1.
New Delhi
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New Delhi is the capital of India and one of Delhi citys 11 districts. The National Capital Region is a larger entity comprising the entire National Capital Territory along with adjoining districts. The foundation stone of the city was laid by George V and it was designed by British architects, Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker. The new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931, by Viceroy, New Delhi has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister of India Narendra Modis flagship Smart Cities Mission. Calcutta was the capital of India during the British Raj until December 1911, Delhi had served as the political and financial centre of several empires of ancient India and the Delhi Sultanate, most notably of the Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857. During the early 1900s, a proposal was made to the British administration to shift the capital of the British Indian Empire, as India was officially named, from Calcutta on the east coast, to Delhi. The Government of British India felt that it would be easier to administer India from Delhi in the centre of northern India. The land for building the new city of Delhi was acquired under the Land Acquisition Act 1894. The foundation stone of New Delhi was laid by King George V and Queen Mary at the site of Delhi Durbar of 1911 at Kingsway Camp on 15 December 1911, during their imperial visit. Large parts of New Delhi were planned by Edwin Lutyens, who first visited Delhi in 1912, the contract was given to Sobha Singh. The original plan called for its construction in Tughlaqabad, inside the Tughlaqabad fort, construction really began after World War I and was completed by 1931. The city that was later dubbed Lutyens Delhi was inaugurated in ceremonies beginning on 10 February 1931 by Lord Irwin, Lutyens designed the central administrative area of the city as a testament to Britains imperial aspirations. Soon Lutyens started considering other places, however, it was rejected by the Viceroy when the cost of acquiring the necessary properties was found to be too high. The central axis of New Delhi, which faces east at India Gate, was previously meant to be a north-south axis linking the Viceroys House at one end with Paharganj at the other. During the projects early years, many believed it was a gate from Earth to Heaven itself. Eventually, owing to space constraints and the presence of a number of heritage sites in the North side. A site atop the Raisina Hill, formerly Raisina Village, a Meo village, was chosen for the Rashtrapati Bhawan, then known as the Viceroys House. The reason for this choice was that the hill lay directly opposite the Dinapanah citadel, which was considered the site of Indraprastha
2.
Government of India
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It is located in New Delhi, the capital of India. There is a bicameral Parliament with the Lok Sabha as a lower house, the judicial branch systematically contains an apex Supreme Court,24 high courts, and several district courts, all inferior to the Supreme Court. Similar to the government, individual state governments each consist of executive, legislative. The legal system as applicable to the federal and individual state governments is based on the English Common, the full name of the country is the Republic of India. No other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name appears on legal banknotes, in treaties. The Union Government, Central Government or Government of India are often used in an official and unofficial capacity to refer to the Government of India, because the seat of government is in New Delhi, New Delhi is commonly used as a metonym for the Central Government. Legislative branch in India is exercised by the Parliament and a legislature consisting of the Rajya Sabha. The latter is considered the house or the House of the people. The Parliament does not have control and sovereignty, as its laws are subject to judicial review by the Supreme Court of India. However, it does exercise some control over the executive branch, the members of the cabinet, including the prime minister and the Council of Ministers, are either chosen from parliament or elected there to within six months of assuming office. The cabinet as a whole is responsible to the Lok Sabha, the Lok Sabha is a temporary house and can only be dissolved when the party in power loses the support of the majority of the house. Whereas the Rajya Sabha is a permanent house which can never be dissolved though the members of the Rajya Sabha who are elected for a six-year term, the Executive Branch of government is the one that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers. The executive power is vested mainly in the President of India, the President has all constitutional powers and exercises them directly or through officers subordinate to him as per the aforesaid Article 53. The President is to act in accordance with aid and advice tendered by the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers remains in power during the pleasure of the President. However, in practice, the Council of Ministers must retain the support of the Lok Sabha, if a President were to dismiss the Council of Ministers on his or her own initiative, it might trigger a constitutional crisis. Thus, in practice, the Council of Ministers cannot be dismissed as long as it holds the support of a majority in the Lok Sabha, the President is responsible for making a wide variety of appointments. His/Her work is to facilitate smooth transaction of business in Ministries/ Departments of the Government, the President is de jure the Commander in Chief of the Indian Armed Forces
3.
Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
4.
British Raj
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The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
5.
Flora of India
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The flora of India is one of the richest in the world due to the wide range of climate, topology and habitat in the country. There are estimated to be over 16,000 species of flowering plants in India, India is home to more than 45,000 species of plants, including a variety of endemics. The use of plants as a source of medicines has been a part of life in India from the earliest times. There are more than 3000 Indian plant species officially documented as possessing great medicinal potential, India is divided into eight main floristic regions, Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Indus plain, Ganges plain, the Deccan, Malabar and the Andaman Islands. In 1992, around 7,43,534 km2 of land in the country was under forests and 92 percent of that belongs to the government, only 22.7 percent is forested compared to the recommended 33 percent of the National Forest Policy Resolution 1952. Majority of it are broad-leaved deciduous trees which comprise one-sixth sal, coniferous types are found in the northern high altitude regions and comprise pines, junipers and deodars. Indias forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, environmental Education Centre is a Centre of Excellence of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. List of Indian medicinal plants on the Biodiversity of India website, a list of 932 commercially traded Indian medicinal plants and their taxonomic status. Flora of British India Volume 1 Hooker, J. D, Flora of British India Volume 2 Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India Volume 3 Hooker, J. D, Flora of British India Volume 4 Hooker, J. D. Flora of British India Volume 5 Hooker, J. D, Flora of British India Volume 6 Flora of Andhra Pradesh By Sharfudding Khan Flora of Andhra Pradesh by RD Reddy
6.
Forestry in India
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Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental resource. Together, India and these account for 67 percent of total forest area of the world. Indias forest cover grew at 0. 22% annually over 1990-2000, as of 2010, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations estimates Indias forest cover to be about 68 million hectares, or 22% of the countrys area. However, the gains were primarily in northern, central and southern Indian states, in 2002, forestry industry contributed 1. 7% to Indias GDP. India produces a range of processed forest products ranging from wood products and wood pulp to make bronze, rattazikistan ware. Indias paper industry produces over 3,000 metric tonnes annually from more than 400 mills, the furniture and craft industry is another consumer of wood. Indias wood-based processing industries consumed about 30 million cubic metres of wood in 2002. India annually consumes an additional 270 million tonnes of fuelwood,2800 million tonnes of fodder, India is one of the worlds largest consumer of fuel-wood. Indias consumption of fuel-wood is about five times higher than what can be removed from forests. However, a percentage of this fuel-wood is grown as biomass remaining from agriculture. Fuel-wood meets about 40% of the needs of the country. Around 80% of rural people and 48% of urban people use fuel-wood, Indias dependence on fuel-wood and forestry products as a primary energy source is not only environmentally unsustainable, it is a primary cause of Indias near-permanent haze and air pollution. Forestry in India is more than just about wood and fuel, about 60% of non-wood forest products production is consumed locally. About 50% of the revenue from the forestry industry in India is in non-wood forest products category. In 2002, non-wood forest products were a source of significant supplemental income to over 400 million people in India, in 1840, the British colonial administration promulgated an ordinance called Crown Land Ordinance. This ordinance targeted forests in Britains Asian colonies, and vested all forests, wastes, the Imperial Forest Department was established in India in 1864. British states monopoly over Indian forests was first asserted through the Indian Forest Act of 1865 and this law simply established the government’s claims over forests. The British colonial administration then enacted a further far-reaching Forest Act of 1878 and this Act also enabled the administration to demarcate reserved and protected forests
7.
