1.
Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
2.
Concept design
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Concept art is a form of illustration used to convey an idea for use in films, video games, animation, comic books, or other media before it is put into the final product. Concept art is referred to as visual development and/or concept design. This term can also be applied to retail, set, fashion, architectural, Concept art is developed in several iterations. Artists try several designs to achieve the result for the work. Designs are filtered and refined in stages to narrow down the options, Concept art is not only used to develop the work, but also to show the projects progress to directors, clients and investors. Once the development of the work is complete, advertising materials often resemble concept art, although these are made specifically for this purpose. It may have come about as part of automotive design for concept cars. A concept artist is an individual who generates a design for an item, character. This includes, but is not limited to, film, animation, a concept artist may be required for nothing more than preliminary artwork, or may be part of a creative team until a project reaches fruition. While it is necessary to have the skills of a fine artist, some concept artists may start as fine artists, industrial designers, animators, or even special effects artists. Interpretation of ideas and how they are realized is where the artists individual creativity is most evident. Many concept artists work in a studio or from home via freelance, a lot more concept artists are switching to freelance because of the job security of having multiple clients. There is a salary to working for a large studio. The average salary for a concept artist is 60-$70,000 a year, Concept art has embraced the use of digital technology. Raster graphics editors for digital painting have become more available, as well as hardware such as graphics tablets. Prior to this any number of mediums such as oil paints, acrylic paints, markers. Popular programs for artists include PhotoShop and Corel Painter. Others include manga studio, Art rage, and other well known programs
3.
New Orleans
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New Orleans is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city was 343,829 as of the 2010 U. S. Census, the New Orleans metropolitan area had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,452,502. The city is named after the Duke of Orleans, who reigned as Regent for Louis XV from 1715 to 1723, as it was established by French colonists and it is well known for its distinct French and Spanish Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music, and its celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is referred to as the most unique in the United States. New Orleans is located in southeastern Louisiana, straddling the Mississippi River, the city and Orleans Parish are coterminous. The city and parish are bounded by the parishes of St. Tammany to the north, St. Bernard to the east, Plaquemines to the south, and Jefferson to the south and west. Lake Pontchartrain, part of which is included in the city limits, lies to the north, before Hurricane Katrina, Orleans Parish was the most populous parish in Louisiana. As of 2015, it ranks third in population, trailing neighboring Jefferson Parish, La Nouvelle-Orléans was founded May 7,1718, by the French Mississippi Company, under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, on land inhabited by the Chitimacha. It was named for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, who was Regent of the Kingdom of France at the time and his title came from the French city of Orléans. The French colony was ceded to the Spanish Empire in the Treaty of Paris, during the American Revolutionary War, New Orleans was an important port for smuggling aid to the rebels, transporting military equipment and supplies up the Mississippi River. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, Count of Gálvez successfully launched a campaign against the British from the city in 1779. New Orleans remained under Spanish control until 1803, when it reverted briefly to French oversight, nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré dates from the Spanish period, the most notable exception being the Old Ursuline Convent. Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, thereafter, the city grew rapidly with influxes of Americans, French, Creoles, and Africans. Later immigrants were Irish, Germans, and Italians, Major commodity crops of sugar and cotton were cultivated with slave labor on large plantations outside the city. The Haitian Revolution ended in 1804 and established the republic in the Western Hemisphere. It had occurred several years in what was then the French colony of Saint-Domingue
4.
Portmanteau
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In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, whereas a hypothetical portmanteau of star and fish might be stish. Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice, for instance, take the two words fuming and furious. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, in then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, to carry, in modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. It has also used especially in Europe as a formal description for hat racks from the French words porter. An occasional synonym for portmanteau word is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending Frankenstein, many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch was introduced as a portmanteau word, in 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia, a scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger. Jeoportmanteau. is a category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy. The categorys name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy, responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander, oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UKs two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries, for example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a made by inserting a chicken into a duck. Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys Word of the Year in 2010. The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like permalance, advertainment, advertorial, infotainment, a company name may also be portmanteau as well as a product name. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to. giv people an essence of who they are within the same name and this is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life supercouples
5.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
6.
Ecology
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Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment. It is a field that includes biology, geography. Ecology includes the study of interactions that organisms have with other, other organisms. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting parts including organisms, the communities make up. Ecosystem processes, such as production, pedogenesis, nutrient cycling. These processes are sustained by organisms with specific life history traits, biodiversity, which refers to the varieties of species, genes, and ecosystems, enhances certain ecosystem services. Ecology is not synonymous with environment, environmentalism, natural history and it is closely related to evolutionary biology, genetics, and ethology. An important focus for ecologists is to improve the understanding of how biodiversity affects ecological function, Ecology is a human science as well. For example, the Circles of Sustainability approach treats ecology as more than the environment out there and it is not treated as separate from humans. Organisms and resources compose ecosystems which, in turn, maintain biophysical feedback mechanisms that moderate processes acting on living and non-living components of the planet, the word ecology was coined in 1866 by the German scientist Ernst Haeckel. Ecological thought is derivative of established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics, ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates and Aristotle laid the foundations of ecology in their studies on natural history. Modern ecology became a more rigorous science in the late 19th century. Evolutionary concepts relating to adaptation and natural selection became the cornerstones of modern ecological theory, the scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level to a planetary scale phenomena. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms, an ecosystems area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem. Several generations of a population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, support diverse bacterial communities, biodiversity describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are ways to index, measure, characterize
7.
Paolo Soleri
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Paolo Soleri was an Italian architect. He established the educational Cosanti Foundation and Arcosanti, Soleri was a lecturer in the College of Architecture at Arizona State University and a National Design Award recipient in 2006. He died at home of natural causes on 9 April 2013 at the age of 93, Soleri authored six books, including The Omega Seed, Arcology - City In the Image of Man, and numerous essays and monographs. Soleri was born in Turin, Italy and he was awarded his laurea in architecture from the Politecnico di Torino in 1946. He visited the United States in December 1946 and spent a year and a half in fellowship with Frank Lloyd Wright at Taliesin West in Arizona, during this time, he gained international recognition for a bridge design displayed at the Museum of Modern Art. In 1950 Soleri, with his wife Colly, returned to Italy where he was commissioned to build a ceramics factory, Ceramica Artistica Solimene. He adapted ceramics industry processes learned at time to use in his award-winning designs and production of ceramic and bronze windbells. For more than 40 years, proceeds from sales of the wind-bells have provided funds for construction to test his theoretical work, ceramic and bronze bells are still produced and sold at Arcosanti and Cosanti in Arizona. In 1956 he settled in Scottsdale, Arizona, with Colly and he built Arcosanti with the help of generations of architectural students, as a community and place to test urban design theories. This urban laboratory became internationally renowned, Paolo and Colly Soleri made a lifelong commitment to research and experimentation in urban planning. They established the Cosanti Foundation, an educational foundation. Soleris philosophy and works were influenced by the Jesuit paleontologist. Soleri died on 9 April 2013 and was buried at Arcosanti, the Cosanti Foundations major project is Arcosanti, a community planned for 5,000 people, designed by Soleri, Arcosanti has been in construction since 1970. Arcosanti is a prototype of a desert arcology, Soleris other arcology designs envisioned sites such as the ocean, et al. Since 1970, well over 6000 people have participated in Arcosantis construction and their international affiliation group is called the Arcosanti Alumni Network. As of 2010, construction is underway to complete Arcosantis Greenhouse Apron, the International Architecture Symposium Mensch und Raum at the Vienna University of Technology in 1984 received international attention. Paolo Soleri participated with, among others, Justus Dahinden, Dennis Sharp, Bruno Zevi, Jorge Glusberg, Otto Kapfinger, Frei Otto, Pierre Vago, Soleri was a distinguished lecturer in the College of Architecture at Arizona State University and a member of the Lindisfarne Association. In 1966, Paolo Soleri began working on the design for the Paolo Soleri Amphitheater in Santa Fe and it was built for the IAIA on what is now the campus of the Santa Fe Indian School using large silt cast forms
8.
