1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Sportswear (activewear)
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Sportswear or activewear is clothing, including footwear, worn for sport or physical exercise. Sport-specific clothing is worn for most sports and physical exercise, for practical, typical sport-specific garments include shorts, tracksuits, T-shirts, tennis shirts and polo shirts. Specialized garments include swimsuits, wet suits, ski suits and leotards and it also includes some underwear, such as the jockstrap and sports bra. Sportswear is also at times worn as fashion clothing. For most sports the athletes wear a combination of different items of clothing, e. g. sport shoes, in some sports, protective gear may need to be worn, such as helmets or American football body armour. Sportswear is typically designed to be lightweight so as not to encumber the wearer, the best athletic wear for some forms of exercise, for example cycling, should not create drag or be too bulky. On the other hand, sportswear should be enough so as not to restrict movement. Some sports have specific requirements, for example the keikogi used in karate. Various physically dangerous sports require protective gear, e. g. for fencing, American football, standardized sportswear may also function as a uniform. In team sports the opposing sides are usually identified by the colors of their clothing, in some sports, specific items of clothing are worn to differentiate roles within a team. For example, in volleyball, the libero wears a different colour to that of their team mates, in sports such as soccer and GAA codes, a contrasting colour or pattern is worn by the goalkeeper. In other sports, clothing may indicate the current status or past achievements of a participant, spandex is the preferred material for form-fitting sportswear, such as used in wrestling, track & field, dance, gymnastics, speed skating, and swimming. Sportswear design must consider the thermal insulation needs of the wearer, in hot situations, sportswear should allow the wearer to stay cool, while in cold situations, sportswear should help the wearer to stay warm. Sportswear should also be able to transfer away from the skin, using, for example. Spandex is a material used as base layers to soak up sweat. Moisture-wicking fabrics are a class of fabrics that provide moisture control for an athletes skin. They move perspiration away from the body to the outer surface where it can evaporate. These fabrics typically are soft, lightweight, and stretchy—in other words, moisture-wicking means that the fabric is absorbent and this can leave a barrier of wet fabric on your skin
3.
Backpack
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Lightweight types of backpacks are sometimes worn on only one shoulder strap. This improves the potential to carry loads, as the hips are stronger than the shoulders. In ancient times, the backpack was used as a means to carry the larger game and other types of prey. They were also easy to carry and made of cloths, the bag itself would be made up of animal hide and skin and sewn together by animal intestines, which would be woven together tightly to make a sturdy thread-like material. The word backpack was coined in the United States in the 1910s, moneybag and packsack were used prior, and now occur mainly as regionalisms. The word rucksack is a German loanword mainly used in the UK, in German, Rücken means back and Sack means bag. The name rucksack is cognate with the Danish rygsæk, Norwegian ryggsekk, Dutch rugzak, Afrikaans rugsak, the word knapsack was the usual name for a rucksack or backpack up until the middle of the 20th century. Alternative names include haversack, Kraxe, and bergen, in fact, Britons used to call Alpine-style backpacks Bergen rucksacks, maybe from the name of their creator, Norwegian Ole F. Bergan, combined with the name of the Norwegian city of Bergen. Backpacks in general fall into one of four categories, frameless, external frame, internal frame, and bodypack. A pack frame, when present, serves to support the pack and distribute the weight of its contents across the more appropriately, by transferring much of the weight to the hips. Most of the weight is taken off the shoulders, reducing the chance of injury from shoulder strap pressure. Most backpacks are capable of being closed with either a buckle mechanism, a zipper, or a dry-bag type closure though a few models use a drawstring fitted with a cord lock for the main compartment. A bodypack is a backpack fitted with one or more pockets that are suspended on the wearers chest and loaded in such a way that the load in the front, the majority of the load in a bodypack is carried by the hips. The ideal load carrying system should not disturb the wearers natural posture, balance, the load must be dispersed onto the skeletal structure in an even manner, and should not produce unbalanced forces on the body. The simplest backpack design is a bag attached to a set of shoulder straps, such packs are used for general transportation of goods, and have variable capacity. The simplest designs consist of one main pocket and these packs are generally produced inexpensively. Some outdoor packs, particularly those sold for day hikes, ultralight backpacking and mountaineering are sometimes frameless as well. Sports and hydration backpacks are smaller with a closer to the body, wider straps and can come with water bladders
4.
Rock-climbing equipment
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A wide range of equipment is used during rock or any other type of climbing. The most popular types of climbing equipment are briefly described in this article, the article on protecting a climb describes equipment commonly used to protect a climber against the consequences of a fall. See also the Glossary of climbing terms for more equipment descriptions, climbing ropes are typically of kernmantle construction, consisting of a core of long twisted fibres and an outer sheath of woven coloured fibres. The core provides about 80% of the strength, while the sheath is a durable layer that protects the core. Ropes used for climbing can be divided into two classes, dynamic ropes and low elongation ropes, dynamic ropes are designed to absorb the energy of a falling climber, and are usually used as Belaying ropes. When a climber falls, the rope stretches, reducing the force experienced by the climber, their belayer. Low elongation ropes stretch much less, and are used in anchoring systems. They are also used for abseiling and as fixed ropes climbed with ascenders, modern webbing or tape is made of nylon or Spectra/Dyneema, or a combination of the two. Climbing-specific nylon webbing is generally tubular webbing, that is, it is a tube of nylon pressed flat and it is very strong, generally rated in excess of 9 kN, or about 2,020 pounds of force. Dyneema is even stronger, often rated above 20 kN and as high as 27 kN, in 2010, UK-based DMM performed fall factor 1 and 2 tests on various Dyneema and Nylon webbings, showing Dyneema slings can fail even under 60 cm falls. Tying knots in Dyneema webbing was proven to have reduced the amount of supported force by as much as half. When webbing is sewn or tied together at the ends, it becomes a sling or runner and these loops are made one of two ways—sewn or tied. Both ways of forming runners have advantages and drawbacks, and it is for the climber to choose which to use. Generally speaking, most climbers carry a few of both types and it is also important to note that only nylon can be safely knotted into a runner, Dyneema is always sewn because the fibers are too slippery to hold a knot under weight. Webbing has many such as, Extending the distance between protection and a tie-in point. An anchor around a tree or rock, protecting a rope that hangs over a sharp edge. Carabiners are metal loops with spring-loaded gates, used as connectors, once made primarily from steel, almost all carabiners for recreational climbing are now made from a light weight aluminum alloy. Steel carabiners are much heavier, but harder wearing, and therefore are used by instructors when working with groups
5.
North Vancouver (city)
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The City of North Vancouver is a waterfront municipality on the north shore of Burrard Inlet, directly across from Vancouver, British Columbia. It is the smallest of the three North Shore municipalities, and the most urbanized as well, although it has significant industry of its own, including shipping, chemical production, and film production, the city is usually considered to be a suburb of Vancouver. The city is served by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, British Columbia Ambulance Service, the City of North Vancouver is separated from Vancouver by the Burrard Inlet, and it is surrounded on three sides by the District of North Vancouver. The City of North Vancouver is relatively densely populated with a number of residential buildings in the Central Lonsdale. The city has much in common with the District Municipality of North Vancouver, together these three municipalities are commonly referred to as the North Shore. The differences between the two North Vans are most apparent to their residents, other Lower Mainland residents are seldom aware of the difference between the two and refer to both as North Vancouver. Moodyville, is the oldest settlement on Burrard Inlet, predating Vancouver, logging came to the virgin forests of Douglas Fir in North Vancouver, as sailing ships called in to load. A water-powered sawmill was set up in the 1860s at Moodyville, subsequently, post offices, schools and a village sprang up. In time, the municipality of North Vancouver was incorporated, in the 1880s, Arthur Heywood-Lonsdale and a relation James Pemberton Fell, made substantial investments in North Vancouver and in 1882 he financed the Moodyville investments. Several locations in the North Vancouver area are named after Lonsdale, the financial collapses of the 1890s and 1907 aggrieved the young city into bankruptcy. As a result of this, the areas of West Vancouver. Part of the reason was the cost of developing raw mountainous terrain, and, originally the ocean foreshore was primarily swamp. The great distances, and large rivers to span, hindered development, bridges were built, only to have them washed out in a few years from winter floods. The city and district built Keith Road in 1912, which undulated from West Vancouver to Deep Cove amid the slashed sidehills, swamps, yet the city did gain a strong foothold, with Lonsdale Avenue. Serviced by the North Vancouver Ferries, it proved a popular area, commuters used the ferries to work in Vancouver. Street cars and early land speculation, spurred interest in the area, streets, city blocks and houses were slowly built around lower Lonsdale. Wallace Shipyards, and the Pacific Great Eastern Railway provided a base, although. Sawmills, logging, and small farms continued in the interwar years, yet the nearby mountains also proved to be a permanent attraction
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British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
7.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
8.