Fishing
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Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild, techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, the term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. According to United Nations FAO statistics, the number of commercial fishermen. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime, Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The British dogger was a type of sailing trawler from the 17th century. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a build and had a tall gaff rig. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water, the great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries. The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century, an Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in the 1846, with the expansion in the fishing industry. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849, the dock covered 25 acres and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere, by the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe, including from the Netherlands, twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet
8.
Geological Survey of India
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The Geological Survey of India, established in 1851, is a government organisation in India which is an office attached to the Ministry of Mines for conducting geological surveys and studies. It is one of the oldest of such organisations in the world, the phrase Geological Survey of India was first used on Williamss Map of the Damoodah and Adji Great Coal Field together with Horizontal and Vertical Sections. On 4 February 1848, Williams was appointed the Geological Surveyor of the Geological Survey of India, jones, of jungle fever on 15 November 1848, after which John McClelland took over as the Officiating Surveyor until his retirement on 5 March 1851. The work of the Geological Survey remained primarily exploration for coal, mainly for powering steam transport, and later oil reserves, thus, the Geological Survey commenced to map the rock structures and strata and their age and relationships in India. Richard Dixon Oldham, who worked for the Geological Survey like his father, first correctly identified p- and s-waves, the GSI began pilot project on 8 April 2017 to to map the mineral stocks up to a depth of 20 km using specially-equipped aircraft. This was the first ever survey of mineral stocks conducted by the Government of India. The Directors of the Geological Survey of India since its inception were as follows, Thomas Oldham H. B. Medlicott William King Jr. C. L. Griesbach T. H. Holland H. H. Hayden E. H. Pascoe L. L. Fermor A. M. Heron C. S, dunn W. D.5 to 1 million years ago. Nehru Park is located in Hyderabad, Telangana, the park displays life size figures of dinosaurs like T-Rex. National Fossil Wood Park in Tiruvakkarai is dedicated to wood fossils, the fossil trees are scattered over nine separate enclaves that cover 247 acres. A small portion of the park is open to the public, National Fossil Wood Park, Sathanur, is located in Kunnam Taluk, Perambalur District, in Tamil Nadu. The park has a tree trunk, which was discovered in 1940 by Dr. M. S. Krishnan of the GSI. The petrified 18 meter tree trunk is believed to be over 120 million years old and this national park is open to public. Economic Compulsions and the Geological Survey of India, indian Journal of History of Science. Official website Chakrabarty, S. Geological Survey of India, in Islam, Sirajul, Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia, National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh
9.
Geology of India
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The geology of India is diverse. Different regions of India contain rocks belonging to different geologic periods, some of the rocks are very deformed and altered. Other deposits include recently deposited alluvium that has yet to undergo diagenesis, mineral deposits of great variety are found in the Indian subcontinent in huge quantity. Even Indias fossil record is impressive in which stromatolites, invertebrates, vertebrates, Indias geographical land area can be classified into the Deccan Traps, Gondwana and Vindhyan. The Deccan Traps covers almost all of Maharashtra, a part of Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, the melting broke through the surface of the craton in a massive flood basalt event, creating the Deccan Traps. It is also thought that the Reunion hotspot caused the separation of Madagascar, the Gondwana sediments forms a unique sequence of fluviatile rocks deposited in Permo-Carboniferous time. The Damodar and Sone river valleys and Rajmahal hills in the eastern India contain a record of the Gondwana rocks, the Indian Craton was once part of the supercontinent of Pangaea. At that time, what is now Indias southwest coast was attached to Madagascar and southern Africa, during the Jurassic Period about 160 Ma, rifting caused Pangaea to break apart into two supercontinents, namely Gondwana and Laurasia. The Indian Craton remained attached to Gondwana, until the supercontinent began to rift apart about in the early Cretaceous, the Indian Plate then drifted northward toward the Eurasian Plate, at a pace that is the fastest known movement of any plate. This orogeny, which is continuing today, is related to closure of the Tethys Ocean, the closure of this ocean which created the Alps in Europe, and the Caucasus range in western Asia, created the Himalaya Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau in South Asia. The current orogenic event is causing parts of the Asian continent to deform westward and eastward on either side of the orogen, concurrently with this collision, the Indian Plate sutured on to the adjacent Australian Plate, forming a new larger plate, the Indo-Australian Plate. These form the core of the Indian Craton, the Aravalli Range is the remnant of an early Proterozoic orogen called the Aravali-Delhi Orogen that joined the two older segments that make up the Indian Craton. It extends approximately 500 kilometres from its end to isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana. Minor igneous intrusions, deformation and subsequent metamorphism of the Aravalli Mountains represent the phase of orogenesis. The erosion of the mountains, and further deformation of the sediments of the Dharwarian group marks the second phase, the volcanic activities and intrusions, associated with this second phase are recorded in the composition of these sediments. Early to Late Proterozoic calcareous and arenaceous deposits, which correspond to humid and semi-arid climatic regimes, were deposited the Cuddapah and these basins which border or lie within the existing crystalline basement, were uplifted during the Cambrian. The sediments are generally undeformed and have in many places preserved their original horizontal stratification, the Vindhyans are believed to have been deposited between ~1700 and 650 Ma. Early Paleozoic rocks are found in the Himalayas and consist of southerly derived sediments eroded from the crystalline craton, in the Late Paleozoic, Permo-Carboniferous glaciations left extensive glacio-fluvial deposits across central India, in new basins created by sag/normal faulting
10.
Indian Institute of Ecology and Environment
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The Institute is located at New Delhi, India. The Institute also colloborates with the Government of Delhi in conducting ecological education in more than 1000 schools in New Delhi, IIEE is mandated to provide learning based assistance to the students and researchers to, acquire, retain and be able to use knowledge. The Institute has conducted over 180 national and international congresses and conventions on environment during the period 1981-2013 and it also assists Universities to design their curriculum on environment for graduate and postgraduate courses. Researches and consultancy assignments are another area IIEE engages in and has undertaken over 3500 such assignments, IIEE has the following facilities at the New Delhi campus. Modern Computer Lab Library Canteen Sports facilities Auditorium IIEE offers various masters degree courses, in affiliation with the The Global Open University, Nagaland. Masters degree M. Sc Masters degree M. Sc Masters degree M. Sc Masters degree M. Sc Masters degree M. Sc Masters degree M. Sc Masters degree M. Sc The Institute also offers MPhil programs on the subjects. International Encyclopaedia of Ecology and Environment, Vol. 1-30, Vol.19, indian Institute of Ecology and Environment. Profile on IIFM site on Hindustan Times, Reference on NGO Reporter Reference on University Directory MPhil program on World Environment Congress 2013
11.