Environmental impact
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Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical environment. Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the environment on individual, organizational or governmental levels. Environmentalism, a social and environmental movement, addresses environmental issues through advocacy, education, the carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million. This level is considered a tipping point, the amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change. We are already at risk of many areas of pollution. Its not next year or next decade, its now. Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Environment destruction caused by humans is a problem. By year 2050, the human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people. The human effects on Earth can be seen in different ways. A main one is the rise, and according to the report ”Our Changing Climate”. Since 1895, the U. S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 °F to 1.9 °F, major current environmental issues may include climate change, pollution, environmental degradation, and resource depletion etc. The conservation movement lobbies for protection of endangered species and protection of any ecologically valuable areas, genetically modified foods. The level of understanding of Earth has increased markebly in recent times through science especially with the application of the scientific method, environmental science is now a multi-disciplinary academic study taught and researched at many universities. This is used as a basis for addressing environmental issues, large amounts of data have been gathered and these are collated into reports, of which a common type is the State of the Environment publications. Environmental issues are addressed at a regional, national or international level by government organizations, the largest international agency, set up in 1972, is the United Nations Environment Programme. International non-governmental organizations include Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth and World Wide Fund for Nature, governments enact environmental policy and enforce environmental law and this is done to differing degrees around the world. Sustainability is the key to prevent or reduce the effect of environmental issues, for humans to live sustainably, the Earths natural resources must be used at a rate at which they can be replenished. Concerns for the environment have prompted the formation of green parties, initially these were formed in Australia, New Zealand and Germany but are now present in many other countries. There are a number of films being produced on environmental issues, especially on climate change
9.
Science fiction
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Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
10.
Peter F. Hamilton
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Peter F. Hamilton is a British author. He is best known for writing space opera, as of the publication of his tenth novel in 2004, his works had sold over two million copies worldwide. Peter F. Hamilton was born in Rutland, England on 2 March 1960 and he said in an interview, I did science at school up to age eighteen, I stopped doing English, English literature, writing at sixteen, I just wasnt interested in those days. After he started writing in 1987 he sold his first short story to Fear Magazine in 1988 and his first novel, Mindstar Rising, was published in 1993, followed by A Quantum Murder and The Nano Flower. After this he wrote a space opera, called The Nights Dawn Trilogy. As of 2008 he still lives in Rutland, near Rutland Water, with his wife Kate, daughter Sophie and he is currently working on a new trilogy of books set in a new universe collectively titled Salvation. Official website The Unisphere | A Peter F. Hamilton Fan Site Peter F. Hamilton at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
11.
The Neutronium Alchemist
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The Neutronium Alchemist is a science fiction novel by Peter F. Hamilton and is the second book in The Nights Dawn Trilogy. It follows on from The Reality Dysfunction and precedes The Naked God and it was published in the United Kingdom by Macmillan Publishers on 20 October 1997. The first United States edition, which is broken into two volumes, Consolidation and Conflict, followed in April and May 1998 from Time Warner Books, the second US edition, as a single volume, was published in December 2008 by Orbit Books. This novel, along others in the series, is noted for its length. They are able to back over into this universe and possess the living, gaining tremendous strength, agility. They overrun the planet Lalonde in a matter of weeks and spread beyond to the planets Atlantis and Norfolk and to the independent habitat Valisk, among others. The Kulu Kingdom colony world of Ombey is also infiltrated and a veteran of the Lalonde fiasco, at the end of The Reality Dysfunction the truth of the nature of the threat is discovered by several survivors of a botched attempt to rescue the situation on Lalonde. However, a threat has also emerged. The voidhawk Oenone reaches Jupiter and docks with one of the 4,250 habitats orbiting the planet, whilst medical assistance and trauma counselling begin to help heal Syrinx, the information from Laton and the events on Atlantis is transmitted to the Jovian Consensus. As they become aware of the scale of the crisis, the Edenists immediately switch their economy to a war footing, rendering Jupiter space impregnable to attack and they also develop personality-query systems which should render all Edenists, voidhawks and habitats immune to possession. They detach a quarter of the fleet and assign it to reinforce the Confederation Navy. Admiral Aleksandrovich summons an emergency session of the Confederation Assembly on its world of Avon. On Avon the Confederation Assembly is stunned to learn of the threat from the possessed, the Confederation Navy shuts down all interstellar flights to contain the threat and goes to its highest state of alert. In a startling move, the Tyrathca immediately cut themselves off from all contact with humanity for the duration of the crisis. The Kiint ambassador reveals that, many thousands of years ago, they suffered a possession crisis. They claim that their solution to the crisis is not applicable to humanity, Alkad Mzu departs from the blackhawk Udat, leaving behind a virus in its jump system which causes the destruction of Udat whilst making a wormhole transit. She does this both to protect knowledge of her whereabouts and also as revenge, Udat was one of the blackhawks which crippled the Beezling just before the Garissan Genocide, on the planet Norfolk, the possessed succeed in over-running most of the planet. Louise Kavanaghs father, Grant, is possessed and gives up his estate to forces loyal to Quinn Dexter
12.
Paolo Bacigalupi
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Paolo Tadini Bacigalupi is an American science fiction and fantasy writer. He has won the Hugo, Nebula, Compton Crook, Theodore Sturgeon, and Michael L. Printz awards and his fiction has appeared in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, Asimovs Science Fiction, and the environmental journal High Country News. His non-fiction essays have appeared in Salon. com and High Country News, and have been syndicated in newspapers including the Idaho Statesman, the Albuquerque Journal, and he was a webmaster for High Country News starting in 2003. His short fiction has been collected in Pump Six and Other Stories and his debut novel The Windup Girl, published by Night Shade Books in September 2009, won the Hugo, Nebula, and John W. Campbell Memorial Awards in 2010. The Windup Girl was also named by Time as one of the Top 10 Books of 2009. Ship Breaker, published by Little, Brown in 2010, was awarded the Michael L. Printz Award for best young adult novel and was nominated for the National Book Award for Young Peoples Literature. The Windup Girl, along many of his short stories, explores the effects of bioengineering. Energy storage is accomplished through the use of high-capacity springs, as well as simply transporting food to feed either megodonts or human labourers. Similar themes run through his book The Water Knife, where a future American Southwest is reduced to a dystopian Dust Bowl where water is a commodity for the wealthy. 2011, Nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novella for The Alchemist,2011, Won the Michael L. Printz Award for Best Young Adult Novel for Ship Breaker, Little, Brown 2010. 2012, Won the Prix Planète SF des blogueurs for The Windup Girl 2012, Won the Seiun Award for The Best Translated Novel for The Windup Girl, Hayakawa Publishing Corp,2011. 2013, Won the Seiun Award for The Best Translated Short Story for Pocketful of Dharma 2015, Nominated for the Edgar Award for Best Young Adult Novel for The Doubt Factory, Little, Brown 2014. The Windup Girl Ship Breaker The Drowned Cities Zombie Baseball Beatdown The Doubt Factory The Water Knife Bacigalupi, Paolo
13.
Human impact on the environment
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Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes impacts on biophysical environments, biodiversity, and other resources. The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human activity, the atmospheric scientist Paul Crutzen introduced the term Anthropocene in the mid-1970s. The term is used in the context of pollution emissions that are produced as a result of human activities but applies broadly to all major human impacts on the environment. Environmental impacts caused by the application of technology are often perceived as unavoidable for several reasons, third, according to the second law of thermodynamics, order can be increased within a system only by increasing disorder or entropy outside the system. Thus, technologies can create “order” in the economy only at the expense of increasing “disorder” in the environment. According to a number of studies, increased entropy is likely to be correlated to environmental impacts. The environmental impact of agriculture based on the wide variety of agricultural practices employed around the world. Ultimately, the impact depends on the production practices of the system used by farmers. The connection between emissions into the environment and the system is indirect, as it also depends on other climate variables such as rainfall. An example of a means-based indicator would be the quality of groundwater, an indicator reflecting the loss of nitrate to groundwater would be effect-based. The environmental impact of agriculture involves a variety of factors from the soil, to water, the air, animal and soil diversity, plants, and the food itself. Some of the issues that are related to agriculture are climate change, deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems, pollutants, soil degradation. These conservation issues are part of conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs. There is a gap between how many fish are available to be caught and humanity’s desire to catch them, a problem that gets worse as the world population grows. The journal Science published a study in November 2006, which predicted that, at prevailing trends. Many countries, such as Tonga, the United States, Australia and New Zealand, the impacts stem from the changed hydrological conditions owing to the installation and operation of the scheme. An irrigation scheme draws water from the river and distributes it over the irrigated area. These may be called direct effects, effects on soil and water quality are indirect and complex, and subsequent impacts on natural, ecological and socio-economic conditions are intricate
14.