Salomon Group
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The Salomon Group is a sports equipment manufacturing company that originated in Annecy, France. The company was started in 1947 by François Salomon, his wife, in 1997, it was acquired by Adidas in a $1Bn deal. In 2005, Adidas-Salomon announced on May 2 that it had agreed to sell the Salomon Group for €485 million to Amer Sports of Finland, the familys metalworking shop opened in 1947 to produce saw blades. They soon adapted their equipment to make steel edges for skis, bindings were the primary focus until 1979, when the rear-entry SX90 ski boot was introduced, skis came a decade later. Taylor Made golf was acquired by the company in the mid-1980s, Salomon currently does not have a global CEO, as the business is separated between Winter Sports, Footwear and Apparel. Heikki Takala is the CEO of its group, Amer Sports. The US operations of Salomon are located in in Ogden, Utah and they used to manufacture inline skates, transferring technologies from their ski boot range, but have not released any in recent years. Many in-line skaters consider these to be some of the highest quality skates for street, after a five-year research project, the SX series of ski boots was introduced in the beginning of the 1980s. The boot was the result of collaboration with the French designer Roger Tallon, the SX91 ski boot was launched in 1984, the result of collaboration with the young French designer Roger Pitiot. The boot contained a number of such as the sliding forward-flex control. Salomons dedicated design center is in Annecy, France, official website Story Behind Salomon Skis Skiing History - Georges P. J
9.
Amer Sports
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Amer Sports Corporation is a Finnish headquartered sporting goods company with brands including Salomon, Wilson Sporting Goods, Atomic Skis, Arc’teryx, Mavic, Suunto, ENVE Composites, and Precor. Today, the company employs just under 8,000 people, the company shares are listed on the Nasdaq Helsinki stock exchange. The company began life as a manufacturer and distributor, Amer-Tupakka, in 1950 and acquired the right to produce. In the 1960s, the significant profits from the companys interests were invested in three commercial ships. In the 1980s, Amer moved into the vehicle import industry by acquiring the firm Korpivaara, the decade also saw the company expand into the textiles and plastics markets. In 1986, Amer established a division after acquiring a majority stake in the golf equipment maker MacGregor Golf from Jack Nicklaus. Despite this, the company was involved in the equipment market as early as 1974. These interests were sold in 1986, further acquisitions followed in the shape of the Austrian ski manufacturer Atomic in 1994 and the Finnish sports instrument maker Suunto in 1999. The American baseball and softball bat firm Demarini was purchased a year later, during this time, many of the business areas no longer deemed to be core were divested, although the company retained its tobacco business until 2004 when it was sold back to Philip Morris. In 2005, Amer acquired the sports company Salomon from Adidas for €485 million. In the same year, the officially changed its name to Amer Sports Corporation. Amer divides its operations into three units, winter and outdoor sports, ball sports and fitness. The winter and outdoor business segment is the largest, contributing 60% of Amer Sports net sales in 2013, the group produces products under seven flagship brands, Salomon, Atomic, Wilson, Precor, Suunto, Mavic and Arcteryx. Other smaller brands held by the group include Volant, Nikita, Bonfire, the companys global headquarters are located in Helsinki, Finland, with manufacturing and sales locations worldwide. In 2007, Amer Sports North American headquarters were moved from Portland, Oregon to the historic American Can Company of Utah Building Complex in Ogden, List of Finnish companies List of outdoor industry parent companies Official website
10.
Archaeopteryx
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Archaeopteryx, sometimes referred to by its German name Urvogel, is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs that is transitional between non-avian feathered dinosaurs and modern birds. The name derives from the ancient Greek ἀρχαῖος meaning ancient, and πτέρυξ, between the late nineteenth century and the early twenty-first century, Archaeopteryx had been generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird. Older potential avialans have since been identified, including Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven, the largest species of Archaeopteryx could grow to about 0.5 m in length. Despite their small size, broad wings, and inferred ability to fly or glide and these features make Archaeopteryx a clear candidate for a transitional fossil between non-avian dinosaurs and birds. Thus, Archaeopteryx plays an important role, not only in the study of the origin of birds and it was named from a single feather in 1861. That same year, the first complete specimen of Archaeopteryx was announced, over the years, ten more fossils of Archaeopteryx have surfaced. Despite variation among these fossils, most experts regard all the remains that have been discovered as belonging to a single species, most of these eleven fossils include impressions of feathers. Because these feathers are of a form, these fossils are evidence that the evolution of feathers began before the Late Jurassic. The type specimen of Archaeopteryx was discovered just two years after Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species, Archaeopteryx was roughly the size of a raven, with broad wings that were rounded at the ends and a long tail compared to its body length. It could reach up to 500 millimetres in length, with an estimated mass of 0.8 to 1 kilogram. Archaeopteryx feathers, although less documented than its other features, were similar in structure to modern-day bird feathers. Despite the presence of numerous features, Archaeopteryx had many non-avian theropod dinosaur characteristics. Unlike modern birds, Archaeopteryx had small teeth, as well as a bony tail. Because it displays features common to both birds and non-avian dinosaurs, Archaeopteryx has often considered a link between them. For instance, it has an ascending process of the ankle bone, interdental plates, an obturator process of the ischium. In particular, Ostrom found that Archaeopteryx was remarkably similar to the theropod family Dromaeosauridae, specimens of Archaeopteryx were most notable for their well-developed flight feathers. They were markedly asymmetrical and showed the structure of feathers in modern birds. The tail feathers were asymmetrical, again in line with the situation in modern birds
11.
Lamination
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A laminate is a permanently assembled object by heat, pressure, welding, or adhesives. There are different lamination processes, depending on the type of materials to be laminated, the materials used in laminates can be the same or different, depending on the processes and the object to be laminated. An example of the type of laminate using different materials would be the application of a layer of plastic film—the laminate—on either side of a sheet of glass—the laminated subject, vehicle windshields are commonly made by laminating a tough plastic film between two layers of glass. This is to prevent shards of glass detaching from the windshield in case it breaks, plywood is a common example of a laminate using the same material in each layer. Glued and laminated dimensioned timber is used in the industry to make wooden beams, Glulam. Another reason to laminate wooden strips into beams is quality control, as with this method each, examples of laminate materials include melamine adhesive countertop surfacing and plywood. A new type of HPDL is produced using wood veneer or multilaminar veneer as top surface. High-pressure laminates consists of laminates molded and cured at pressures not lower than 1,000 lb per sq in. meanwhile, low pressure laminate is defined as a plastic laminate molded and cured at pressures in general of 400 pounds per square inch. Corrugated fiberboard boxes are examples of laminated structures, where an inner core provides rigidity and strength, and the outer layers provide a smooth surface. Laminating paper products, such as photographs, can prevent them from becoming creased, faded, water damaged, wrinkled, stained, smudged, abraded, photo identification cards and credit cards are almost always laminated with plastic film. Boxes and other containers are also laminated using a UV coating, lamination is also used in sculpture using wood or resin. An example of an artist who used lamination in his work is the American Floyd Shaman, further, laminates can be used to add properties to a surface, usually printed paper, that would not have them otherwise. Sheets of vinyl impregnated with ferro-magnetic material can allow portable printed images to bond to magnets, specially surfaced plastic sheets can be laminated over a printed image to allow them to be safely written upon, such as with dry erase markers or chalk. Multiple translucent printed images may be laminated in layers to achieve certain visual effects or to hold holographic images, many printing businesses that do commercial lamination keep a variety of laminates on hand, as the process for bonding many types is generally similar when working with arbitrarily thin material
12.