Environmental issues in India
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There are many environmental issues in India. Air pollution, water pollution, garbage, and pollution of the environment are all challenges for India. The situation was worse between 1947 through 1995, still, India has a long way to go to reach environmental quality similar to those enjoyed in developed economies. Pollution remains a challenge and opportunity for India. Environmental issues are one of the causes of disease, health issues. British rule of India saw several laws related to environment, amongst the earliest ones were Shore Nuisance Act of 1853 and the Oriental Gas Company Act of 1857. The Indian Penal Code of 1860, imposed a fine on anyone who voluntarily fouls the water of any public spring or reservoir, in addition, the Code penalised negligent acts. British India also enacted laws aimed at controlling air pollution, prominent amongst these were the Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act of 1905 and the Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act of 1912. Whilst these laws failed in having the effect, British-enacted legislations pioneered the growth of environmental regulations in India. Upon independence from Britain, India adopted a constitution and numerous British-enacted laws, India amended its constitution in 1976. Article 48 of Part IV of the constitution, read, The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests. Article 51 A imposed additional environmental mandates on the Indian state, other Indian laws from recent history include the Water Act of 1974, the Forest Act of 1980, and the Air Act of 1981. The Air Act was inspired by the decisions made at Stockholm Conference, the Bhopal gas tragedy triggered the Government of India to enact the Environment Act of 1986. India has also enacted a set of Noise Pollution Rules in 2000, in 1985, Indian government created the Ministry of Environment and Forests. This ministry is the central organisation in India for regulating and ensuring environmental protection. Despite active passage of laws by the government of India. Rural poor had no choice, but to life in whatever way possible. Air emissions increased, water pollution worsened, forest cover decreased, starting in the 1990s, reforms were introduced
12.
National Institute of Oceanography, India
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The National Institute of Oceanography is one of 37 constituent laboratories of the CSIR - Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, an autonomous research organization in India. The institute has its headquarters in the state of Goa. The Institute was established on 1 January 1966, as a consequence, the global community of oceanographers organized the International Indian Ocean Expedition during 1959-65 to describe and understand the basic features of the Indian Ocean. The Government of India was a participant in this expedition. It is out of considerations that the National Institute of Oceanography came into being. Padma Shri Dr. N. K. Panikkar was appointed Director of this Institute, from humble beginnings, NIO has grown in size. Today, the institute is home to about 170 scientists of whom about 120 are Ph. D. holders, about 210 technical and supporting staff, the staff is spread across four campuses. The main campus is at Dona Paula, Goa, about 80% of the staff work here. NIO has three Regional Centres, which are located in Mumbai, Kochi and Visakhapatnam, about 20% of NIO staff is located at these centres. An example of the role is a project on polymetallic nodules that has been sponsored by the Government of India at the institute for well over 25 years. By the late 1970s the government had decided that the country needed to enhance its resources of minerals of strategic interest, NIO was given the responsibility of exploring the oceans for this purpose. On 26 January 1981, NIO hauled up polymetallic nodules from a depth of 4,800 m in the western Indian Ocean using its first research vessel, RV Gaveshani, which was acquired in 1976. Subsequently, work by NIO researchers helped India to gain the status of “Pioneer Investor” from the International Sea Bed Authority and these ties helped the institute to grow while the government expanded the infrastructure for ocean research, technology and services in the country. In the figure above red areas represent areas with elevation of a few kilometers, the presence of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas influences the monsoons. NIOs scientists have made contributions to understanding the implications of these special features through observations. The former have included ship-based observations, time-series data collected with moored instruments, ORV Sagar Kanya, which was acquired by the Government of India for use by oceanographic research institutions in India, has been playing a major role in these observations. As noted earlier, an important theme of research at NIO has been understanding the oceanography of the North Indian Ocean – a tropical, the uppermost 200 m form the most active portion of the ocean. Some of NIOs most cited research contributions have been about two aspects of the layer, its circulation and biogeochemistry
13.
Indian Ocean
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The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
14.
Survey of India
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The Survey of India is Indias central engineering agency in charge of mapping and surveying. Set up in 1767 to help consolidate the territories of the British East India Company, the Survey of Indias distinguished history includes the handling of the mammoth Great Trigonometrical Survey under William Lambton and George Everest and the discovery of Mt. Everest. Its members are from Survey of India Service cadre of Civil Services of India and it is headed by the Surveyor General of India. Survey of India publishes maps and the unrestricted category maps can be obtained at very reasonable prices from its several Geo-spatial data centers, restricted category maps require due approval from government authorities. Many other rules govern the sale and use of Survey of India maps, only an Indian citizen may purchase topographic maps and these may not be exported from India for any reason. The history of the Survey of India dates back to the 18th Century, a) First Survey in India Baramahal, the present Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri and North Arcot were called as baramahal. In Letter Dated 04.10.1797 the British Government appreciated Col. Alexander Read, b) The Great Trigonometry Survey The Great Trigonometry Survey was started by British surveyor Col. William Lambton on the 10th of April 1802. It was started from St. Thomas Mount, Chennai to foothills of Himalayas and it took 57 days to measure the 12-km base line. 36 inch huge ½ ton weight Theodolite was used to measure and this 5-decade project was completed under Survey General Lt George Everest in the year 1852. Surveyor Radhanath Sikdar measured Mount Everest in 1852, with a height of 29,002 feet, modern measurements indicate the height is 29,037 feet. This is regarded as the beginning of systematic topographical mapping in India, the Survey of India, headquartered at Dehra Dun, has 18 civil engineering divisions ranging from the prediction of tides to aerial survey. It has 23 Geo-spatial Data Centers spread across India, each catering to the administrative area. Surveyors are the back bone of Survey of India. The Survey of India acts as adviser to the Government of India on all matters, viz Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Mapping. However, the duties and responsibilities of the Survey of India are enumerated below, All Geodetic Control and Geodetic. All Topographical Control, Surveys and Mapping within India, Mapping and Production of Geographical Maps and Aeronautical Charts. Survey of Forests, Cantonments, large scale city surveys, guide maps, Survey and Mapping of special maps. Demarcation of the External Boundaries of the Republic of India, their depiction on maps published in the country, training of officers and staff required for the Department, trainees from Central Government Departments and States and trainees from Foreign Countries as are sponsored by the *Government of India. Research and Development in Cartography, Printing, Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Topographical Surveys, prediction of tides at 44 ports including 14 foreign ports and publication of Tide Tables one year in advance to support navigational activities
15.