Ecosystem
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An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles, as ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun and it generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have different characteristics simply because they contain different species. The introduction of species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present, although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate. Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance, classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this. The term ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley, Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment. Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates, Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. G. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the driver of the ecosystem. Most mineral nutrients, on the hand, are recycled within ecosystems. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, external factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem
15.
Broadacre City
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Broadacre City was an urban or suburban development concept proposed by Frank Lloyd Wright throughout most of his lifetime. He presented the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932, a few years later he unveiled a very detailed twelve by twelve foot scale model representing a hypothetical four square mile community. The model was crafted by the student interns who worked for him at Taliesin and it was initially displayed at an Industrial Arts Exposition in the Forum at the Rockefeller Center starting on April 15,1935. After the New York exposition, Kaufmann arranged to have the model displayed in Pittsburgh at an exposition titled New Homes for Old, the exposition opened on June 18 on the 11th floor of Kaufmanns store. Wright went on to refine the concept in later books and in articles until his death in 1959, many of the building models in the concept were completely new designs by Wright, while others were refinements of old ones, some of which had been rarely seen. Broadacre City was the antithesis of a city and the apotheosis of the newly born suburbia, in a sense it was the exact opposite of transit-oriented development. There is a station and a few office and apartment buildings in Broadacre City. All important transport is done by automobile and the pedestrian can exist safely only within the confines of the one acre plots where most of the population dwells, more recently, the development of the edge city is like an unplanned, incomplete version of Broadacre city. The R. W. Lindholm Service Station in Cloquet, Minnesota shows some of Wrights ideas for Broadacre City, list of planned cities Krohe, James Jr. Also in digital form on the Web, Frank Lloyd Wright & Broadacre City. In M. Pimlotts Without and within, Essays on territory, New York, W. F. Payson,1932 Wright, Frank Lloyd. University of Chicago Press,1945 Wright, Frank Lloyd, illustrations Photograph of Broadacre City model Plan of Broadacre City model
16.
Buckminster Fuller
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Richard Buckminster Bucky Fuller was an American architect, systems theorist, author, designer, and inventor. Fuller published more than 30 books, coining or popularizing terms such as Spaceship Earth, ephemeralization and he also developed numerous inventions, mainly architectural designs, and popularized the widely known geodesic dome. Carbon molecules known as fullerenes were later named by scientists for their structural and mathematical resemblance to geodesic spheres, Fuller was the second World President of Mensa from 1974 to 1983. Fuller was born on July 12,1895, in Milton, Massachusetts, the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews and he spent much of his youth on Bear Island, in Penobscot Bay off the coast of Maine. He often made items from materials he found in the woods and he experimented with designing a new apparatus for human propulsion of small boats. Later in life, Fuller took exception to the term invention, Fuller earned a machinists certification, and knew how to use the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment used in the sheet metal trade. Fuller attended Milton Academy in Massachusetts, and after that studying at Harvard College. He was expelled from Harvard twice, first for spending all his money partying with a vaudeville troupe, by his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment. Between his sessions at Harvard, Fuller worked in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer in the meat-packing industry. He also served in the U. S. Navy in World War I, as a radio operator, as an editor of a publication. After discharge, he worked again in the packing industry. In 1917, he married Anne Hewlett, Buckminster Fuller recalled 1927 as a pivotal year of his life. His daughter Alexandra had died in 1922 of complications from polio, Fuller dwelled on her death, suspecting that it was connected with the Fullers damp and drafty living conditions. This provided motivation for Fullers involvement in Stockade Building Systems, a business which aimed to provide affordable, in 1927, at age 32, Fuller lost his job as president of Stockade. The Fuller family had no savings, and the birth of their daughter Allegra in 1927 added to the financial challenges, Fuller drank heavily and reflected upon the solution to his familys struggles on long walks around Chicago. During the autumn of 1927, Fuller contemplated suicide, so that his family could benefit from an insurance payment. Fuller said that he had experienced a profound incident which would provide direction and he felt as though he was suspended several feet above the ground enclosed in a white sphere of light. A voice spoke directly to Fuller, and declared, From now on you need never await temporal attestation to your thought and you do not have the right to eliminate yourself
17.
Old Man River's City project
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The Old Man Rivers City project was an architectural design created by Buckminster Fuller in 1971. Fuller was asked to design the structure by the city of East St. Louis, Old Mans River City would have been a truly massive housing project for the citys 70,000 residents. The total capacity of the building, a circular multi-terraced dome, each family would have approximately 2,500 square feet of living space. I originally came to East St. Louis to discuss the design and possible realization of the Old Man Rivers City, having been asked to do so by East St. Louis community leaders themselves. It is moon-crater-shaped, the truncated cone top opening is a half-mile in diameter, rim-to-rim. The city has a one-mile -diameter geodesic, quarter-sphere transparent umbrella mounted high above it to permit full, the top of the dome roof is 1,000 feet high. From the esplanade the truncated mountain cone slopes downwardly, inward and outward, the moon craters inward and outward, exterior-surface slopes each consist of fifty terraces - the terrace floors are tiered vertically ten feet above or below one another. All the inwardly, downwardly sloping sides of the moon craters terraced cone are used for life, its outward-sloping
18.
East St. Louis, Illinois
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East St. Louis is a city in St. Clair County, Illinois, United States across the Mississippi River from St. Louis, Missouri in the Metro-East region of Southern Illinois. Once a bustling industrial center like many cities in the Rust Belt, in 1950, East St. Louis was the fourth largest city in Illinois when population peaked at 82,366. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 27,006, one of the highlights of the citys waterfront is the Gateway Geyser. Located on the grounds of Malcolm W. Martin Memorial Park, designed to complement the Gateway Arch across the river in St. Louis, it shoots water to a height of 630 feet, the same height as the Arch. Native Americans had long inhabited both sides of the Mississippi River, before the Civil War, settlers reported up to 50 mounds in the area that became East St. Louis, but most were lost to 19th-century development and later roadbuilding. East St. Louis lies within the American Bottom area of the present day Metro-East area of St. Louis and this name was given after the United States acquired the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, and European Americans began to settle in the area. The village was first named Illinoistown, East St. Louis was founded in 1797 by Captain James Piggott, a Revolutionary War veteran. In that year Piggott began operating a service across the Mississippi River. When Piggott died in 1799, his widow sold the business, moved to St. Louis County. Famed actress Virginia Mayo was a great granddaughter of Captain Piggott. The municipality called East St. Louis was established on April 1,1861, Illinoistown residents voted on a new name that day, and 183 voted to rename the town East St. Louis. Though it started as a town, East St. Louis soon grew to a larger city at the center of a growing economy in St. Louis. A period of industrial growth followed the American Civil War. Industries in East St. Louis made use of the availability of Illinois coal as fuel. Another early industry was meatpacking and stockyards, concentrated in one area to limit their nuisance to other jurisdictions, in the expansion, many businessmen became overextended in credit, and a major economic collapse followed the Panic of 1873. This was due to railroad and other manufacturing expansion, land speculation, the economic recession began in the East and steadily moved west, severely crippling the railroads, the main system of transportation. In response, railroad companies began dramatically lowering workers wages, forcing employees to work without pay and these wage cuts and additional money-saving tactics prompted strikes and massive unrest. While most of the strikes in the cities during 1877 were accompanied by violence
19.