Climbing harness
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A harness secures a person to a rope or an anchor point. In its simplest form, a harness can be made from a length of rope or a nylon webbing tied round the waist, more sophisticated harnesses exist in many patterns, designed to give greater comfort and security, and more options for carrying equipment. While harnesses can be improvised, it is common to use commercially produced harnesses. The invention of the climbing harness has been attributed to Jeanne Immink, some of the first climbing harnesses were devised in the U. K. in the early 1960s by Alan Waterhouse, Paul Seddon and Tony Howard who went on to form the Troll climbing equipment manufacturers. A harness designed by British climber Don Whillans was made by Troll for the 1970 Annapurna South Face Expedition and it went into mass production shortly afterwards and soon became popular worldwide. A sit harness consists of a waist belt and two leg loops which are connected in the front of the hips through a permanent webbing loop called a belay loop. These are the most commonly used harnesses for recreational such as abseiling and rock climbing. A chest harness is worn around the shoulders, usually with a sit harness so as to provide an attachment point. This attachment point allows for balance in some situations such as when carrying a heavy pack. A full-body harness is the combination of a sit harness and a chest harness which are permanently or semi-permanently connected to each other and this kind of harness normally offers a wide range of attachment points. It is most commonly used in situations, and also commonly used by small children instead of a sit harness. Most of the harnesses is generally made from webbing and this webbing is often nylon webbing as polyester webbing doesnt hold triglides and d-rings as well, and its easier to untie nylon webbing. The webbing is also tubular webbing, instead of flat webbing. Harness List of climbing knots How to choose a climbing harness
13.
W. L. Gore and Associates
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W. L. Gore & Associates, Inc. is an American multinational manufacturing company specializing in products derived from fluoropolymers. It is a privately held corporation headquartered in Newark, Delaware and it is best known as the developer of waterproof, breathable Gore-Tex fabrics. The company was founded in 1958 by Wilbert Lee Gore and his wife Genevieve Walton Gore in Newark, Bill Gore had spent 16 years with the DuPont Company in a number of technical positions that included fluoropolymer research when he decided to form his own company. His son, Robert W. Gore, in college at the time, suggested a method for encapsulating the wires which proved successful, the resulting product was called Multi-Tet cable, a multi-conductor ribbon cable used in computers, communications, and process control equipment. The Gores built a new facility in Delaware, not far from their home, by 1970, Gore and its subsidiary companies had manufacturing plants for wire and cable in Arizona, Scotland, Germany, and Japan. Bob Gore joined the company in 1963 upon completion of a Ph. D. in chemical engineering at the University of Minnesota, in 1969, he was researching a process for stretching extruded PTFE into pipe thread tape when he discovered that the polymer could be expanded. The discovery followed a series of experiments in which he was attempting to stretch rods of PTFE by about 10%. As it turned out, the conditions for stretching PTFE were counterintuitive. Instead of slowly stretching the material, he applied a sudden. This resulted in the transformation of the solid PTFE into a structure that was about 70% air. The company initially referred to new material as fibrillated PTFE. One year later, it was given the name of Gore-Tex expanded PTFE, today, expanded PTFE accounts for the vast majority of the companys products. In 1985, Bill Gore received the Prince Philip Award for Polymers in the Service of Mankind, the award is given in recognition of polymers that have provided a significant service for mankind. In 2005, the Society of Chemical Industry presented Bob Gore with the Perkin Medal, in 2006, he was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for the invention of ePTFE. Bill Gore served as president of the company until 1976, when Bob Gore assumed the position, Bill continued as chairman until he died in 1986 at the age of 74. Genevieve Gore continued in service to the company until she died in 2005 at the age of 91. Charles Carroll, a business leader in the Electronics and Fabrics Divisions. Terri Kelly, who joined Gore in 1983 as an engineer in the Fabrics Division
14.
Gore-Tex
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Gore-Tex is a waterproof, breathable fabric membrane and registered trademark of W. L. Gore and Associates. Invented in 1969, Gore-Tex is able to repel liquid water while allowing water vapor to pass through and it is composed of stretched polytetrafluoroethylene, which is more commonly known as the generic trademark Teflon. Gore-Tex was co-invented by Wilbert L. Gore and Gores son, in 1969, Bob Gore stretched heated rods of polytetrafluoroethylene and created expanded polytetrafluoroethylene. His discovery of the conditions for stretching PTFE was a happy accident. Instead of slowly stretching the material, he applied a sudden. The solid PTFE unexpectedly stretched about 800%, forming a structure that was about 70% air. It was introduced to the public under the trademark Gore-Tex. Bob Gore promptly applied for and obtained the following patents, U. S. Patent 3,953,566, issued April 27,1976, patent 4,187,390, issued February 5,1980 U. S. Patent 4,194,041 on March 18,1980 for a waterproof laminate, together with Samuel Allen Another form of stretched PTFE tape was produced prior to Gore-Tex in 1966, Cropper had developed and constructed a machine for this use. However, Cropper chose to keep the process of creating expanded PTFE as a closely held trade secret and as such, in the 1970s Garlock, Inc. allegedly infringed Gores patents and was sued by Gore in the Federal District Court of Ohio. On appeal, however, the Federal Circuit disagreed in the case of Gore v. As a public patent had not been filed, the new form of the material could not be legally recognised, Gore was thereby established as the legal inventor of ePTFE. Gore-Tex is used in products manufactured by Patagonia, L. L. Bean, Oakley, galvin Green, Marmot, Vasque, Outdoor Research, Arcteryx, Haglöfs and The North Face among others. Since the expiration of the main Gore-Tex patent, several products have come to market with similar characteristics that use similar technology. As a cheaper alternative to the more expensive membranes, there are also waterproof/breathable coatings which are less durable, for his invention, Robert W. Gore was inducted into the U. S. National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2006. PTFE is made using an emulsion polymerization process that utilizes the carcinogenic fluorosurfactant PFOA, in 2013, Gore eliminated the use of PFOAs in the manufacture of its weatherproof functional fabrics. Gore-Tex materials are based on thermo-mechanically expanded PTFE and other fluoropolymer products. They are used in a variety of applications such as high-performance fabrics, medical implants, filter media, insulation for wires and cables, gaskets
15.
Burnaby
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Burnaby is a city in British Columbia, Canada, located immediately to the east of Vancouver. It is the third-largest city in British Columbia by population, surpassed only by nearby Surrey and it was incorporated in 1892 and achieved City status in 1992, one hundred years after incorporation. It is the seat of the Greater Vancouver Regional Districts government, in 1859 Burnaby had surveyed the freshwater lake near what is now the citys geographical centre. Moody chose to name it Burnaby Lake, in the first 30 to 40 years after its incorporation, the growth of Burnaby was influenced by its location between the expanding urban centres of Vancouver and New Westminster. It first served as an agricultural area supplying nearby markets. Later, it served as an important transportation corridor between Vancouver, the Fraser Valley and the Interior and continues to do so. As Vancouver expanded and became a metropolis, it was one of the first-tier bedroom-community suburbs of Vancouver itself, along with the city and district of North Vancouver, Burnaby has shifted in character over time from rural to suburban to urban. Burnaby occupies 98.60 square kilometres and is located at the centre of the Metro Vancouver area. Burnaby, Vancouver and New Westminster collectively occupy the portion of the Burrard Peninsula. The elevation of Burnaby ranges from sea level to a maximum of 370 metres atop Burnaby Mountain, due to its elevation, the city of Burnaby experiences quite a bit more snowfall during the winter months than nearby Vancouver or Richmond. Overall, the landscape of Burnaby is one of hills, ridges, valleys. The land features and their locations have had an influence on the location, type. Burnaby is home to industrial and commercial firms. British Columbias largest commercial mall, the Metropolis at Metrotown, is located in Burnaby. Major parklands and waterways in Burnaby include Central Park, Robert Burnaby Park, Kensington Park, Burnaby Mountain, Still Creek, the Brunette River, Burnaby Lake, Deer Lake, and Squint Lake. The SkyTrain rapid transit system, based in Burnaby, crosses the city from east to west in two places, the Expo Line crosses the south along Kingsway and the Millennium Line follows Lougheed Highway. Major north-south streets crossing the City include Boundary Road, Willingdon Avenue, Royal Oak Avenue, Kensington Avenue, Sperling Avenue, Gaglardi Way, Cariboo Road, and North Road. East-west routes linking Burnabys neighbouring cities to other include Hastings Street, Barnet Highway
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Burrard Inlet