Cartography of India
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The cartography of India begins with early charts for navigation and constructional plans for buildings. Indian traditions influenced Tibetan and Islamic traditions, and in turn, were influenced by the British cartographers who solidified modern concepts into Indias map making. A prominent foreign geographer and cartographer was Hellenistic geographer Ptolemy who researched at the library in Alexandria to produce a detailed record of world geography. During the Middle Ages, India sees some exploration by Chinese and Muslim geographers, a prominent medieval cartographer was Persian geographer Abu Rayhan Biruni who visited India and studied the countrys geography extensively. European maps become more accurate with the Age of Exploration and Portuguese India from the 16th century, the first modern maps were produced by Survey of India, established in 1767 by the British East India Company. Survey of India remains in continued existence as the official mapping authority of the Republic of India, susan Gole comments on the cartographic traditions in early India, Cartography of India as a part of the greater continent of Asia develops in Classical Antiquity. In Greek cartography, India appears as a land on the eastern fringe of Asia in the 5th century BCE. More detailed knowledge becomes available after the conquests of Alexander the Great, by the 1st century, at least the western coast of India is well known to Hellenistic geography, with itineraries such as the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Marinus and Ptolemy had some knowledge of the Indian Ocean but their Taprobane was vastly too large and they also had little knowledge of the interior of the country. Native Indian cartographic traditions before the Hellenistic period remain rudimentary, early forms of cartography in India included legendary paintings, maps of locations described in Indian epic poetry, for example the Ramayana. These works contained descriptions of places, and often even described the nature of the mythological inhabitants of a particular location. Early Indian cartography showed little knowledge of scale, the important parts of the map were shown to be larger than others, Indian cartographic traditions also covered the locations of the Pole star, and other constellations of use. These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of navigation, other early maps in India include the Udayagiri wall sculpture—made under the Gupta empire in 400 CE—showing the meeting of the Ganges and the Yamuna. The 8th-century scholar Bhavabhuti conceived paintings which indicated geographical regions, the boundaries of land, granted to the Brahman priests of India by their patrons, were described in detail. The descriptions indicated good geographical knowledge and in one case over 75 details of the land granted have been found, the Chinese records of the Tang dynasty show that a map of the neighboring Indian region was gifted to Wang Hiuen-tse by its king. The Iranian geographers Abū Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdānī and Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi set the Prime Meridian of their maps at Ujjain, in the early 11th century, the Persian geographer Abu Rayhan Biruni visited India and studied the countrys geography extensively. He was considered the most skilled when it came to mapping cities and he also wrote extensively on the geology of India. In 1154, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi included a section on the cartography and geography of India and its neighboring countries in his world atlas, italian scholar Francesco Lorenzo Pullè reproduced a number of Indian maps in his magnum opus La Cartografia Antica dellIndia
16.
Zoological Survey of India
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The Zoological Survey of India is a premier Indian organisation in zoological research and studies. It was established on 1 July 1916 to promote the survey, exploration, the activities of the ZSI are coordinated by the Conservation and Survey Division under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India. The annals of Zoological Survey of India reflect an eventful beginning for the Survey even before its birth and growth. The history of ZSI begins from the days of the Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir William Jones on 15 January 1784. The Asiatic Society of Bengal was the mother not only to the Indian Museum but also to the institutions like the Zoological Survey of India. ZSI’s establishment was in fact a fulfillment of the dream of Sir William Jones, the Asiatic Society had started collecting zoological and geological specimens since 1796 and set up a museum in 1814. The genesis of Zoological Survey of India was in 1875 with the opening of the Indian Museum, the new museum on its inception comprised only three sections, the Zoological, the Archaeological and the Geological. The zoological collections of the Asiatic Society of Bengal were formally handed over to the Board of Trustees of the Indian Museum in 1875, Zoological Section of the Museum during the period from 1875 to 1916 steadily expanded, growing to the greatest collection of natural history in Asia. By the care and activity of the Curators of the Asiatic society of Bengal, the excerpt from the ‘Constitution of the Zoological Survey of India’, released by the Government of India, Department of Education, Resolution no. The trustees accordingly submitted their proposals at the end of September 1913, Dr. Annandale was Honorary Secretary to the Trustees of the Indian Museum for several years, he was also the President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1923. Exploring, Surveying, Inventorying and Monitoring of faunal diversity in various states, selected ecosystems, taxonomic studies of the faunal components collected. Status survey of Threatened and Endemic species, preparation of Red Data Book, Fauna of India and Fauna of States. Preparation of database for the species of the country. Maintenance and Development of National Zoological Collections, training, Capacity Building and Human Resource Development. Faunal Identification, Advisory services and Library Services, Publication of results including Fauna of India, Fauna of States and Fauna of Conservation Areas. GIS and Remote Sensing studies on recorded animal diversity as well as on threatened species, maintenance of Musea at Headquarters and Regional Centres. Development of ENVIS and CITES Centers, Research Fellowship, Associateship and Emeritus Scientists Programme. Collaborative research programmes on Biodiversity with other Organizations in India and abroad, north Eastern Regional Centre, Shillong, Meghalaya
17.
Wildlife of India
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The wildlife in India comprises a mix of species of different types of organisms. Apart from a handful of the farm animals such as cows, buffaloes, goats, poultry. It is home to Bengal and Indochinese tigers, Indian lions, deer, pythons, wolves, foxes, bears, crocodiles, wild dogs, monkeys, snakes, antelope species, varieties of bison and the Asian elephant. The regions rich and diverse wildlife is preserved in 120+ national parks,18 Bio-reserves, since India is home to a number of rare and threatened animal species, wildlife management in the country is essential to preserve these species. India is one of the seventeen megadiverse countries, according to one study, India along with other 16 mega diverse countries is home to about 60-70% of the worlds biodiversity. India, lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, is home to about 7. 6% of all mammalian,12. 6% of avian,6. 2% of reptilian, many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular Indias subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off an exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic change 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms, soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. As a result, among Indian species, only 12. 6% of mammals and 4. 5% of birds are endemic, notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddomes toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2. 9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species, in recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to Indias wildlife, in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat, the pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a impact on the regions popular culture. The word has also made famous in The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. Indias wildlife has been the subject of other tales and fables such as the Panchatantra. India is home to several large mammals, including the Asian elephant, Bengal and Indochinese tigers, Asiatic lion, Indian leopard, Indian sloth bear. Some other well-known large Indian mammals are, ungulates such as the rare wild Asian water buffalo, common domestic Asian water buffalo, gail, gaur, and several species of deer and antelope. Some members of the dog family, such as the Indian wolf, Bengal fox and golden jackal, and the dhole or wild dogs are also widely distributed. However, the dhole, also known as the hunter, is the most endangered top Indian carnivore
18.