Arcosanti
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Arcosanti is a projected experimental town with a molten bronze bell casting business in Yavapai County, central Arizona,70 mi north of Phoenix, at an elevation of 3,732 feet. Its arcology concept was posited by the Italian-American architect, Paolo Soleri and he began construction in 1970, to demonstrate how urban conditions could be improved while minimizing the destructive impact on the earth. He taught and influenced generations of architects and urban designers who studied and worked with him there to build the proposed town, the goal of Arcosanti is to explore the concept of arcology, which combines architecture and ecology. The project has been building a town on 25 acres of a 4. Ground was broken in 1970 to begin construction on the site, the most recently completed building was finished in 1989. The population has tended to vary between 50 and 150 people, many of students and volunteers. Ultimately, the goal has been for Arcosanti to house a population of 5,000 people, thirteen major structures have been built on the site to date, some several stories tall. One master plan, designed in 2001, envisions a massive complex, called Arcosanti 5000, many features are particular to the design and construction of Arcosanti. For example, tilt-up concrete panels are cast in a bed of silt acquired from the area, giving the concrete a unique texture. Many panels were cast with embedded art, most buildings are oriented southward to capture the suns light and heat — roof designs admit the maximum amount of sunlight in the winter and a minimal amount during the summer. The structure built to shelter bronze-casting is built in the form of an apse, existing structures at Arcosanti are meant to begin to provide for the complete needs of a community. A two-bedroom Sky Suite occupies the highest point in the complex, most of the buildings have accessible roofs. Arcosanti has a Camp area, built by and for the construction crew. It is used today as housing for people most interested in development of the agricultural department, Camp has a small greenhouse, with easy access to gardens and large agricultural fields that as of March 2017 were not being cultivated. Terraced greenhouses are planned along the slope of the building site for winter plant and garden space. Arcosanti was conceived of and remains primarily a center, with students from around the world visiting to attend workshops, classes. Tourists can take a tour of the site or make reservations to stay overnight in guest accommodations. Some Arcosanti funding comes from selling the bells made and cast from clay, additional funding comes from donations, and fees for workshops that last up to five weeks
20.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona
21.
Tokyo
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Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
22.
Shanghai
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Shanghai is the most populous city proper in the world, with a population of more than 24 million as of 2014. As one of the four direct-controlled municipalities of the Peoples Republic of China, it is a financial centre and transport hub. Located in the Yangtze River Delta in East China, Shanghai sits on the edge of the mouth of the Yangtze in the middle portion of the eastern Chinese coast. The municipality borders the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the north, south and west, as a major administrative, shipping and trading city, Shanghai grew in importance in the 19th century due to trade and recognition of its favourable port location and economic potential. The city was one of five treaty ports forced open to foreign trade following the British victory over China in the First Opium War, the subsequent 1842 Treaty of Nanking and 1844 Treaty of Whampoa allowed the establishment of the Shanghai International Settlement and the French Concession. The city then flourished as a center of commerce between China and other parts of the world, and became the financial hub of the Asia-Pacific region in the 1930s. However, with the Communist Party takeover of the mainland in 1949, trade was limited to other socialist countries, and the citys global influence declined. In the 1990s, the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping resulted in an intense re-development of the city, aiding the return of finance. The two Chinese characters in the name are 上 and 海, together meaning Upon-the-Sea. The earliest occurrence of this dates from the 11th-century Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence. There are disputes as to exactly how the name should be understood, Shanghai is officially abbreviated 沪 in Chinese, a contraction of 沪渎, a 4th- or 5th-century Jin name for the mouth of Suzhou Creek when it was the main conduit into the ocean. This character appears on all motor vehicle license plates issued in the municipality today, another alternative name for Shanghai is Shēn or Shēnchéng, from Lord Chunshen, a third-century BC nobleman and prime minister of the state of Chu, whose fief included modern Shanghai. Sports teams and newspapers in Shanghai often use Shen in their names, such as Shanghai Shenhua F. C. Huating was another early name for Shanghai. In AD751, during the dynasty, Huating County was established at modern-day Songjiang. Today, Huating appears as the name of a hotel in the city. The city also has various nicknames in English, including Pearl of the Orient, during the Spring and Autumn period, the Shanghai area belonged to the Kingdom of Wu, which was conquered by the Kingdom of Yue, which in turn was conquered by the Kingdom of Chu. During the Warring States period, Shanghai was part of the fief of Lord Chunshen of Chu and he ordered the excavation of the Huangpu River. Its former or poetic name, the Chunshen River, gave Shanghai its nickname of Shen, two important events helped promote Shanghais development in the Ming dynasty
23.
Expo 2010
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Expo 2010, officially the Expo 2010 Shanghai China, was held on both banks of the Huangpu River in Shanghai, China, from 1 May to 31 October 2010. It was a major World Expo registered by the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE, in the tradition of international fairs and expositions, the theme of the exposition was Better City – Better Life and signifies Shanghais new status in the 21st century as the next great world city. The Expo emblem features the Chinese character 世 modified to represent three people together with the 2010 date and it had the largest number of countries participating and was the most expensive Expo in the history of the worlds fairs. The Shanghai World Expo was also the largest Worlds Fair site ever at 5.28 square km, by the end of the expo, over 73 million people had visited – a record attendance – and 246 countries and international organizations had participated. On 16 October 2010, the set a single-day record of over 1.03 million visitors. Shanghai has been one of the main cities envisioned to host the expos for some time, many scholars have written about the possibility and made suggestions in books. Unofficial participation in fairs outside China have happened since 1851, in 1910, the Qing dynasty decided to host Chinas first fair with the 1910 Nanyang industrial exposition. Yeosu later won the bid to host Expo 2012, a three-month specialized world expo, in 2004, the Chinese central government established the Shanghai World Expo Organising Committee as the organization dedicated to host the event. The Organising Committee set up an Executive Committee which is responsible for the execution, besides, the Shanghai World Expo Coordination is founded for the daily affairs of the Executive Committee. The site of the event was the Nanpu Bridge–Lupu Bridge region in the center of Shanghai along both sides of the Huangpu River, the area of the Expo 2010 covers 5.28 km2. After winning the bid to host the Expo in 2002, Shanghai began a task to reshape the city. More than $48 billion was spent for the preparation, more than the cost of cleaning up Beijing in the preparations for the Olympics in 2008. Shanghai began clearing 2.6 square kilometres along the Huangpu River, that involved moving 18,000 families and 270 factories, including the Jiang Nan Shipyard, which employs 10,000 workers. During the expo, the site was crowded with national pavilions, sculpture gardens, shops. Shanghai trained more than 1.7 million volunteers and adopted Olympic-level security measures, adding metal detectors to subway entrances and screening cars entering the city. The Shanghai Expo also featured a version of the expo grounds featuring 3D renderings of the expo grounds. The Shanghai World Expo provided an opportunity for the tourism industry. During 2010’s Spring Festival, Shanghai received 2.79 million tourists, overall Shanghai’s tourism revenue achieved an increase of 13 percent year on year during Spring Festival, resulting in RMB2.1 billion in total revenue
24.
+15
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The Plus 15 or +15 Skyway network in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, is the worlds most extensive pedestrian skywalk system, with a total length of 18 kilometres and 62 bridges. The system is so named because the skywalks are approximately 15 feet above street level, the system was conceived and designed by architect Harold Hanen, who worked for the Calgary Planning Department from 1966 to 1969. This development earned him the 1970 Vincent Massey Award for Merit in Urban Planning, opening in 1970, the +15 network has expanded to include 59 enclosed bridges connecting dozens of downtown Calgary buildings. The central core of the system is a series of enclosed shopping centres, new developments were required to connect to the walkway system, in exchange for this, they were offered more floorspace. When not physically able to connect to nearby buildings, developers contribute to the Plus 15 Fund, managed by the city, the system has been subject to criticism. It has been identified with a decline in life in the Downtown Commercial Core. Street life is concentrated on streets or in neighbourhoods where there are no bridges. In recent years, the city has begun to re-evaluate the system, part of the goal of these studies was to find ways of addressing the problem of decreased daytime street life on some downtown streets. The possibility of limiting expansion has been raised to encourage more pedestrian street traffic, the +15 system bridges are integral with the buildings they serve. City planning by-laws presently confer tax credits to developers and building owners who connect new buildings to the existing system and this may change in the future, however, if the city begins to consider relaxing these bylaws. Presently, however, businesses and general public make extensive use of the +15 system—a system that has served to enhance the flow of human traffic, the +15 system has and will likely continue to provide both economic and climatic benefits now and in the future. The Plus 15 is one of the plot elements in the film waydowntown. List of attractions and landmarks in Calgary Skyway Underground City, Montreal Plus 15 Network Map +15 Map with iPhone app +15 Ninja - Directions, Meetups & Directory
25.