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For other places with the same name, see Burrard. Burrard Inlet is a relatively shallow-sided coastal fjord in southwestern British Columbia, what is now known as Burrard Inlet has been home to the Indigenous peoples of the Musqueam, Sḵwxwú7mesh and Tsleil-waututh, who have resided in this territory for thousands of years. They failed to find the Fraser River, mistaking the lowland of the delta as a major inlet of the sea. This led to one of the objectives of the 1792 expedition of Dionisio Alcalá Galiano. Galiano spent many days exploring the area, realizing that there was a great river there. Just days later, the inlet was named by Captain George Vancouver, after his friend. In 1888, the inlet was described in The British Columbia Pilot published by the British Admiralty as follows and it is divided into three distinct harbours, viz. English bay or the outer anchorage, Vancouver, above the First Narrows, the inlet runs almost directly east from the Strait of Georgia to Port Moody and is urbanized on most of its shores. From Point Atkinson and Point Grey on the west to Port Moody in the east, settlements on the shores of Burrard Inlet include Vancouver, West Vancouver, North Vancouver, Burnaby, and Port Moody. Three bridges, the First Narrows Bridge, the Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing and the CNR railway bridge at the Second Narrows, and it is widest between the First and Second Narrows, also the busiest part of Vancouvers port. Protected from the ocean, the calm waters of Burrard Inlet form Vancouvers primary port area. While some of the shoreline is residential and commercial, much is port-industrial, including railyards, terminals for container and bulk cargo ships, grain elevators, and oil refineries. Only in 2003 was a wilderness hiking trail around the whole of Indian Arm completed. Lions Gate Bridge Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing Second Narrows Bridge SeaBus 2002 Aerial Photos of Vancouver, including views of Burrard Inlet
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Climbing
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Climbing is the activity of using ones hands, feet, or any other part of the body to ascend a steep object. It is done recreationally, competitively, in trades that rely on it and it is done indoors and out, on natural and manmade structures. Climbing activities include, Bouldering, Ascending boulders or small outcrops, often with climbing shoes, canyoneering, Climbing along canyons for sport or recreation. Chalk climbing, Ascending chalk cliffs uses some of the techniques as ice climbing. Competition Climbing, A formal, competitive sport of recent origins, competition Climbing has three major disciplines, Lead, Bouldering and Speed. Ice climbing, Ascending ice or hard snow formations using special equipment, usually ice axes, techniques of protecting the climber are similar to those of rock climbing, with protective devices adapted to frozen conditions. Indoor climbing, Top roping, lead climbing, and bouldering artificial walls with bolted holds in a climbing gym, mountaineering, Ascending mountains for sport or recreation. It often involves rock and/or ice climbing, pole climbing, Climbing poles and masts without equipment. Lumberjack tree-trimming and competitive tree-trunk or pole climbing for speed using spikes, rock climbing, Ascending rock formations, often using climbing shoes and a chalk bag. Equipment such as ropes, bolts, nuts, hexes and camming devices are normally employed, rope access, Industrial climbing, usually abseiling, as an alternative to scaffolding for short works on exposed structures. Rope climbing, Climbing a short, thick rope for speed, not to be confused with roped climbing, as in rock or ice climbing. Scrambling which includes rock climbing, and is considered part of hillwalking. Sport climbing is a form of climbing that relies on permanent anchors fixed to the rock. Top roping, Ascending a rock climbing route protected by a rope anchored at the top and protected by a belayer below Traditional climbing is a form of climbing without fixed anchors and bolts. Climbers place removable protection such as camming devices, nuts, free solo climbing, Climbing without ropes or protection. Tree climbing, Recreationally ascending trees using ropes and other protective equipment, a tower climber is a professional who climbs broadcasting or telecommunication towers or masts for maintenance or repair. Rock, ice and tree climbing all usually use ropes for safety or aid, pole climbing and rope climbing were among the first exercises to be included in the origins of modern gymnastics in the late 18th century and early 19th century
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Skiing
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Skiing is a mode of transport, recreational activity and competitive winter sport in which the participant uses skis to glide on snow. Many types of skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee. Skiing has a history of almost five millennia, although modern skiing has evolved from beginnings in Scandinavia, it may have been practiced as early as 600 BC in what is now China. The word ski is one of a handful of words Norway has exported to the international community and it comes from the Old Norse word skíð which means split piece of wood or firewood. Asymmetrical skis were used at least in northern Finland and Sweden until the late 19th century, on one leg the skier wore a long straight non-arching ski for sliding, and on the other a shorter ski for kicking. Early skiers used one long pole or spear, the first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741. Until the mid-19th century skiing was primarily used for transport, and since then has become a recreation, military ski races were held in Norway during the 18th century, and ski warfare was studied in the late 18th century. As equipment evolved and ski lifts were developed skiing evolved into two main genres during the late 19th and early 20th century, Alpine and Nordic, also called downhill skiing, alpine skiing typically takes place on a piste at a ski resort. It is characterized by fixed-heel bindings that attach at both the toe and the heel of the skiers boot, because alpine equipment is somewhat difficult to walk in, ski lifts, including chairlifts, bring skiers up the slope. Backcountry skiing can be accessed by helicopter, snowcat, hiking, facilities at resorts can include night skiing, après-ski, and glade skiing under the supervision of the ski patrol and the ski school. Alpine skiing branched off from the older Nordic skiing around the 1920s, Alpine equipment specialized to where it can only be used with the help of lifts. The Nordic disciplines include cross-country skiing and ski jumping, which share in common the use of binding that attach at the toes of the skiers boots, cross-country skiing may be practiced on groomed trails or in undeveloped backcountry areas. Ski jumping skiing is practiced at certain areas that are deemed for ski jumping only, Telemark skiing is a ski turning technique and FIS-sanctioned discipline. It is named after the Telemark region of Norway, using equipment similar to nordic skiing, the ski bindings having the ski boot attached only at the toe. This allows the skier to raise his/her heel throughout the turn, the following disciplines are sanctioned by the FIS and USSA. Many have their own cups and are in the Winter Olympic Games. Cross-country, The sport encompasses a variety of formats for cross-country skiing races over courses of varying lengths, such races occur over homologated, groomed courses designed to support classic and free-style events, where the skiers may employ skate skiing. Alpine skiing discliplines include combined, downhill, slalom, giant slalom, Super-G, one run of each even like one run of Super-G and one run of Slalom skiing this is called a Super Combined
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Snowboarding
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Snowboarding is a recreational activity and Olympic and Paralympic sport that involves descending a snow-covered slope while standing on a snowboard attached to a riders feet. The development of snowboarding was inspired by skateboarding, sledding, surfing and skiing and it was developed in the United States in the 1960s, became a Winter Olympic Sport at Nagano in 1998 and first featured in the Winter Paralympics at Sochi in 2014. Its popularity in the United States peaked in 2007 and has been in a decline since, and, in 1966 alone over half a million snurfers were sold. In the early 1970s, Poppen organized snurfing competitions at a Michigan ski resort that attracted enthusiasts from all over the country, one of those early pioneers was Tom Sims, a devotee of skateboarding. He produced commercial snowboards in the mid-70s, articles about his invention in such mainstream magazines as Newsweek helped publicize the young sport. The pioneers were not all from the United States, in 1976, Welsh skateboard enthusiasts Jon Roberts and that same year, he founded Burton Snowboards in Londonderry, Vermont. The snowboards were made of wooden planks that were flexible and had water ski foot traps, very few people picked up snowboarding because the price of the board was considered too high at $38, but eventually Burton would become the biggest snowboarding company in the business. The first competitions to offer prize money were the National Snurfing Championship, in 1979, Jake Burton Carpenter, came from Vermont to compete with a snowboard of his own design. There were protests about Jake entering with a non-snurfer board, paul Graves, and others, advocated that Jake be allowed to race. A modified Open division was created and won by Jake as the sole entrant and that race was considered the first competition for snowboards and is the start of what has now become competitive snowboarding. In 1980 the event moved to Pando Winter Sports Park near Grand Rapids, in 1982, the first USA National Snowboard race was held near Woodstock, Vermont, at Suicide Six. The race, organized by Graves, was won by Burtons first team rider Doug Bouton, in 1983, the first World Championship halfpipe competition was held at Soda Springs, California. Tom Sims, founder of Sims Snowboards, organized the event with the help of Mike Chantry, in 1985, the first World Cup was held in Zürs, Austria, further cementing snowboardings recognition as an official international competitive sport. In 1990, the International Snowboard Federation was founded to provide universal contest regulations, many alpine resorts have terrain parks. At the 1998 Winter Olympic Games in Nagano, Japan, Snowboarding became an official Olympic event, initially, ski areas adopted the sport at a much slower pace than the winter sports public. Indeed, for years, there was animosity between skiers and snowboarders, which led to an ongoing skier vs snowboarder feud. Early snowboards were banned from the slopes by park officials, for several years snowboarders would have to take a small skills assessment prior to being allowed to ride the chairlifts. It was thought that a snowboarder would wipe the snow off the mountain
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Backpacking (wilderness)