Alexander Cunningham
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Sir Alexander Cunningham KCIE CSI was a British army engineer with the Bengal Engineer Group who later took an interest in the history and archaeology of India. In 1861 he was appointed to the newly created position of surveyor to the government of India. He wrote numerous books and monographs and made collections of artefacts. Some of his collections were lost, but most of the gold and silver coins, Cunningham was born in London in 1814 to the Scottish poet Allan Cunningham and his wife Jean née Walker. Along with his brother, Joseph, he received his early education at Christs Hospital. Alexander joined the Bengal Engineers at the age of 19 as a Second Lieutenant and spent the next 28 years in the service of British Government of India, soon after arriving in India on 9 June 1833, he met James Prinsep. He was in communication with Prinsep during 1837 and 1838 and became his intimate friend, confidant. Prinsep passed on to him his lifelong interest in Indian archaeology, from 1836 to 1840 he was ADC to Lord Auckland, the Governor-General of India. During this period he visited Kashmir, which was not well explored. He finds mention by initials in Up the Country by Emily Eden, in 1841 Cunningham was made executive engineer to the king of Oudh. In 1842 he was called to serve the army in thwarting an uprising in Bundelkhand by the ruler of Jaipur and he was then posted at Nowgong in central India before he saw action at the Battle of Punniar in December 1843. He became engineer at Gwalior and was responsible for constructing a stone bridge over the Morar River in 1844–45. In 1845–46 he was called to serve in Punjab and helped construct two bridges of boats across the Beas river prior to the Battle of Sobraon, in 1846 he was made commissioner along with P. A. Letters were written to the Chinese and Tibetan officials by Lord Hardinge, a second commission was established in 1847 which was led by Cunningham to establish the Ladakh-Tibet boundary, which also included Henry Strachey and Thomas Thomson. Henry and his brother Richard Strachey had trespassed into Lake Mansarovar and Rakas Tal in 1846 and his early work Essay on the Aryan Order of Architecture arose from his visits to the temples in Kashmir and his travels in Ladakh during his tenure with the commission. He was also present at the battles of Chillianwala and Gujrat in 1848–9, in 1851, he explored the Buddhist monuments of Central India along with Lieutenant Maisey, and wrote an account of these. In 1856 he was appointed engineer of Burma, which had just been annexed by Britain. In both regions he established public works departments and he was therefore absent from India during the Rebellion of 1857
19.
Jean-Baptiste Ventura
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Jean-Baptiste Ventura, born Rubino ben Torah, was an Italian soldier, mercenary in India and early archaeologist of the Punjab region of the Sikh Empire. Ventura was born in Finale Emilia in the Duchy of Modena to Jewish parents, at the age of seventeen Ventura enrolled as a volunteer in the militia of the Kingdom of Italy and later served with Napoleons imperial army where he reached the rank of colonel of infantry. He went first to Trieste, and then to Constantinople, where he was for a time a ship-broker, learning that Persia was seeking the services of European soldiers, he obtained an officers commission, and helped to instruct the forces of the shah in European methods of warfare. He soon attained the rank of colonel, on the death of the shah in 1822, Ventura offered his services to his successor, Abbas Mirza. He travelled east, ending in Lahore with Jean-François Allard in 1822 and they took service with the Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab, and soon got to prove their worth. In March the following year, both Allard and Ventura held command in the Battle of Nowshera where a combined Afghan force was defeated, resulting in Punjabs capture of Peshawar. A rebellion having arisen in Afghanistan, Ventura conducted successfully several campaigns of a difficult nature, reorganised the infantry into a formidable army including Gurkhas, Pathans, Biharis and Ooriyas. He is also described as the baron of the Fauj-i-Khas, Ventura was highly thought of by the Maharajah, and in addition to the rank of General, he was also appointed kazi and Governor of Lahore. He rose rapidly in the Darbar and virtually became the Commander In Chief of the Darbar forces, Ventura married an Indian lady, by whom he had a daughter, but he was always desirous of returning to his native country. In 1837 he went on a mission to Paris and London. He served faithfully under Ranjit Singh and his successors Kharak Singh, Nau Nihal Singh, on Mahārājā Sher Siṅghs assassination in September 1843, he left the Punjab. In France he presented King Louis Philippe with a set of ancient Greek coins which he had unearthed, in his later years he lost a part of his large fortune in unsuccessful commercial enterprises. According to Flaminio Servi, Ventura received baptism toward the end of his life and he died on 3 April 1858 in Lardenne. Servi, in Corriere Israelitico, x.47 et seq. idem, in Vessillo Israelitico, xxxi
20.
Stupa
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A stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics that is used as a place of meditation. Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which śramaṇas were buried in a position called chaitya. After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated, the earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE in India. Buddhist scriptures claim that stupas were built at least a century earlier, however, some later stupas, such as at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. The earliest evidence of monastic stupas dates back to the 2nd century BCE and these are stupas that were built within Buddhist monastic complexes and they replicate in stone older stupas made of baked bricks and timber. Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are examples of stupas that were shaped in stone imitating previously existing wooden parts, the stupa was elaborated as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries, becoming, for example, the chörten of Tibet and the pagoda in East Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles, in the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to Buddhism, the first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura being one of the tallest ancient structures in the world, the earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE. In India, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest known stupas, the tallest is the Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand, at a height of 127 metres. The Swat Valley hosts a well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near Ghalegay, another stupa is located near Barikot, in Sri Lanka, the ancient city of Anuradhapura includes some of the tallest, most ancient and best preserved stupas in the world, such as Ruwanwelisaya. The most elaborate stupa is the 8th century Borobudur monument in Java, the upper rounded terrace with rows of bell-shaped stupas contained Buddha images symbolizing Arūpajhāna, the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment, borobudurs unique and significant architecture has been acknowledged by UNESCO as the largest buddhist monument in the world. It is also the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples, such as a bowl or robe. Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples, symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobudur is considered to be the symbol of the Three Worlds and the spiritual stages in a Mahayana bodhisattvas character. Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, the shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire, his head is the square at the base, his body is the vase shape, his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace
21.
Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning
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Charles John Canning, 1st Earl Canning KG GCB KSI PC, known as The Viscount Canning from 1837 to 1859, was an English statesman and Governor-General of India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Born at Gloucester Lodge, Brompton, near London, Canning was the youngest child of George Canning and Joan, Viscountess Canning, daughter of Major-General John Scott. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B. A. in 1833, as first class in classics, in 1836 he entered parliament, being returned as member for the town of Warwick in the Conservative interest. He did not, however, sit long in the House of Commons, for, on the death of his mother in 1837, he succeeded to the peerage and entered the House of Lords. His first official appointment was that of Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, in the administration formed by Sir Robert Peel in 1841, his chief being the Earl of Aberdeen. This post he held till January 1846, and from January to July of that year and he served on the Royal Commission on the British Museum. He declined to accept office under the Earl of Derby, but on the formation of the ministry under the Earl of Aberdeen in January 1853. In this office he showed not only a capacity for hard work. This appointment appears to have been rather on the ground of his fathers great services than from any proof as yet given of special personal fitness on the part of Lord Canning. The new governor sailed from England in December 1855, and entered upon the duties of his office in India at the close of February 1856, in the year following his accession to office the deep-seated discontent of the people broke out in the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fears were entertained, and even the friends of the Governor-General to some extent shared them, the name of Clemency Canning, which was applied to him during the heated animosities of the moment, has since become a title of honour. While subsequently regarded as a humane and sensible measure, the Resolution made Cannings unpopular at a time when British popular opinion favored collective and indiscriminate reprisals. While rebellion was raging in Oudh he issued a proclamation declaring the lands of the province forfeited, and this step gave rise to much angry controversy. But from a sense of duty he continued at his post. Lord Canning replied to the despatch, calmly and in a statesman-like manner explaining and vindicating his censured policy, in April 1859 he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament for his great services during the rebellion. He was also made an extra civil grand cross of the Order of the Bath and he died in London on 17 June. About a month before his death he was created a Knight of the Garter, as he died without issue the titles became extinct. Prior to the rebellion, Canning and his wife had desired to produce a survey of Indian people
22.
John Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence
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Lawrence came from Richmond, North Yorkshire. Lawrence spent his years in Derry, part of the Province of Ulster in the northern part of Ireland. After attending the East India Company College, Lawrence went to India in 1829 along with his older brother, Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence. He soon became a magistrate and tax collector in Delhi, where he was known for his concern for the plight of the peasantry as long as they did not question British rule. In that role he was known for his reforms, for subduing the hill tribes. For this, he was created a baronet and received a pension from the East India Company of £2,000. He returned to Britain in 1859, but was sent back to India in 1863 to become Viceroy to succeed Lord Elgin, as Viceroy, Lawrence pursued a cautious policy, avoiding entanglement in Afghanistan and the Persian Gulf. In domestic affairs, he increased educational opportunities for Indians, and he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lawrence, of the Punjaub and of Grateley in the County of Southampton, on his return to England in 1869. Arthur Munby as quoted in Mundy, Man of Two Worlds, wrote, Thursday, passing through Kensington Tuesday, I saw a man of all others worth seeing-Sir John Lawrence. He was riding down the street alone--without even a groom, and he all unnoticed, and still a commoner, while Vernon Smith is a peer. But idiots are proverbially the favourites of fortune, Lord Lawrence died in June 1879, aged 68. He had married Harriette Katherine, daughter of The Reverend Richard Hamilton and he was succeeded in his titles by his eldest son, John. Their second son, Henry Arnold, was a rugby player. Sir Herbert became a First World War general and a banker and their younger son Charles was a businessman and was created Baron Lawrence of Kingsgate in 1923. Lady Lawrence died in December 1917, a boarding house at the East India Company College and a house at Foyle College was subsequently named after him. Lawrence is also a Senior Wing House at St Pauls School, Darjeeling, in India, a statue of him stands at Foyle and Londonderry College. Another statue of Lawrence stands in Waterloo Place in central London, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Lawrence, John Laird Mair Lawrence, 1st Baron. Mundy, Man of Two Worlds. Derek Hudson. The Life and Diaries of Arthur Munby, 1828-1910. Abacus Edition,1974, John Laird Mair Lawrence, a viceroy of India
23.
The Indian Antiquary
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It was also pioneering in its recording of Indian folklore and folktales. It was succeeded by The New Indian Antiquary and the Indian Antiquary, the Indian Antiquary was founded in 1872 by the archaeologist James Burgess CIE as a journal of original research relating to India. It was designed to enable the sharing of knowledge between scholars based in Europe and in India, the journal was a private venture, although no contributor or editor was ever paid for their work and the editors often had to support the publication out of their own pockets. Burgess was the first editor and he continued in that role until the end of 1884 when failing eyesight forced him to hand over to John Faithfull Fleet, volumes for 1925 to 1932 were published under the authority of the Council of the Royal Anthropological Institute. The first incarnation of the Antiquary ceased publication in 1933 with volume 62, number 783, several early volumes of the journal were reprinted by Swati Publications in Delhi,1984. The New Indian Antiquary was published between 1938 and 1947, and the Indian Antiquary between 1964 and 1971, the journal had an archaeological and historical focus, and in the late nineteenth century that naturally meant that epigraphy would be one of the principal subjects covered in its pages. A high standard of reproduction was essential so that scholars could work on the material without needing to see the originals. On one occasion during World War I, enemy action meant that expensive plates had to be sent from London three times before they reached Bombay safely, another area where the Antiquary led was in recording folklore and folktales
24.
George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston
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As Viceroy of India, he is noted for the creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam. As Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, he drew the Curzon Line as the eastern frontier of Poland. He was passed over as Prime Minister in 1923 in favour of Stanley Baldwin and his character polarised opinion amongst his contemporaries, sow gratitude and resentment along his path with equally lavish hands. He quarrelled endlessly and his arrogance and inflexibility made even more enemies, critics have been negative in contrasting his enormous talents and energy on behalf of British imperialism with his mixed results and unrealized ambitions. He was born at Kedleston Hall, built on the site where his family and his mother, worn out by childbirth, died when George was 16, her husband survived her by 41 years. Neither parent exerted an influence on Curzons life. Lord Scarsdale was an austere and unindulgent father who believed in the family tradition that landowners should stay on their land. He thus had little sympathy for those journeys across Asia between 1887 and 1895 which made his son one of the most travelled men who sat in a British cabinet. Paraman periodically forced him to parade through the wearing a conical hat bearing the words liar, sneak. Curzon later noted, No children well born and well-placed ever cried so much and he was educated at Wixenford School, Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford. At Eton he was a favourite of Oscar Browning, a relationship that led to his tutors dismissal. While at Eton, he was a figure who was liked and disliked with equal intensity by large numbers of masters. This strange talent for both attraction and repulsion stayed with him all his life, few people ever felt neutral about him, at Oxford he was President of the Union and Secretary of the Oxford Canning Club. Although he failed to achieve a first class degree in Greats, he won the Lothian and Arnold Prizes and he was elected a prize fellow of All Souls College in 1883. Whilst at Oxford, he was a contemporary and close friend of Cecil Spring Rice and Edward Grey. While at Oxford, Curzon was the inspiration for the following Balliol rhyme and my cheeks are pink, my hair is sleek, I dine at Blenheim once a week. Curzon became Assistant Private Secretary to Lord Salisbury in 1885, subsequent performances in the Commons, often dealing with Ireland or reform of the House of Lords, received similar verdicts. He was Under-Secretary of State for India in 1891–92 and Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1895–98
25.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
26.