Calgary
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Calgary is a city in the Canadian province of Alberta. It is situated at the confluence of the Bow River and the Elbow River in the south of the province, in an area of foothills and prairie, the city anchors the south end of what Statistics Canada defines as the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The city had a population of 1,239,220 in 2016, making it Albertas largest city, also in 2016, Calgary had a metropolitan population of 1,392,609, making it the fourth-largest census metropolitan area in Canada. The Calgary CMA is home to the second-highest number of head offices in Canada among the countrys 800 largest corporations. In 1988, Calgary became the first Canadian city to host the Winter Olympic Games, Calgary was named after Calgary on the Isle of Mull, Scotland. In turn, the name originates from a compound of kald and gart, similar Old Norse words, meaning cold and garden, alternatively, the name might be Gaelic Cala ghearraidh, meaning beach of the meadow, or Gaelic for either clear running water or bay farm. The Calgary area was inhabited by people whose presence has been traced back at least 11,000 years. Before the arrival of Europeans, the area was inhabited by the Blackfoot, Blood, Peigan, in 1787, cartographer David Thompson spent the winter with a band of Peigan encamped along the Bow River. He was a Hudsons Bay Company trader and the first recorded European to visit the area, John Glenn was the first documented European settler in the Calgary area, in 1873. The site became a post of the North-West Mounted Police, the NWMP detachment was assigned in 1875 to protect the western plains from US whisky traders, and to protect the fur trade. Originally named Fort Brisebois, after NWMP officer Éphrem-A, Brisebois, it was renamed Fort Calgary in 1876 by Colonel James Macleod. When the Canadian Pacific Railway reached the area in 1883, over a century later, the Canadian Pacific Railway headquarters moved to Calgary from Montreal in 1996. Calgary was officially incorporated as a town in 1884, and elected its first mayor, in 1894, it was incorporated as The City of Calgary in what was then the North-West Territories. The Calgary Police Service was established in 1885 and assumed municipal, local duties from the NWMP, the Calgary Fire of 1886 occurred on November 7,1886. Fourteen buildings were destroyed with losses estimated at $103,200, although no one was killed or injured, city officials drafted a law requiring all large downtown buildings to be built with Paskapoo sandstone, to prevent this from happening again. After the arrival of the railway, the Dominion Government started leasing grazing land at minimal cost, as a result of this policy, large ranching operations were established in the outlying country near Calgary. Already a transportation and distribution hub, Calgary quickly became the centre of Canadas cattle marketing and meatpacking industries. By the late 19th century, the Hudsons Bay Company expanded into the interior and established posts along rivers that later developed into the cities of Winnipeg, Calgary
26.
Underground City, Montreal
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Moreover, the first iteration of the Underground City was developed out of the open pit at the southern entrance to the Mount Royal Tunnel, where Place Ville Marie and Central Station stand today. Though most of the tunnels pass underground, many of the key passageways and principal access points are located at ground level. In this regard, the Underground City is more of a city than a truly subterranean city. The network is useful during Montreals long winters, during which time well over half a million citizens are estimated to use it every day. The network is largely controlled and well-lit, and is arranged in a u-shape with two principal north–south axes connected by an east–west axis. Combined, there are 32 kilometres worth of tunnels over twelve square kilometres of the most densely populated part of Montreal. In 2004, the network of the underground city was re-branded and given the name RÉSO. The O at the end of the word is the logo of the Montreal Metro, schematic maps bearing the RÉSO logo are found throughout the network. The underground city is promoted as an important tourist attraction by most Montreal travel guidebooks, for most Montrealers, however, it tends to be considered more as a large mall complex linking Metro stations — they may not even know they are in it. Many Canadian cities have some kind of tunnel or skywalk system downtown to help avoid the weather. Most parts of the Montreal underground city are open while the Metro is in operation, maps of the underground city and the Metro can be obtained free of charge from all Metro stations, and the network of buildings is indicated on most maps of the downtown core. The RÉSO is possibly the most famous among other cities in the world. Nearly 500,000 people use it per day and it is also the largest underground complex in the world. It stretches for 32 kilometers and covers 4 million square meters, the vision for the underground city was originally that of urbanist Vincent Ponte, for whom a commemorative plaque was unveiled in November 2006 at Place Ville-Marie. A tunnel linked it to Central Station and the Queen Elizabeth Hotel, square-Victoria-OACI station connected to the Tour de la Bourse, Montreals stock exchange building. McGill station was linked with The Bay, Eatons, Centre Eaton. Between 1984 and 1989, the city grew from 12 km of passages to almost 22 km. Mega-projects added to the size throughout the 1990s, including Le 1000 De La Gauchetière, Le 1250 René-Lévesque, although these buildings have only a secondary commercial sector, they use their connection to the underground city as a selling point for their office space
27.
Minneapolis Skyway System
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It is the longest continuous system in the world. The skyways are owned by individual buildings in Minneapolis, and as such they do not have opening and closing times. The eight miles of skyway are comparable to the Houston tunnel system, the systems of Canadian cold-weather cities Toronto and Montreal, several condominium and apartment complexes are skyway-connected as well, allowing residents to live, work, and shop downtown without having to leave the skyway system. The citys first skyways were planned by real estate developer Leslie Park in the early 1960s and he built two skyways connecting the newly constructed Northstar Center building to the Northwestern Bank Building and the Roanoke Building. The skyway to the Northwestern Bank Building was built in 1962, the second skyway still remains in use today and is the systems oldest segment. The system grew to 7 total segments by 1972, though many of the skyways remained disconnected from one another, the construction of the IDS Center in 1974 helped to unify the system. The building featured skyways in all four directions as well as an atrium area called the Crystal Court. In 1976, the Downtown Council produced the first formal maps, in 2016, the U. S. IDS Center Foshay Tower U. S. Minneapolis Dept. of Public Works,2009
28.
Fermont
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Fermont is a town in northeastern Quebec, Canada, near the Quebec-Labrador border about 23 kilometres from Labrador City on Route 389, which connects to the Trans-Labrador Highway. It is the seat of the Regional County Municipality of Caniapiscau, Fermont was founded as a company town in the early 1970s to exploit rich iron ore deposits from Mont Wright, that is about 25 kilometres to the west from the town site. The structure was designed to be a windscreen to the rest of the town and it permits residents to never leave the building during the long winter, which usually lasts about seven months. The town, designed by Maurice Desnoyers and Norbert Schoenauer, was inspired by projects in Sweden designed by Ralph Erskine, notably that of Svappavaara. The building measures 1.3 kilometres long and stands 50 metres high, following the depletion of the Jeannine Lake Mine at Gagnon in the late 1960s, the Québec Cartier Mining Company began to develop the Mont Wright Mine. This was a project that involved mining, processing. Some 1600 employees would be needed, and the town of Fermont was constructed to house them, by the end of 1972, the first people settled there. That same year, the Fermont post office opened, and in 1974, although fluency in French is common in Nunavik and other points north, most in the North have adopted English as their primary language for communication outside their communities. Through its status as the northernmost Francophone settlement, it is also the northernmost Romance-speaking town as well, a small Francophone community can be found in Dawson City, where they constitute a small but noticeable minority. The city council is composed of a mayor and six city councillors, the mayor is Lise Pelletier, and the councillors are Dave Bouchard, Janelle Gauthier, Claude Meilleur, Brigitte Poitras, Martin St-Laurent and Yan St-Pierre. The local economy is dependent on the Mont Wright and Fire Lake Mines owned by Québec Cartier Mining Company. Over 80% of municipal revenues come from mining operations, average earnings for full-time workers was $63,982 in 2001, compared to $39,217 in Quebec as a whole. This went up to $70,102 in 2006, whereas the average dropped to $37,722. The mine product is shipped to Port-Cartier on the Cartier Railway where it is converted to pellets, in 2006 the mine was affected by a labour dispute which lasted from early April to early June. It was amicably resolved with a contract renewal. Fermont has a subarctic climate with long, severe winters and short
29.
Houston tunnel system
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The Houston tunnel system is a network of subterranean, climate-controlled, pedestrian walkways that links 95 full city blocks 20 feet below Houstons downtown streets. It is approximately 6 miles long, there are similar systems in Chicago, Dallas, Oklahoma City, Montreal and Toronto. The first link was built in the 1930s by Ross Sterling to connect two neighboring buildings he owned, inspired by the system at Rockefeller Plaza in New York City. Soon after, Will Horwitz, an entertainment entrepreneur, connected three of his vaudeville and movie theaters to save on air-conditioning. Portions of the tunnel contain gift shops, newsstands, banks, technology centers, flower shops, copy centers, dry cleaners and they are widely and heavily used by office workers and tourists. Access is allowed to the public into these buildings with few restrictions, during normal operating hours. Most of the areas of the Tunnel are in the basements of these buildings. While walking through, one can determine which building s/he is in by the unique signage and/or architectural design of building, as well as the wayfinding system. Most of the Tunnel is in the half of downtown Houston. The tunnel is open during weekday business hours only. The Tunnel has been criticized for its numerous stairways, especially in the northern portion, the Harris County tunnel at the far north side of downtown is not connected to the rest of the system by either tunnels or skywalks. It connects Harris County courts, jails, and associated buildings totaling 10 blocks, six blocks of the St. Joseph Medical Center are connected via skywalks at the southeast corner of downtown near the Pierce elevated
30.