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Backpacking is the outdoor recreation of carrying gear on ones back, while hiking for more than a day. It is often but not always an extended journey, and may or may not involve camping outdoors, in North America tenting is common, where simple shelters and mountain huts found widely in Europe are rare. In New Zealand, tramping is an equivalent term though overnight huts are frequently used, hill walking is the equivalent in Britain, though backpackers make use of all kinds of accommodation, in addition to camping. Backpackers use simple huts in South Africa, similar terms used in other countries are trekking and bushwalking. Backpacking as a method of travel is a different activity, which mainly utilizes public transport during a journey which can last months, backpacking is an outdoor recreation where gear is carried in a backpack. This can include food, water, bedding, shelter, clothing, stove, backpacking trips consist of at least one night and can last for weeks or months, sometimes aided by planned resupply points or drops. A skilled backpacker minimizes their impact on the environment, including staying on established trails, not disturbing vegetation, the Leave No Trace movement ethos is direct, Leave nothing but footprints. Backpackers must always be prepared for difficulties, whether mishaps are experienced or not, the remoteness of backpacking locations can exacerbate any mishap. Survival gear and the skills to use it are paramount, backpacking camps are usually more spartan than campsites where gear is transported by car or boat. In areas with heavy traffic, a hike-in campsite might have a fire ring, an outhouse. Many hike-in camps are no more than level patches of free of underbrush. In remote wilderness areas hikers must choose their own site, established camps are rare and the ethos is to leave no trace when gone. In some regions, varying forms of accommodation exist, from simple log lean-tos to staffed facilities offering escalating degrees of service, beds, meals, and even drinks may be had at Alpine huts scattered among well-traveled European mountains. In the more parts of Great Britain, especially Scotland. On the French system of long distance trails, Grande Randonnées, backpackers can stay in gîtes detapes, there are some simple shelters and occasional mountain hut also provided in North America, including on the Appalachian trail. Another example is the High Sierra Camps in the Yosemite National Park, long distance backpacking trails with huts also exist in South Africa, including the 100 km plus Amatola Trail, in the Eastern Cape Province. Backpacking is also popular in the Himalayas, where porters and pack animals are often used, backpacking gear begins with a suitable backpack, proper both in size and fit. Next is clothing and footwear appropriate for expected conditions, third is an adequate amount and type of food
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Hiking
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Hiking is the preferred term, in Canada and the United States, for a long, vigorous walk, usually on trails, in the countryside, while the word walking is used for shorter, particularly urban walks. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, the word hiking is also often used in the UK, along with rambling, hillwalking, and fell walking. The term bushwalking is endemic to Australia, having been adopted by the Sydney Bush Walkers club in 1927, in New Zealand a long, vigorous walk or hike is called tramping. It is an activity with numerous hiking organizations worldwide. In the United States, Canada, the Republic of Ireland, a day hike refers to a hike that can be completed in a single day. However, in the United Kingdom, the walking is also used, as well as rambling. In Northern England, Including the Lake District and Yorkshire Dales, fellwalking describes hill or mountain walks, hiking sometimes involves bushwhacking and is sometimes referred to as such. This specifically refers to walking through dense forest, undergrowth, or bushes. In extreme cases of bushwhacking, where the vegetation is so dense that human passage is impeded, the Australian term bushwalking refers to both on and off-trail hiking. Common terms for hiking used by New Zealanders are tramping, walking or bushwalking, trekking is the preferred word used to describe multi-day hiking in the mountainous regions of India, Pakistan, Nepal, North America, South America, Iran and in the highlands of East Africa. Hiking a long-distance trail from end-to-end is also referred to as trekking, in North America, multi-day hikes, usually with camping, are referred to as backpacking. The idea of taking a walk in the countryside for pleasure developed in the 18th-century, in earlier times walking generally indicated poverty and was also associated with vagrancy. Thomas West, an English priest, popularized the idea of walking for pleasure in his guide to the Lake District of 1778. To this end he included various stations or viewpoints around the lakes, published in 1778 the book was a major success. Another famous early exponent of walking for pleasure, was the English poet William Wordsworth, in 1790 he embarked on an extended tour of France, Switzerland, and Germany, a journey subsequently recorded in his long autobiographical poem The Prelude. His famous poem Tintern Abbey was inspired by a visit to the Wye Valley made during a tour of Wales in 1798 with his sister Dorothy Wordsworth. Wordsworths friend Coleridge was another keen walker and in the autumn of 1799, he and Wordsworth undertook a three weeks tour of the Lake District. John Keats, who belonged to the generation of Romantic poets began, in June 1818, a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland
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China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
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Philippines
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The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
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Vietnam
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Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 92.7 million inhabitants as of 2016, it is the worlds 14th-most-populous country, and its capital city has been Hanoi since the reunification of North and South Vietnam in 1976, with Ho Chi Minh City as a historical city as well. The northern part of Vietnam was part of Imperial China for over a millennium, an independent Vietnamese state was formed in 939, following a Vietnamese victory in the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Following a Japanese occupation in the 1940s, the Vietnamese fought French rule in the First Indochina War, thereafter, Vietnam was divided politically into two rival states, North Vietnam, and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified in what is known as the Vietnam War, the war ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975. Vietnam was then unified under a communist government but remained impoverished, in 1986, the government initiated a series of economic and political reforms which began Vietnams path towards integration into the world economy. By 2000, it had established relations with all nations. Since 2000, Vietnams economic growth rate has been among the highest in the world and its successful economic reforms resulted in its joining the World Trade Organization in 2007. It is also a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Vietnam remains one of the worlds four remaining one-party socialist states officially espousing communism. The name Việt Nam is a variation of Nam Việt, a name that can be traced back to the Triệu Dynasty of the 2nd century BC. The word Việt originated as a form of Bách Việt. The form Vietnam is first recorded in the 16th-century oracular poem Sấm Trạng Trình, the name has also been found on 12 steles carved in the 16th and 17th centuries, including one at Bao Lam Pagoda in Haiphong that dates to 1558. Then, as recorded, rewarded Yuenan/Vietnam as their nations name, to also show that they are below the region of Baiyue/Bach Viet. Between 1804 and 1813, the name was used officially by Emperor Gia Long and it was revived in the early 20th century by Phan Bội Châus History of the Loss of Vietnam, and later by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. The country was usually called Annam until 1945, when both the government in Huế and the Viet Minh government in Hanoi adopted Việt Nam. Archaeological excavations have revealed the existence of humans in what is now Vietnam as early as the Paleolithic age, Homo erectus fossils dating to around 500,000 BC have been found in caves in Lạng Sơn and Nghệ An provinces in northern Vietnam. The oldest Homo sapiens fossils from mainland Southeast Asia are of Middle Pleistocene provenance, teeth attributed to Homo sapiens from the Late Pleistocene have also been found at Dong Can, and from the Early Holocene at Mai Da Dieu, Lang Gao and Lang Cuom. The Hồng Bàng dynasty of the Hùng kings is considered the first Vietnamese state, in 257 BC, the last Hùng king was defeated by Thục Phán, who consolidated the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes to form the Âu Lạc, proclaiming himself An Dương Vương
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Bangladesh
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Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
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El Salvador
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El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador, is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. El Salvadors capital and largest city is San Salvador, as of 2015, the country had a population of approximately 6.38 million, consisting largely of Mestizos of European and Indigenous American descent. El Salvador was for centuries inhabited by several Mesoamerican nations, especially the Cuzcatlecs, as well as the Lenca, in the early 16th century, the Spanish Empire conquered the territory, incorporating it into the Viceroyalty of New Spain ruled from Mexico City. In 1821, the country achieved independence from Spain as part of the First Mexican Empire, from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, El Salvador endured chronic political and economic instability characterized by coups, revolts, and a succession of authoritarian rulers. The conflict ended with a settlement that established a multiparty constitutional republic. El Salvador has since reduced its dependence on coffee and embarked on diversifying the economy by opening up trade and financial links, the colón, the official currency of El Salvador since 1892, was replaced by the U. S. dollar in 2001. As of 2010, El Salvador ranks 12th among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index, however, the country continues to struggle with high rates of poverty, inequality, and crime. Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado named the new province for Jesus Christ – El Salvador, the full name was Provincia De Nuestro Señor Jesus Cristo, El Salvador Del Mundo, which was subsequently abbreviated to El Salvador. Tomayate is a site located on the banks of the river of the same name in the municipality of Apopa. The site has produced abundant Salvadoran megafauna fossils belonging to the Pleistocene epoch, at the same time, it is considered the richest vertebrate paleontological site in Central America and one of the largest accumulations of proboscideans in the Americas. Sophisticated civilization in El Salvador dates to its settlement by the indigenous Lenca people, theirs was the first, the Lenca were succeeded by the Olmecs, who eventually also disappeared, leaving their monumental architecture in the form of the pyramids still extant in western El Salvador. The Maya arrived and settled in place of the Olmecs, the Pipil were the last indigenous people to arrive in El Salvador. They called their territory Kuskatan, a Pipil word meaning The Place of Precious Jewels, backformed into Classical Nahuatl Cōzcatlān, the people of El Salvador today are referred to as Salvadoran, while the term Cuzcatleco is commonly used to identify someone of Salvadoran heritage. In pre-Columbian times, the country was inhabited by various other indigenous peoples, including the Lenca. Cuzcatlan was the domain until the Spanish conquest. Since El Salvador resided on the edge of the Maya Civilization. However, it is agreed that Mayas likely occupied the areas around Lago de Guija. Other ruins such as Tazumal, Joya de Cerén and San Andrés may have built by the Pipil or the Maya or possibly both