John Marshall (archaeologist)
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Sir John Hubert Marshall, CIE was the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928. He was responsible for the excavation led to the discovery of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Marshall was educated at Dulwich College as well as Kings College, Cambridge, in 1898 he won the Porson Prize. It was thanks to Marshall that Indians were allowed for the first time to participate in excavations in their own country, in 1913, he began the excavations at Taxila, which lasted for twenty years. He laid the stone for the Taxila museum in 1918. The museum hosts many artifacts and also one of Marshalls very few portraits. He then moved on to other sites, including the Buddhist centres of Sanchi and his work revealed to the world the true age of Indian civilisation especially Indus Valley Civilization and Mauryan age. Marshall also led excavations at the prehistoric Sohr Damb mound near Nal in Baluchistan - a small collection of pottery vessels from the site is now in the British Museum. He is also known for his important part in excavations at Knossos, Marshall was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire in June 1910 and knighted in January 1915. The Buddhist Art of Gandhara, the Story of the Early School, Its Birth, Growth, the Bagh Caves in the Gwalior State. Sir John Marshall was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1936, Indus Valley Civilization J. H. Marshall, The Date of Kanishka, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland,1914, pp. 973-986. Sir John Marshall, A Guide to Taxila, calcutta, Superintendant Government Printing, India,1918, archive. org
27.
Indus Valley Civilisation
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The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
28.
Harappa
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Harappa is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about 24 km west of Sahiwal. The site takes its name from a village located near the former course of the Ravi River. The current village of Harappa is 6 km from the ancient site, although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the period of the British Raj, it is today just a small crossroads town of population 15,000. The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Cemetery H culture and the Indus Valley Civilization, centered in Sindh and the Punjab. Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilization by its first excavated site, the ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British rule, when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore-Multan Railway. In 2005, an amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artifacts during the early stages of building work. A plea from the Pakistani archaeologist Ahmad Hasan Dani to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a restoration of the site, the Indus Valley Civilization has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BCE. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged circa 2600 BCE along the Indus River valley in Punjab, the bricks discovered were made of red sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature. As early as 1826 Harappa located in west Punjab attracted the attention of a British officer in India, Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are generally characterized as having differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, the weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilization, on the other hand, were highly standardized, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for identification of property, although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites, harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli, what is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury found in South Asian prehistory. The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappas occupation, Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, kot Dijian phase, c.2800 –2600 BC. Harappan Phase, c.2600 –1900 BC, transitional Phase, c.1900 –1800 BC. Late Harappan Phase, c.1800 –1300 BC, by far the most exquisite and obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at sites as Mohenjo-Daro. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script, despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered
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Mohenjo-daro
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Mohenjo-daro is an archeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated an UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The site is threatened by erosion and improper restoration. Mohenjo-daro, the name for the site, has been variously interpreted as Mound of the Dead Men in Sindhi. The citys original name is unknown, based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the citys ancient name could have been Kukkutarma. Cock-fighting may have had ritual and religious significance for the city, with domesticated chickens bred there for sacred purposes, Mohenjo-daro may also have been a point of diffusion for the eventual worldwide domestication of chickens. Mohenjo-daro is located west of the Indus River in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan and it is sited on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 kilometres from the town of Larkana. The Indus still flows east of the site, but the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed on the side is now dry. Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BCE and it was one of the largest cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, which developed around 3,000 BCE from the prehistoric Indus culture. Mohenjo-daro was the most advanced city of its time, with remarkably sophisticated civil engineering, when the Indus civilization went into sudden decline around 1900 BCE, Mohenjo-daro was abandoned. The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years until R. D and this led to large-scale excavations of Mohenjo-daro led by Kashinath Narayan Dikshit in 1924–25, and John Marshall in 1925–26. In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of Marshall, D. K. Dikshitar, further excavations were carried out in 1945 by Ahmad Hasan Dani and Mortimer Wheeler. The last major series of excavations were conducted in 1964 and 1965 by Dr. George F. Dales, a dry core drilling conducted in 2015 by Pakistans National Fund for Mohenjo-daro revealed that the site is larger than the unearthed area. Mohenjo-daro has a layout based on a street grid of rectilinear buildings. Most were built of fired and mortared brick, some incorporated sun-dried mud-brick, the covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares. The Oxford Handbook of Cities in World History offers an estimate of a peak population of around 40,000. The sheer size of the city, and its provision of buildings and facilities. The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City
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Mortimer Wheeler
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Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler CH, CIE, MC, TD, FSA, FRS, FBA was a British archaeologist and officer in the British Army. Born in Glasgow to a family, Wheeler was raised largely in Yorkshire before relocating to London in his teenage years. After studying Classics at University College London, he began working professionally in archaeology, during World War I he volunteered for service in the Royal Artillery, being stationed on the Western Front, where he rose to the rank of major and was awarded the Military Cross. In 1926, he was appointed Keeper of the London Museum, there, he oversaw a reorganisation of the collection, successfully lobbied for increased funding, and began lecturing at UCL. In 1934, he established the Institute of Archaeology as part of the federal University of London, in this period, he oversaw excavations of the Roman sites at Lydney Park and Verulamium and the Iron Age hill fort of Maidan Castle. During World War II, he re-joined the Armed Forces and rose to the rank of brigadier, serving in the North African Campaign, returning to Britain in 1948, he divided his time between lecturing for the Institute of Archaeology and acting as archaeological adviser to Pakistans government. In later life, his books, cruise ship lectures. Helped to bring archaeology to a mass audience, appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy, he raised large sums of money for archaeological projects, and was appointed British representative for several UNESCO projects. Further, he is acclaimed as a major figure in the establishment of South Asian archaeology. However, many of his interpretations of archaeological sites have been discredited or reinterpreted. Mortimer Wheeler was born on 10 September 1890 in the city of Glasgow and he was the first child of the journalist Robert Mortimer Wheeler and his second wife Emily Wheeler. The son of a tea merchant based in Bristol, in youth Robert had considered becoming a Baptist minister, initially working as a lecturer in English literature, Robert turned to journalism after his first wife died in childbirth. His second wife, Emily, shared her husbands interest in English literature, and was the niece of Thomas Spencer Baynes and their marriage was emotionally strained, a situation exacerbated by their financial insecurity. Within two years of their sons birth, the moved to Edinburgh, where a daughter named Amy was born. The couple gave their two children nicknames, with Mortimer being Boberic and Amy being Totsy, when Wheeler was four, his father was appointed chief leader writer for the Bradford Observer. The family relocated to Saltaire, a village northwest of Bradford, a city in Yorkshire, northeast England. Wheeler was inspired by the moors surrounding Saltaire and fascinated by the areas archaeology and he later wrote about discovering a late prehistoric cup-marked stone, searching for lithics on Ilkley Moor, and digging into a barrow on Baildon Moor. Although suffering from ill health, Emily Wheeler taught her two children with the help of a maid up to the age of seven or eight
