed to absorb the energy of a falling climber, and are usually used as Belaying ropes. When a climber falls, the rope stretches, reducing the force experienced by the climber, their belayer. Low elongation ropes stretch much less, and are used in anchoring systems. They are also used for abseiling and as fixed ropes climbed with ascenders, modern webbing or tape is made of nylon or Spectra/Dyneema, or a combination of the two. Climbing-specific nylon webbing is generally tubular webbing, that is, it is a tube of nylon pressed flat and it is very strong, generally rated in excess of 9 kN, or about 2,020 pounds of force. Dyneema is even stronger, often rated above 20 kN and as high as 27 kN, in 2010, UK-based DMM performed fall factor 1 and 2 tests on various Dyneema and Nylon webbings, showing Dyneema slings can fail even under 60 cm falls. Tying knots in Dyneema webbing was proven to have reduced the amount of supported force by as much as half. When webbing is sewn or tied together at the ends, it becomes a sling or runner and these loops are made one of two ways—sewn or tied. Both ways of forming runners have advantages and drawbacks, and it is for the climber to choose which to use. Generally speaking, most climbers carry a few of both types and it is also important to note that only nylon can be safely knotted into a runner, Dyneema is always sewn because the fibers are too slippery to hold a knot under weight. Webbing has many such as, Extending the distance between protection and a tie-in point. An anchor around a tree or rock, protecting a rope that hangs over a sharp edge. Carabiners are metal loops with spring-loaded gates, used as connectors, once made primarily from steel, almost all carabiners for recreational climbing are now made from a light weight aluminum alloy. Steel carabiners are much heavier, but harder wearing, and therefore are used by instructors when working with groups
5.
North Vancouver (city)
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The City of North Vancouver is a waterfront municipality on the north shore of Burrard Inlet, directly across from Vancouver, British Columbia. It is the smallest of the three North Shore municipalities, and the most urbanized as well, although it has significant industry of its own, including shipping, chemical production, and film production, the city is usually considered to be a suburb of Vancouver. The city is served by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, British Columbia Ambulance Service, the City of North Vancouver is separated from Vancouver by the Burrard Inlet, and it is surrounded on three sides by the District of North Vancouver. The City of North Vancouver is relatively densely populated with a number of residential buildings in the Central Lonsdale. The city has much in common with the District Municipality of North Vancouver, together these three municipalities are commonly referred to as the North Shore. The differences between the two North Vans are most apparent to their residents, other Lower Mainland residents are seldom aware of the difference between the two and refer to both as North Vancouver. Moodyville, is the oldest settlement on Burrard Inlet, predating Vancouver, logging came to the virgin forests of Douglas Fir in North Vancouver, as sailing ships called in to load. A water-powered sawmill was set up in the 1860s at Moodyville, subsequently, post offices, schools and a village sprang up. In time, the municipality of North Vancouver was incorporated, in the 1880s, Arthur Heywood-Lonsdale and a relation James Pemberton Fell, made substantial investments in North Vancouver and in 1882 he financed the Moodyville investments. Several locations in the North Vancouver area are named after Lonsdale, the financial collapses of the 1890s and 1907 aggrieved the young city into bankruptcy. As a result of this, the areas of West Vancouver. Part of the reason was the cost of developing raw mountainous terrain, and, originally the ocean foreshore was primarily swamp. The great distances, and large rivers to span, hindered development, bridges were built, only to have them washed out in a few years from winter floods. The city and district built Keith Road in 1912, which undulated from West Vancouver to Deep Cove amid the slashed sidehills, swamps, yet the city did gain a strong foothold, with Lonsdale Avenue. Serviced by the North Vancouver Ferries, it proved a popular area, commuters used the ferries to work in Vancouver. Street cars and early land speculation, spurred interest in the area, streets, city blocks and houses were slowly built around lower Lonsdale. Wallace Shipyards, and the Pacific Great Eastern Railway provided a base, although. Sawmills, logging, and small farms continued in the interwar years, yet the nearby mountains also proved to be a permanent attraction
6.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
7.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
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