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Laos
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Present day Laos traces its historic and cultural identity to the kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Khao, which existed for four centuries as one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. Due to Lan Xangs central geographical location in Southeast Asia, the kingdom was able to become a hub for overland trade. After a period of conflict, Lan Xang broke off into three separate kingdoms— Luang Phabang, Vientiane and Champasak. In 1893, it became a French protectorate, with the three territories uniting to form what is now known as the country of Laos and it briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation, but returned to French rule until it was granted autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent in 1953, with a monarchy under Sisavang Vong. Shortly after independence, a civil war ended the monarchy. Laos is a one-party socialist republic and it espouses Marxism and is governed by the Lao Peoples Revolutionary Party, in which the party leadership is dominated by military figures. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Vietnam Peoples Army continue to have significant influence in Laos, other large cities include Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse. Laos is a country with the politically and culturally dominant Lao people making up approximately 60 percent of the population. Mon-Khmer groups, the Hmong, and other hill tribes, accounting for 40 percent of the population, live in the foothills. It is a member of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, Laos applied for membership of the World Trade Organization in 1997, on 2 February 2013, it was granted full membership. According to the anti-corruption non-governmental organisation Transparency International, Laos remains one of the most corrupt countries in the world and this has deterred foreign investment and created major problems with the rule of law, including the nations ability to enforce contract and business regulation. This has contributed to a third of the population of Laos currently living below the poverty line. Laos has an economy, with one of the lowest annual incomes in the world. In 2014, the country ranked 141st on the Human Development Index, according to the Global Hunger Index, Laos ranks as the 29th hungriest nation in the world out of the list of the 52 nations with the worst hunger situation. Laos has also had a human rights record. In the Lao language, the name is Muang Lao or Pathet Lao. Stone artefacts including Hoabinhian types have been found at sites dating to the Late Pleistocene in northern Laos, archaeological evidence suggests agriculturist society developed during the 4th millennium BC
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Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
29.
Jacket
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A jacket is a mid-stomach–length garment for the upper body. A jacket typically has sleeves, and fastens in the front or slightly on the side, a jacket is generally lighter, tighter-fitting, and less insulating than a coat, which is outerwear. Some jackets are fashionable, while others serve as protective clothing, the word jacket comes from the French word jaquette. The term comes from the Middle French noun jaquet, which refers to a small or lightweight tunic, in Modern French, jaquette is synonymous with jacket. Speakers of American English sometimes informally use the words jacket and coat interchangeably, blouson, a military-style waist length jacket. Bolero, a short jacket for women, originally worn by matadors Bomber jacket. Brunswick, a womans gown of the mid-eighteenth century. Caraco, a jacket of the 18th century. Chefs jacket Dinner jacket, part of the dress code of evening formal wear. Also known as a Dinner suit and a Tuxedo, the field jacket came about during World War II with the US Army introducing the M-1941 and the M-1943 field jacket and issued the jacket to their troops. The most well-known and the most popular type of military field jacket that is on the market today is the M-1965 or M-65 field jacket which came into US military service in 1965. Flak jacket Fleece jacket, a jacket made of synthetic wool such as Polar Fleece Flight jacket, also known as a bomber jacket Gilet
30.
Outside (magazine)
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Outside is an American magazine focused on the outdoors. The first issue was published in September 1977 and its founders were Jann Wenner, William Randolph Hearst III, and Jack Ford. Wenner sold the magazine to current owner Lawrence J. Burke two years later, christopher Keyes is the current editor. Outside launched the careers of Sebastian Junger, Jon Krakauer, and other freelance travel, though the magazine has tilted toward a more commercial aesthetic in recent years, it has also recruited figures from the literary world for freelance assignments. Writers whose work has appeared in Outside include Bruce Barcott, Tim Cahill, Daniel Coyle, E. Annie Proulx, naturalist and author David Quammen, songwriter David Berkeley also worked for Outside. Effective June 1,2010, its owner Santa Fe, New Mexico–based Mariah Media, launched Outside Television in partnership with Resorts Sports Network, inside Outside, Can the Magazine Stay on the Mountain. Field and Stream Outdoor Life Sports Afield
31.
Men's Journal
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Mens Journal is a monthly mens lifestyle magazine focused on outdoor recreation and comprising editorials on the outdoors, environmental issues, health and fitness, style and fashion, and gear. It was founded in 1992 by Jann Wenner, who sought to create a publication for active, accomplished men to fuel an adventurous and it is published by Wenner Media, which also produces Rolling Stone. Mens Journals hires experts and professionals to examine the products, the best performing throughout the year get highlighted in the December issue. Mens Journal also has 2 SIPs, Spring/Summer and Fall/Winter Buyers Guide, each issue goes in to explicit examination of seasonal gear. These two issues are not included in subscription, and only a number are printed. The April 2004 issue of Mens Journal with Robert Redford on the cover was carried into space on the STS-114 Space Shuttle mission, the STS-114 mission was the first mission following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
32.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
33.
Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
34.
Civilian
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In general, a civilian is a person who is not a member of the military or of a police or firefighting force, as defined by Merriam Websters Dictionary. From the perspective of the U. S, in military and law enforcement slang, the term Civies or Civvies are often used to refer civilian population or civilian clothing. Under the laws of war, a civilian is one not being a member of the services and does not take a direct part of hostilities in times of armed conflict. The term civilian is slightly different from a non-combatant under the laws of war, the privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one or an international one. The word civilian goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien, Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term non-combatant now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities, there is no intermediate status, nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, the ICRC has expressed the opinion that If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered unlawful or unprivileged combatants or belligerents. They may be prosecuted under the law of the detaining state for such action. According to Article 50 of the 1977 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions,1, a civilian is any person who does not belong to one of the categories of persons referred to in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of this Protocol. In case of whether a person is a civilian, that person shall be considered to be a civilian. The civilian population comprises all persons who are civilians, the presence within the civilian population of individuals who do not come within the definition of civilians does not deprive the population of its civilian character. The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories, the categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore, the Commentary to the Protocol pointed that, any one who is not a member of the forces is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict, civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population, chapter III of Protocol I regulates the targeting of civilian objects. The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematical, starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. The claim was repeated on Wikipedias Did You Know on 14 December 2010 and these claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of the evidence, particularly that relating to wars that are central to the claims. It has lost none of its political, legal and moral salience, although it is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts
35.