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Iron Age
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The Iron Age is an archaeological era, referring to a period of time in the prehistory and protohistory of the Old World when the dominant toolmaking material was iron. It is commonly preceded by the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia with exceptions, meteoric iron has been used by humans since at least 3200 BC. Ancient iron production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt ore, remove impurities. The start of the Iron Age proper is considered by many to fall between around 1200 BC and 600 BC, depending on the region, the earliest known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering, meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the record from the middle Bronze Age. While terrestrial iron is abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 °C placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tins low melting point of 231, similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of iron production in around 1200 BC. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of objects was fast. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during this time, more widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger, and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. Increasingly, the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India, ancient Iran, and ancient Greece. In other regions of Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe, the Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly alloys which were produced with a carbon content between approximately 0. 30% and 1. 2% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, however, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and alloys that were easier to make, such as wrought iron, were more common in lower-priced goods
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Arikamedu
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Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Southern India, in Kakkayanthope, Ariyankuppam Commune, Puducherry. It is 4 kilometres from the capital, Pondicherry of the Indian territory of Puducherry, sir Mortimer Wheeler 1945, and Jean-Marie Casal conducted achaeological excavations there in 1947–1950. The site was identified as the port of Podouke, known as an emporium in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, digs have found Amphorae, Arretine ware, Roman lamps, glassware, glass and stone beads, and gems at the site. Subsequent investigation by Vimala Begley from 1989 to 1992 modified this assessment, significant findings at Arikamedu include numerous Indo-Pacific beads, which facilitated fixing the period of its origin. It is located on the bank of the Ariyankuppam River, also known as Virampattinam River, as the site is located at the bend of the river it provides protection to sea-going vessels that dock there. The site has been subject to archaeological excavations. The archaeological site is spread over an area of 34.57 acres and has been under the control of the Archaeological Survey of India since 1982 and it is also linked with Viraiyapattinam or Virampattinam, meaning Port of Virai, a village next to Arikamedu. Virai, according to Sangam literature, was known as a port. Poduke is a Roman name and is said to be a corrupted version of the Tamil name Potikai, meaning a meeting place. The first mention about Arikamedu was in 1734, in a communication from the Consul of the Indo-French colony of Pondicherry and it informed the French East India Company that villagers were extracting old bricks from the Virampattinam. The earliest mention of the Arikamedu archaeological site was by Le Gentil of France, Gentil, after visiting Arikamedu, confirmed the earlier report of the Consul of the Indo-French colony. In 1765, when he visited the ruins at the site, the villagers told him that they had retrieved the bricks from an old fort of the king the Vira-Raguen. In 1937, Jouveau Dubreuil, an Indologist, also from France, purchased gem stone antiquities from local children, in particular, he found an intaglio carved with the picture of a man. As a numismatist, he identified the intaglio as Augustus Caesar and he also found fine beads and gems. He concluded that these belonged to the Roman Empire. Dubreuil informed the local Governor of Pondicherry about his find, and he published a short note about his findings. In the early 1940s, Service des Travaux Publics carried out random excavations, soon thereafter in 1945, the penultimate year of World War II, he mounted excavations in a scientific manner. He was looking for a site in India that could establish its cultural link, a datum of the Indian antiquities to the Greco-Roman period
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Stone Age
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The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make implements with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 8700 BCE and 2000 BCE with the advent of metalworking, bone tools were used during this period as well but are rarely preserved in the archaeological record. The Stone Age is further subdivided by the types of tools in use. According to the age and location of the current evidence, the cradle of the genus is the East African Rift System, especially toward the north in Ethiopia, where it is bordered by grasslands. The closest relative among the living primates, the genus Pan, represents a branch that continued on in the deep forest. The rift served as a conduit for movement into southern Africa and also north down the Nile into North Africa and through the continuation of the rift in the Levant to the vast grasslands of Asia. The oldest indirect evidence found of stone tool use is fossilised animal bones with tool marks, the oldest stone tools were excavated from the site of Lomekwi 3 in West Turkana, northwestern Kenya, and date to 3.3 million years old. Prior to the discovery of these Lomekwian tools, the oldest known stone tools had been found at sites at Gona, Ethiopia, on the sediments of the paleo-Awash River. All the tools come from the Busidama Formation, which lies above a disconformity, or missing layer, the oldest sites containing tools are dated to 2. 6–2.55 mya. One of the most striking circumstances about these sites is that they are from the Late Pliocene, excavators at the locality point out that. the earliest stone tool makers were skilled flintknappers. The possible reasons behind this seeming abrupt transition from the absence of tools to the presence thereof include. The species who made the Pliocene tools remains unknown, fragments of Australopithecus garhi, Australopithecus aethiopicus and Homo, possibly Homo habilis, have been found in sites near the age of the Gona tools. Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age, the first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The Chalcolithic by convention is the period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age, the transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 BCE and 2500 BCE for much of humanity living in North Africa and Eurasia. Note the Rudna Glava mine in Serbia, Ötzi the Iceman, a mummy from about 3300 BCE carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age, the Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BCE. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post–Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE, the proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance
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Chandravalli
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Chandravalli is an archaeological site located in the Chitradurga district of the state of Karnataka, India. The region is a formed by three hills, Chitradurga, Kirabanakallu and Cholagudda. It is a region with scrub vegetation with a stream running through it. Chandravalli was known as Chandanavati, name attributed to the king as this place was ruled by Chandrahasa. The Chandravalli cave temple is semilunar in shape located between two giant monolithic rocks, a site is about three km from Chitradurga. There is a lake which is adds the importance to cave temple, at Chandravalli there is a rock inscription of the first Kannada dynasty Kadambas founder Mayurasharma found in the Bhairaweshwara temple. In 1909 B L Rice, R Narasimhachar and R Shamashastry carried out the work at Chandravalli. During 1929-30 M H Krishna did the significant contribution, Chandravalli was first excavated by R. Narasimhachar who was the Director of Department of Archaeology and Museums of the Mysore state. Further excavations were carried out by H. M. Krishna in 1928-29, findings Two distinct periods, megalithic and Satavahana were noticed during the excavations. It was found that Chandravalli was inhabited from Iron Age onwards, the inscriptions found in the nearby hillocks belonged to the Chalukya and Hoysala period, with one belonging to the king Mayurasharma, the founder of the Kadamba dynasty. It was also a mortuary site, earthen ware The earthen ware found included megalithic pottery, painted vessels coated by a russet coloured wash, red and black coloured ware as well as rouletted ware. The paintings on these wares were linear and geometric and consisted of criss-cross, dotted lines, hatched triangles, the shapes of these wares were vessels with funnel-shaped lid, carinated bowls, three-legged vessels and other forms. Coins Coins of the following Indian kings were found, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III of Mysore, Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagar, various Satavahana kings, among the foreign coins found were denarii of Augustus Caesar and a coin of the Chinese Han dynasty Emperor Wu Ti. Other objects Other objects found included neoliths, a cist with a skeleton in it, pots containing bones and teeth of animals, one of the cists also appeared to contain the legs of a sarcophagus