Anchorage, Alaska
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Anchorage is a unified home rule municipality in the U. S. state of Alaska. All together, the Anchorage metropolitan area, which combines Anchorage with the neighboring Matanuska-Susitna Borough, had a population of 401,635 in 2016. Anchorage is located in the portion of Alaska at the terminus of the Cook Inlet on a peninsula formed by the Knik Arm to the north. The city limits span 1,961.1 square miles encompass the urban core. Due to its location on the globe, being almost equidistant from New York City, Tokyo, Anchorage has been named an All-America City four times, in 1956,1965, 1984–85, and 2002, by the National Civic League. It has also named by Kiplinger as the most tax-friendly city in the United States. Russian presence in south central Alaska was well established in the 19th century, in 1867, U. S. Secretary of State William H. Seward brokered a deal to purchase Alaska from Imperial Russia for $7.2 million. His political rivals lampooned the deal as Sewards folly, Sewards icebox, by 1888, gold was discovered along Turnagain Arm. Alaska became a United States territory in 1912, Anchorage, unlike every other large town in Alaska south of the Brooks Range, was neither a fishing nor mining camp. The area surrounding Anchorage lacks significant economic metal minerals, a number of Denaina settlements existed along Knik Arm for years. By 1911 the families of J. D. Bud Whitney, jack Brown, and his bride, Nellie, in 1912 to have lived in the Ship Creek valley in the 1910s prior to the large influx of settlers. The city grew from its choice as the site, in 1914, under the direction of Frederick Mears. The area near the mouth of Ship Creek, where the headquarters was located. A town site was mapped out on higher ground to the south of the tent city, greatly noted in the years since for its order and rigidity compared with other Alaska town sites. In 1915, territorial governor John Franklin Alexander Strong encouraged residents to change the name to one that had more significance. In the summer of year, residents held a vote to change the citys name. However, the government ultimately declined to change the citys name. Anchorage was incorporated on November 23,1920, construction of the Alaska Railroad continued until its completion in 1923
31.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
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Chicago Pedway
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With a length of more than 40 downtown blocks, it contains shops, restaurants and public art and helps pedestrians in inclement weather. Most connections to the pedway are commercial or government buildings, including hotels, columbus Plaza, The Heritage at Millennium Park, the Park Millennium,200 North Dearborn Apartments, and Aqua are the only residential buildings connected to the pedway. Since the Regional Transportation Authoritys removal of the turnstiles in November 2003, the tunnels between Chase Tower and Two First National Plaza remain but are closed to the general public. Chase Tower is still connected to the Blue Line subway and to the restaurant structure in the south-west corner of the adjoining Exelon Plaza, numerous smaller pedways throughout the central business district are not connected to the main network
33.
Chicago Loop
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The Loop is the central business district of Chicago, Illinois. It is one of the citys 77 designated community areas, the Loop is home to Chicagos commercial core, City Hall, and the seat of Cook County. In the late century, cable car turnarounds and prominent elevated railway encircled the area. In what is now the Loop, on the bank of the Chicago River, near todays Michigan Avenue Bridge. It was the first settlement in the sponsored by the United States. Other research has concluded that the Loop was not used as a proper noun until after the 1895–97 construction of the Union elevated railway loop, Loop architecture has been dominated by skyscrapers and high-rises since early in its history. Some of the buildings in this district were instrumental in the development of towers. Chicagos street numbering system – dividing addresses into North, South, East, Chicago is still the nations rail transportation hub and passenger lines once reached seven Loop-area stations by the 1890s. Transfers from one to the other was a business for taxi drivers until the long-distance lines gave way to Amtrak in the 1970s with the majority of trains concentrated at Chicago Union Station. This area abounds in shopping opportunities, including the Loop Retail Historic District and it includes Chicagos former Marshall Fields department store location in the Marshall Field and Company Building, the original Sullivan Center Carson Pirie Scott store location. Chicagos Downtown Theatre District is also found within this area, along with numerous restaurants, Chicago has a famous skyline which features many of the tallest buildings in the world as well as the Chicago Landmark Historic Michigan Boulevard District. Chicagos skyline is spaced out throughout the area, giving it a graceful beautiful appearance. Chicagos third tallest building, the Aon Center, is located just south of Illinois Center, the complex is at the east end of the Loop, east of Michigan Avenue. Two Prudential Plaza is also located here, just to the west of the Aon Center, the Loop contains a wealth of outdoor sculpture, including works by Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, Henry Moore, Marc Chagall, Magdalena Abakanowicz, Alexander Calder, and Jean Dubuffet. Chicagos waterfront, which is almost exclusively recreational beach and park areas from north to south, the area also hosts the annual music festival Lollapalooza which features popular alternative rock, heavy metal, EDM, hop hop and punk rock artists. Trips down the Chicago River, including tours, by commercial boat operators are great favorites with both locals and tourists alike. The Loop is the seat of Chicagos government and it is also the government seat of Cook County, Illinois and houses an office for the governor of the State of Illinois. The century old City Hall/County Building houses the chambers of the Mayor, City Council, across the street, the Richard J. Daley Center accommodates a famous Picasso sculpture and the state law courts
34.
Las Vegas Strip
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The Las Vegas Strip is a stretch of South Las Vegas Boulevard in Clark County, Nevada, known for its concentration of resort hotels and casinos. The Strip is approximately 4.2 miles in length, located south of the Las Vegas city limits in the unincorporated towns of Paradise. However, the Strip is often referred to as being in Las Vegas, most of the Strip has been designated an All-American Road, and is considered a scenic route at night. Many of the largest hotel, casino, and resort properties in the world are located on the Las Vegas Strip, fourteen of the worlds 25 largest hotels by room count are on the Strip, with a total of over 62,000 rooms. One of the most visible aspects of Las Vegas cityscape is its use of dramatic architecture, historically, the casinos that were not in Downtown Las Vegas along Fremont Street were limited to outside of the city limits on Las Vegas Boulevard. In 1959 the Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign was constructed exactly 4.5 miles outside of the city limits, the sign is today about 0.4 miles south of the southernmost entrance to Mandalay Bay. In the strictest sense, the Strip refers only to the stretch of Las Vegas Boulevard that is roughly between Sahara Avenue and Russell Road, a distance of 4.2 miles. However, the term is used to refer not only to the road but also to the various casinos and resorts that line the road. The traditional definition considers the Strips northern terminus as the SLS, Mandalay Bay, located just north of Russell Road, is the southernmost resort considered to be on the Strip. Because of the number and size of the resorts, the Resort Corridor can be quite wide, Interstate 15 runs roughly parallel and 0.5 to 0.8 miles to the west of Las Vegas Boulevard for the entire length of the Strip. Paradise Road runs to the east in a fashion. The eastern side of the Strip is bounded by McCarran International Airport south of Tropicana Avenue, north of this point, the Resort Corridor can be considered to extend as far east as Paradise Road, although some consider Koval Lane as a less inclusive boundary. Interstate 15 is sometimes considered the edge of the Resort Corridor from Interstate 215 to Spring Mountain Road. North of this point, Industrial Road serves as the western edge, the famous Welcome to Fabulous Las Vegas sign is located in the median just south of Russell Road, across from the now-demolished Klondike Hotel & Casino. Marketing for these casinos usually states that they are on southern Las Vegas Boulevard and not Strip properties. The first casino to be built on Highway 91 was the Pair-o-Dice Club in 1931 and that casino stood for almost 20 years before being destroyed by a fire in 1960. Its success spawned a second hotel on what would become the Strip, the funding for many projects was provided through the American National Insurance Company, which was based in the then notorious gambling empire of Galveston, Texas. Las Vegas Boulevard South was previously called Arrowhead Highway, or Los Angeles Highway, the Strip was named by Los Angeles police officer and businessman Guy McAfee, after his hometowns Sunset Strip
35.