Camouflage
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Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as something else. Examples include the spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier. A third approach, motion dazzle, confuses the observer with a pattern, making the object visible. The majority of camouflage methods aim for crypsis, often through a general resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading. Some animals, such as chameleons and octopuses, are capable of changing their skin pattern and colours. Military camouflage was spurred by the range and accuracy of firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with the rifle made personal concealment in battle a survival skill, in the 20th century, military camouflage developed rapidly, especially during the First World War. On land, artists such as André Mare designed camouflage schemes, at sea, merchant ships and troop carriers were painted in dazzle patterns that were highly visible, but designed to confuse enemy submarines as to the targets speed, range, and heading. During and after the Second World War, a variety of schemes were used for aircraft. The use of radar since the century has largely made camouflage for fixed-wing military aircraft obsolete. Non-military use of camouflage includes making cell telephone towers less obtrusive, patterns derived from military camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing, exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their symbolism. Camouflage themes recur in modern art, and both figuratively and literally in science fiction and works of literature, in ancient Greece, Aristotle commented on the colour-changing abilities, both for camouflage and for signalling, of cephalopods including the octopus, in his Historia animalium, The octopus. Seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the adjacent to it, it does so also when alarmed. Camouflage has been a topic of interest and research in zoology for well over a century, the English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton studied animal coloration, especially camouflage. In his 1890 book The Colours of Animals, he classified different types such as special protective resemblance and his experiments showed that swallowtailed moth pupae were camouflaged to match the backgrounds on which they were reared as larvae. Among vertebrates numerous species of parrots, iguanas, tree-frogs, beddard did however briefly mention other methods, including the alluring coloration of the flower mantis and the possibility of a different mechanism in the orange tip butterfly. He wrote that the scattered green spots upon the surface of the wings might have been intended for a rough sketch of the small flowerets of the plant. The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer formulated what is sometimes called Thayers Law, Thayer was roundly mocked for these views by critics including Teddy Roosevelt
36.
Pouch Attachment Ladder System
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It is used to attach items such as holsters, magazine pouches, radio pouches, knife sheathes, and other gear. A wide variety of pouches are available, allowing soldiers to customize their kit. There are also a variety of attachment methods including the Alice Clip, the Natick snap, the PALS system has begun to be adopted by other forces, such as the British Army, who use it on their Osprey body armour. PALS consists of webbing sewn onto the equipment and corresponding webbing. The straps are interwoven between the webbing on each of two pieces and finally snapped into place, making for a secure fit which can be detached with moderate effort. New types are laser cut out of single piece rather than webbing straps sewn onto fabric. This is common on many new items from backpacks to chest rigs. The spacing is the standard so new lasercut ladders are 100% backwards compatible with older pouches made for webbing strap construction rigs. The PALS grid consists of rows of 1 in Mil-W-43668 Type III nylon webbing, spaced 1 in apart. Newer styles come in various laser cut fabric, most commonly 1000D cordura nylon, the benefits often quoted for laser cut single piece style is significant weight saving especially on plate carriers/rigs and items with large amount of ladder area as well as less bulk. Another consideration is fabrics can be made in new popular patterns without need to source webbing in compatible shades including viewing conditions under night vision devices, many of these specialist patterns are also available in NIR treated forms for optimal camouflage viewed through such night vision devices. Olive-drab. com, MOLLE Pouch Attachment Ladder System US patent 5724707
37.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
38.
Improved Load Bearing Equipment
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The ILBE is a United States Marine Corps program that had included individual load carriage equipment, individual hydration systems and individual water purification. Since the rucksack was the first component of the program to be issued to Marines, the ILBE rucksack was designed to replace the long existing All-purpose Lightweight Individual Carrying Equipment and newer Modular Lightweight Load-carrying Equipment packs. The ILBE was designed during the Law Enforcement and Armed Forces program by Arcteryx, the backpack is made from 725 Denier Cordura material, with the MARPAT camouflage pattern printed onto it. The pack is covered with a wide grid of the Pouch Attachment Ladder System. It includes a pack, a detachable assault pack and a 100-ounce water reservoir as part of the hydration system. The ILBE can hold up to 120 pounds of weight, and has room for both 60mm and 81mm mortar rounds outside the main pack, specialized bags and pouches for corpsmen and reconnaissance units are also available. The assault packs, with their volume and lower weight capacities, are intended for wear in combat. A set of packs typically consists of a pack, an assault pack. These three items together cost more than $600 when the ILBE system was first fielded, making it the most expensive single soldier pack system used by the US armed forces
39.
The Vancouver Sun
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The Vancouver Sun is a daily newspaper first published in the Canadian province of British Columbia on February 12,1912. The paper is published by the Pacific Newspaper Group, a division of Postmedia Network. It is published six days a week, Monday to Saturday, although its staff of reporters has shrunken considerably in recent years, the Sun still has the largest newsroom in Vancouver. The Sun is a newspaper and was not originally related to the Sun Media chain and its tabloid Sun papers in Toronto, Ottawa, Winnipeg, Calgary. However, Sun Media was acquired by Postmedia in 2015, making the Vancouver Sun, when the Sun began operation, it was published at 125 West Pender Street, just around the corner from The Province, its rival at the time. From 1917 until his death in 1936, its publisher was Robert James Cromie, in 1924, the Sun bought the Vancouver World newspaper, which had been in financial difficulty for some time. In March 1937, a fire destroyed the Suns business and editorial offices, the only casualty was the janitor, who suffered minor burns and smoke inhalation. The Sun promptly moved across the street into the World Building, the building was accordingly renamed the Sun Tower. In 1958, the Sun and the Province joined to create the Pacific Press in response to the costs of producing newspapers. First the papers merged their mechanical and financial departments, then both moved into the Pacific Press Building on December 27,1965. Later in 1997 the paper moved to Granville Square, according to a 2010 NADbank survey, the Suns daily Monday-to-Friday readership was 453,500, making it British Columbias second most read newspaper, after The Province. Its six-day average circulation was 171,515 copies a day as of September 30,2010, in May 2009, the newspaper laid off long-time editorial cartoonist Roy Peterson who had been drawing for the paper since 1962. In October 2011, Patricia Graham, the editor in chief, was appointed vice-president, the Vancouver Sun website has more than 30 million page views monthly. In December 2011, after much research on the demographics of the greater Vancouver area, according to an article broadcast on China Now on China Radio International, the key to success was not necessarily to translate its English-language version into Chinese. The Sun features different sections every day
40.
American City Business Journals
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American City Business Journals is an American newspaper chain based in Charlotte, North Carolina, owned by Advance Publications. It also controls the Street & Smiths Sports Group, which publishes motorsports periodicals, including SportsBusiness Journal, Sports Business Daily, five sports annuals, the company is the United States leading publisher of NASCAR magazines, which includes NASCAR Illustrated and Scenedaily. com. American City also publishes specialty publications, which include a business newspaper, a law journal. In 2009, ACBJ took over management of Portfolio. com, mike Russell founded American City Business Journals. The President and CEO of American City is Whitney Shaw, Shaw was previously senior vice president of ACBJ and president of its sports-publishing division. He succeeds his father, Ray Shaw, who was chairman, Ray Shaw, the companys chairman from 1989 until his 2009 death, bought a controlling interest along with a partner in 1989, selling to Advance Publications in 1995. It was Russell who suggested Shaw buy the company rather than just a few journals. Under Ray Shaws leadership, the company moved from Kansas City, Missouri, to Charlotte, North Carolina, and greatly increased the number of its publications. The site contains local news from around the nation, updated throughout the day. The Business Journals sites have more than four million visitors each month. The Business Journals Forty Under 40 is an annual list compiled and published by the Business Journal newspapers since 1992, the purpose is to list the 40 most successful entrepreneurs under the age of 40. The 40 are usually nominated from within individual areas in range of the local business journals publication, American City Business Journals corporate website The Business Journals The Business Journals mobile Street & Smiths SportsBusiness Journal Hemmings Motor News
41.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
42.
Atomic Skis
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Atomic is an Austrian company that manufactures and sells skiing equipment under different brand names. Atomic is also a manufacturer of alpine skis. Alois Rohrmoser founded Atomic in 1955, Rohrmoser initially employed four members of staff, and the company produced around 40 pairs of skis a year. Annual production grew to 5,000 by the beginning of the 1960s, in 1967, the company produced approximately 17,000 pairs of skis, rising to 36,000 in the following year and 72,000 in 1969. In 1971, the company increased its capacity by building a second factory in Altenmarkt im Pongau. In 1981, Atomic started production in the Bulgarian city of Chepelare, Atomic continued to expand its range, and in 1989, it became the first one-stop supplier for skis, bindings, boots and poles. Ski production peaked at 831,000 pairs in 1991 and 1992, however, Atomic faced financial difficulties due to high products rejection when transitioning to the Schalenski technology, and to failures in the booming snowboard market. In 1994, the BAWAG requested Atomic to be put under insolvency procedure, in November 1994, the Amer Sports Group acquired Atomic for 918.7 million schillings, and in March 2006 the insolvency procedures were lifted. Today Atomic manufactures around 600,000 pairs of skis per year, Atomic regards itself as a technological pioneer in the ski sport industry, and its aim is to make every skier a better skier. Atomic developed the LiveFit – a ski boot which automatically adapts to the shape of the foot, since 2009, Atomics skis have also been available with various Rocker technologies. Atomic has recently developed Memory Fit, a heat fitting technology that adapts the boot to the users foot, Atomic is also committed to the development of more environmentally-friendly production methods, the factory in Altenmarkt uses a wood pellet heating system during the manufacturing process. The Renu line comprises skis and boots made of recyclable and renewable materials. Atomic currently sponsors male and female athletes in ski racing, freestyle skiing, touring skiers, Nordic combined skiers, biathlon racers, and long distance Nordic skiers
43.