Mandalay Bay
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Mandalay Bay is a 43-story luxury resort and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada. It is owned and operated by MGM Resorts International, One of the propertys towers operates as the Delano, also the Four Seasons Hotel is independently operated within the Mandalay Bay tower, occupying 5 floors. Mandalay Bay has 3,309 hotel rooms,24 elevators, adjacent to the hotel are the 2,000,000 square feet Mandalay Bay Convention Center and the 12, 000-seat Mandalay Bay Events Center. The Mandalay Bay Tram connects the resort to its properties, Excalibur and Luxor. Circus Circus Enterprises bought the Hacienda for $80 million in 1995 and they closed it on December 1,1996, and imploded it on New Years Eve,1996. The Mandalay Bay project was introduced on December 31,1996, as Hawaiian-themed, in February 1998, the project was renamed Mandalay Bay, despite the fact there is no actual bay in the inland city of Mandalay in Myanmar. During construction engineers discovered vertical movements and particularly differential movements between the core and the wings. The tower core was sinking at a rate of 1⁄2 to 3⁄4 inch per week, if these movements were not stopped, severe structural damage would occur and the building would have been at risk of eventual collapse. Construction was halted while a solution was developed and implemented, since then, there have not been any reports of this problem recurring. In June 1999, Circus Circus changed its name to Mandalay Resort Group, the convention center was added in January 2003. When it opened, it was ranked as the fifth largest in the United States and it also offered the largest unobstructed ballroom in the country, at 100,000 square feet. On May 23,2002, the Mandalay Resort Group announced a second 1, 122-room hotel tower, construction began on the tower in September 2002. The name of the tower, THEhotel at Mandalay Bay, was chosen in September 2003, the tower opened on December 17,2003. In February 2005, Mandalay Resort Group was sold to MGM Mirage, the acquisition was finalized on April 25,2005. The gold coloring of the hotel is a result of gold used on the windows. The top 3 floors are penthouses, with a lounge on level 62 for guests staying in the penthouses. The resorts second tower, with 45 stories and 1,117 suites, previously operated as THEhotel at Mandalay Bay, each suite is at least 750 square feet. Five floors of the hotel building are occupied by the five-star
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Las Vegas Convention Center
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The Las Vegas Convention Center is owned and operated by the Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority in Winchester, Nevada. Being one of the largest convention centers in the world with 1,940,631 sq ft of exhibit space and it is the largest single-level convention center in the world. The Conexpo-Con/Agg construction trade show in 2008 used the most space,2,400,000 sq ft, the LVCC is adjacent to the Westgate Las Vegas Resort & Casino and the Renaissance Las Vegas Hotel and is accessible from the Las Vegas Monorail. At the end of 2010, the entire Las Vegas Valley had more than 10,000,000 sq ft of exhibit space, city and county community leaders realized in the 1950s, the need for a convention facility. The initial goal was to increase the rates of hotels during slow tourist months. A site was one block east of the Las Vegas Strip at the site of the Las Vegas Park Speedway. A6,300 seat, silver-domed rotunda, with an adjoining 90,000 sq ft exhibit hall opened in April 1959 and it hosted The Beatles on August 20,1964. Also, the venue was home to the UNLV Runnin Rebels mens basketball team from 1966 to 1982 and it was demolished in 1990 creating space for expansion. When completed,1,600,000 sq ft, with 1,300,000 sq ft for exhibitors, the Las Vegas Convention Center Act of 1971 authorized the use of $7 million to rebuild, remodel or expand. A1998 expansion increased the center to 1,900,000 sq ft, during the expansion, the closed Landmark Hotel and Casino was imploded to add more parking. While it functioned, COMDEX was the most attended show in the United States with over 200,000 attendees on several occasions. Another expansion, started in 2002, called the South Hall, when completed in 2004, it crossed over a major roadway with four bridges connecting the facilities. As of 2009, the Consumer Electronics Show is the most attended trade show at this location with more than 140,000 attendees. The Convention Center dome hosted two Billy Graham Crusades between 1978 and 1980, on December 19,1993, the draw was made for 1994 FIFA World Cup, A variety of shows have been taped in the convention center including Food Network specials and the 2009 Jeopardy. Numerous conventions produce live shows in the facility, the Las Vegas Convention Center is about to undergo an $890 million expansion, the 14th in its history. The expansion is intended to increase the centers meeting space and improve the overall design. The 500,000 sq ft expansion includes 86,000 sq ft of dedicated meeting space, the authority has announced plans to expand the direction of the LVCC by creating a Las Vegas Global Business District. Those plans resulted in the announcement for an acquisition of the Riviera in February 2015 for $182.5 million
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Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
38.
PATH (Toronto)
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PATH is a network of underground pedestrian tunnels, elevated walkways, and at-grade walkways connecting the office towers of Downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is more than 30-kilometre long, according to Guinness World Records, PATH is the largest underground shopping complex in the world with 371,600 square metres of retail space. The PATH networks northerly point is the Toronto Coach Terminal at Dundas Street and Bay Street and its main axes of walkways generally parallel Yonge Street and Bay Street. It was the first underground pathway in Toronto, and is often credited as a historic precursor to the current PATH network. Another original underground linkage, built in 1927 to connect Union Station, the network of underground walkways expanded under city planner Matthew Lawson in the 1960s. Torontos downtown sidewalks were overcrowded, and new towers were removing the much-needed small businesses from the streets. Lawson thus convinced several important developers to construct underground malls, pledging that they would eventually be linked, the city originally helped fund the construction, but with the election of a reform city council this ended. This also converted low-valued basements into some of the most valuable retail space in the country, the first expansion of the network occurred in the 1970s with the construction and underground connection of the Richmond-Adelaide office tower and the Sheraton Centre hotel complex. In 1987, City Council adopted a unified wayfinding system throughout the network, a colour-coded system with directional cues was deployed in the early 1990s. Within the various buildings, pedestrians can find a PATH system map, the signage can be hard to find inside some of the various connected buildings. Building owners concerned about losing customers to neighbouring buildings insisted that the signs not dominate their buildings, the city relented and the result is the current system. Many complain that the system is hard to navigate, PATH provides an important contribution to the economic viability of the citys downtown core. Its underground location provides pedestrians with a haven from the winter cold and snow. In 2011, the City of Toronto released an expansion plan for the PATH. As part of the plan there will be 45 new entry points. Toronto planners have begun work to guide future PATH development and ensure PATH link construction is included in basement levels of key new buildings, more than 50 buildings or office towers are connected through the PATH system. It comprises twenty parking garages, five stations, two major department stores, two major shopping centres, six major hotels, and a railway terminal. Underground city Official website Official PATH map Online Directory of the PATH
39.
McMurdo Station
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The McMurdo Station is a United States Antarctic research center on the south tip of Ross Island, which is in the New Zealand-claimed Ross Dependency on the shore of McMurdo Sound in Antarctica. It is operated by the United States through the United States Antarctic Program, the station is the largest community in Antarctica, capable of supporting up to 1,258 residents, and serves as one of three United States Antarctic science facilities. All personnel and cargo going to or coming from Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station first pass through McMurdo, british explorer Robert Falcon Scott first established a base close to this spot in 1902 and built Discovery Hut, still standing adjacent to the harbour at Hut Point. The volcanic rock of the site is the southernmost bare ground accessible by ship in the Antarctic, the United States officially opened its first station at McMurdo on February 16,1956. Founders initially called the station Naval Air Facility McMurdo, on November 28,1957, Admiral George J. Dufek was present with a U. S. congressional delegation during a change of command ceremony. McMurdo became the center of scientific and logistical operation during the International Geophysical Year, the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System, was opened for signature on December 1,1959, and officially entered into force on June 23,1961. The first scientific diving protocols were established before 1960 and the first diving operations were documented in November 1961, in 1974, Mary Alice McWhinnie and Sister Mary Odile Cahoon became the first women to winter-over at McMurdo Station. On March 3,1962, operators activated a nuclear plant at the station. The plant, like nearby Scotts Discovery Hut, was prefabricated in modules, engineers designed the components to weigh no more than 30,000 pounds each and to measure no more than 8 feet 8 inches by 8 feet 8 inches by 30 feet. A single core no larger than an oil drum served as the heart of the nuclear reactor and these size and weight restrictions were intended to allow the reactor to be delivered in an LC-130 Hercules aircraft. However, the components were delivered by ship. The reactor generated 1.8 MW of electrical power and reportedly replaced the need for 1,500 US gallons of oil daily, engineers applied the reactors power, for instance, in producing steam for the salt water distillation plant. As a result of continuing safety issues, the U. S. Navy Nuclear Power Program decommissioned the plant in 1972, after the nuclear power station was no longer operational, conventional diesel generators were used. There were a number of 500 kilowatts diesel generators in a central powerhouse providing electric power, a conventionally fueled water desalination plant provided fresh water. The station is home to the continents two ATMs, both provided by Wells Fargo Bank. Scientists and other personnel at McMurdo are participants in the USAP, werner Herzogs 2007 documentary Encounters at the End of the World reports on the life and culture of McMurdo Station from the point of view of residents. An annual sealift by cargo ships as part of Operation Deep Freeze delivers 8 million U. S. gallons of fuel and 11 million pounds of supplies, the ships are operated by the U. S. Military Sealift Command but are manned by civilian mariners, cargo may range from mail, construction materials, trucks, tractors, dry and frozen food, to scientific instruments
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United States Antarctic Program
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The United States Antarctic Program is an organization of the United States government which has presence in the continent of Antarctica. Founded in 1959, the USAP manages all U. S. scientific research, currently, the USAP maintains three year-round research stations in Antarctica, the McMurdo Station, the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the Palmer Station. In addition, the USAP operates several summer camps and several research vessels that sail in the Antarctic waters. The programs fiscal budget for 2008 was US$295 million, and for 2012 was US$350 million, the Antarctic Sun Operation Deep Freeze Eltanin Antarctic ecosystem United States Antarctic Program The Antarctic Sun
41.
Continent
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A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven regions are regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in size to smallest, they are, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, in geology, areas of continental crust include regions covered with water. Islands are frequently grouped with a continent to divide all the worlds land into geopolitical regions. Under this scheme, most of the countries and territories in the Pacific Ocean are grouped together with the continent of Australia to form a geopolitical region called Oceania. By convention, continents are understood to be large, continuous, discrete masses of land, many of the seven most commonly recognized continents identified by convention are not discrete landmasses separated completely by water. Earths major landmasses all have coasts on a single, continuous World Ocean, the most restricted meaning of continent is that of a continuous area of land or mainland, with the coastline and any land boundaries forming the edge of the continent. From this perspective the edge of the shelf is the true edge of the continent. In this sense the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are part of Europe, while Australia, as a cultural construct, the concept of a continent may go beyond the continental shelf to include oceanic islands and continental fragments. In this way, Iceland is considered part of Europe and Madagascar part of Africa, extrapolating the concept to its extreme, some geographers group the Australasian continental plate with other islands in the Pacific into one continent called Oceania. This divides the land surface of Earth into continents or quasi-continents. The ideal criterion that each continent be a discrete landmass is commonly relaxed due to historical conventions, of the seven most globally recognized continents, only Antarctica and Australia are completely separated from other continents by ocean. Several continents are defined not as absolutely distinct bodies but as more or less discrete masses of land, Asia and Africa are joined by the Isthmus of Suez, and North and South America by the Isthmus of Panama. In both cases, there is no separation of these landmasses by water. Both these isthmuses are very narrow compared to the bulk off the landmasses they unite, North America and South America are treated as separate continents in the seven-continent model. However, they may also be viewed as a continent known as America or the Americas. This viewpoint was common in the United States until World War II and this remains the more common vision in Latin American countries, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy and Greece, where they are taught as a single continent. The criterion of a landmass is completely disregarded if the continuous landmass of Eurasia is classified as two separate continents, Europe and Asia
42.
Antarctica
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It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,000,000 square kilometres, it is the fifth-largest continent, for comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness, Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is a desert, with precipitation of only 200 mm along the coast. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89.2 °C, though the average for the quarter is −63 °C. Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae, bacteria, fungi, plants, protista, vegetation, where it occurs, is tundra. The continent, however, remained neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of easily accessible resources. In 1895, the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians, Antarctica is a de facto condominium, governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status. Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959, and thirty-eight have signed it since then, the treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal, supports scientific research, and protects the continents ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations, the name Antarctica is the romanised version of the Greek compound word ἀνταρκτική, feminine of ἀνταρκτικός, meaning opposite to the Arctic, opposite to the north. Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c.350 B. C, marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century A. D. Before acquiring its present geographical connotations, the term was used for locations that could be defined as opposite to the north. For example, the short-lived French colony established in Brazil in the 16th century was called France Antarctique, the first formal use of the name Antarctica as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew. Antarctica has no population and there is no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century. Explorer Matthew Flinders, in particular, has credited with popularising the transfer of the name Terra Australis to Australia. Cook came within about 120 km of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of ice in January 1773. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals, according to various organisations, ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820, von Bellingshausen, Edward Bransfield, and Nathaniel Palmer
43.
Operation Deep Freeze
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The U. S. Navy already had a record of earlier exploration in Antarctica. As early as 1839, Captain Charles Wilkes led the first U. S. Naval expedition into Antarctic waters. In 1929, Admiral Richard E. Byrd established a base at Little America I, led an expedition to explore further inland. From 1934–35, the second Byrd Expedition explored much further inland, the third Byrd Expedition in 1940 charted the Ross Sea. Byrd was instrumental in the Navys Operation Highjump after World War II from 1946–47, in 1948, Commander Finn Ronne led an expedition that photographed over 450,000 square miles by air. Then in 1954–55, the icebreaker USS Atka made an expedition for future landing sites. The impetus behind Operation Deep Freeze I was the International Geophysical Year 1957–58, IGY as it was known was a collaborative effort among forty nations to carry out earth science studies from the North Pole to the South Pole and at points in between. The United States along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Norway, Chile, Argentina, and the U. S. S. R. agreed to go to the South Pole, the least explored area on Earth. Their goal was to advance knowledge of Antarctic hydrography and weather systems, glacial movements. The U. S. Navy was charged with supporting the U. S. scientists for their portion of the IGY studies, in 1955, Task Force 43 was formed to carry out this work. Operation Deep Freeze I prepared a permanent research station and paved the way for more research in later Deep Freeze operations. The expedition transpired over the Antarctic summer of November 1955 to April 1956, Dufek and others successfully landed an R4D Skytrain aircraft at the South Pole, as part of the expeditions mounted for the IGY. This was the first aircraft to land at the South Pole, the aircraft was named Que Sera, Sera after a popular song and is now on display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. This marked the beginning of the establishment of the first permanent base, by airlift, the Operation Deep Freeze activities were succeeded by Operation Deep Freeze II, and so on, continuing a constant US presence in Antarctica since that date. The Navys Antarctic Development Squadron Six had been flying the missions, the 109th operated ski-equipped LC-130s and had been flying some National Science Foundation support missions to Antarctica since 1988. It had flown scientific and military missions to Greenland and the Arctic since 1975, the Antarctic operation would be fully funded by the National Science Foundation. The 109th expected to add approximately 235 full-time personnel to support that operation, the possibility of the Air National Guard assuming operational control of the mission had first emerged in 1988. The 109th Airlift Wing had been notified that, almost overnight, the other sites would soon follow, and the 109th would be largely out of business because its primary mission had ended
44.
Crystal Island
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Crystal Island is a planned building project in Moscow, Russia that is planned to have around 2,500,000 square meters of floor space and a height of 450 meters designed by Norman Foster. At these dimensions upon completion it would be the largest structure on earth, the architectural firm behind the design is Foster and Partners. The tent-like superstructure would rise to 450 m, and form a second skin. This section skin will be sealed in winter to heat loss. The building would be integrated into a new park, which would provide a range of activities throughout the year, with cross country skiing and ice skating in the winter. It is stated to have a multitude of cultural, exhibition, performance, hotel, apartment, retail and office space, the building would be powered by built-in solar panels and wind turbines. The structure would also feature on-site renewable and low-carbon energy generation, in 2009, due to the global economic crisis, financial backing for the project was lost, and construction of the project was postponed. Hyperboloid structure List of hyperboloid structures Arcology Crystal Island at Foster and Partners