Mavic
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Mavic is a French bicycle parts manufacturer, founded by Charles Idoux and Lucien Chanel. The company is noted as a manufacturer of bicycle wheels, Mavic is based in Annecy, France. Since the 1970s, the company has been an official partner, recently, the company has expanded into producing technical shoes and apparel for cyclists. The company has employed innovative production with metals and especially alloys, Salomon had Mavic produce the edges for its skis and snowboards. Mavic designed a spoke nipple mounted on the inside of the rim rather than from the tire side and this allows a rim to remain unpierced on the tire side with the exception of the valve hole. Less material is used in the rim, the Ksyrium wheelset was the first road to utilise this fore feature. Mavic developed electronic gear-shifting system in the 1990s, first called Zap, the Mektronic was used by riders including Chris Boardman. However, it suffered engineering problems, notably that Boardmans bike shifted gear unpredictably, since 1973 the company has provided technical service to races. Yellow cars and motorcycles follow the race with wheels and bicycles, mechanics change wheels or bicycles for any rider. Mavic has never made complete bikes so the frames are provided by an outside manufacturer. Cannondale and Litespeed have been used, the top road wheels for many years were Ksyrium and Cosmic series. The Ksyrium has given way to the R-Sys, the R-Sys has tubular carbon fiber spokes that work in tension and compression. The spokes are held via fore technology at the rim and the TraComp ring at the hub and this allows lower spoke tension, which makes lighter wheels. The semi-aero Cosmic wheel is all carbon except for the rear hub, in 2009 Mavic released a recall on their R-Sys wheel. Having reports from customers on catastrophic failure during rides, the Mavic Open Pro is popular for everyday road use. CXP rims are the semi-aero counterparts, Mavic makes some of the most popular and successful carbon disc wheels, which have been used to win many races. Mavic has made a carbon fibre deep section front wheel with five wide carbon spokes, the iO, some racers use it for road time trials, but this is not approved by Mavic as the rims are not designed for braking. The UST tubeless design eliminates an inner tube, which allows lower inflation pressures as the threat of pinch flats is eliminated and it is owned by Finnish conglomerate, Amer Sports, that also owns Salomon, the Austrian ski manufacturer Atomic and the tennis racquet maker Wilson
44.
Suunto
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Suunto Oy is a company that manufactures and markets sports watches, dive computers, compasses and precision instruments. Headquartered in Vantaa, Finland, Suunto employs more than 300 people worldwide, although globally active, the HQ is placed next to the factory, in which most of the work stages are still handcrafted. Suunto is a subsidiary of Amer Sports Corporation with sister brands Wilson, Atomic, Sports Tracker, Salomon, Precor, Arcteryx, the word suunto can be translated as bearing, heading or direction. In 1935, Volhonen was granted a patent on his design, although it was not the first portable liquid-filled compass, Vohlonens design was compact and lighweight, enabling it to be easily worn on the wrist. The company was entered in the register on February 4,1936. During World War II, Suunto introduced a compact liquid sighting compass, the company grew rapidly after the war, supplying compasses and other navigational instruments to both civilian and military markets. After Tuomas Vohlonen died in 1939, his widow Elli Vohlonen ran the company until 1952, when she sold it to Paavo Kajanne, Aarne Mahnala and Veli-Jussi Hölsö, who also owned Redox Oy. At the very end of 1970s they sold the company to Niemistö family, in 1999 Amer Sports bought the company. In 1996 Suunto Oy acquired Recta SA, a Swiss compass manufacturer, in the late 1930s Suunto Oy was located in the backyard building of Laivanvarustajankatu 8, Ullanlinna, Helsinki. In 1959 Suunto moved to Itämerenkatu 52, Ruoholahti, Helsinki, in 1969 the company moved to Juvan teollisuuskatu 8, Juvanmalmi, Espoo. Suunto Oys headquarters moved to its current location in Valimotie 7, Tammisto, in 2009, Suunto discontinued the Swiss-made Recta DO series, moving all remaining production of Recta compasses from Biel, Switzerland to its production facility in Vantaa, Finland. After acquiring Recta AG in 1996, Suunto incorporated the Recta Turbo 20 global needle system technology originally patented by Recta SA into many of its own compass designs. Since 1967, successors of M-40 have been offered as KB line, traditionally made of a solid block of machined aluminum, each KB compass contains a magnetized dial with calibration markings printed along its outer edge. A magnifying lens or prismatic sight is mounted at one end of the instrument with a crosshair providing a view of the disc, containing both forward and reciprocal bearings. In operation, the user divides his or her field of vision with the instrument, having a tradition as a compass manufacturer, many sport watches feature an electronic compass. The Suunto Global Needle System acquired from Recta as the Turbo-20 needle design, instead, the compass needle and magnet are built as separate units functioning independently from each other. The needle itself is fixed at its pivot by means of a double bearing and this provides accurate readings of magnetic north in all magnetic zones of the world. This allows a user to obtain fairly accurate compass bearings even when moving, the first military compass is M-34 delivered to Finnish Army since company founded
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Wilson Sporting Goods
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The Wilson Sporting Goods Company is an American sports equipment manufacturer based in Chicago, Illinois. Since 1989, it has been a subsidiary of the Finnish group Amer Sports. The company traces its roots to the Schwarzschild & Sulzberger meatpacking company based in New York, Sulzberger & Sons founded the Ashland Manufacturing Company in 1913 to use animal by-products from its slaughterhouses. It started out making tennis racket strings, violin strings, and surgical sutures but soon expanded into baseball shoes and tennis racquets. In 1915, Thomas E. Wilson, former president of meatpacker Morris & Company, was appointed President by the controlling banks, the company acquired the Hetzinger Knitting Mills to produce athletic uniforms and a caddie bag company which produced golf balls but soon expanded into footballs and basketballs. In 1918, Wilson left to concentrate on the beef-packing business, the packing company continued to have control in the company until 1966 when it was sold to LTV. Icely it acquired the Chicago Sporting Goods Company and struck a deal to supply the Chicago Cubs and it also hired Arch Turner, a leather designer who would design the leather football. In 1922, it introduced the Ray Schalk catchers mitt which became the standard and it worked with Knute Rockne to introduce the double-lined leather football and first valve football and the first waist-line football pants with pads. In 1925, it was renamed Wilson-Western Sporting Goods following an agreement with Western Sporting Goods. After Rocknes death, the focused on golf, introducing the R-90. In 1931, it renamed itself Wilson Sporting Goods Company, Horween Leather Company has supplied Wilson with pebbled cowhide since 1941 for use in the manufacture of footballs and basketballs. Wilson is Horween Leather Companys largest customer, after the war, Wilson focused on tennis and signed Jack Kramer, who developed its line of Jack Kramer signed tennis rackets. Icley died in 1950 but the continued to expand with many believing that Icelys introduction of a computer to monitor inventory had been a huge help. In 1955, it acquired Ohio-Kentucky Manufacturing for making footballs, in 1964 it acquired Wonder Products Company, which made toys and custom-molded items. It transformed the custom-mold section to make protective equipment in football and baseball, such as masks for football helmets. In 1967, the company was acquired by Ling-Temco-Vought, only three years after, PepsiCo became new Wilsons owner. In 1979, Wilson tennis balls were first used in the US Open, in 2006, the Australian Open began using Wilson Tennis Balls. In 1985, Wilson was acquired by Westray Capital Corporation through subsidiary WSGC Holdings, in 1989, WSGC merged with Bogey Acquisitions Company, which is affiliated with the Finnish group Amer Sports
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