1.
Portuguese language
–
Portuguese is a Romance language and the sole official language of Portugal, Brazil, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Angola, and São Tomé and Príncipe. It also has co-official language status in East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Portuguese is part of the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, and has kept some Celtic phonology. Portuguese is also termed the language of Camões, after Luís Vaz de Camões, one of the greatest literary figures in the Portuguese language and author of the Portuguese epic poem, the museum is the first of its kind in the world. In 2015 the museum was destroyed in a fire, but there are plans to reconstruct it, when the Romans arrived in the Iberian Peninsula in 216 BCE, they brought the Latin language with them, from which all Romance languages descend. Between 409 CE and 711 CE, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, Portuguese evolved from the medieval language, known today by linguists as Galician-Portuguese, Old Portuguese or Old Galician, of the northwestern medieval Kingdom of Galicia. It is in Latin administrative documents of the 9th century that written Galician-Portuguese words and this phase is known as Proto-Portuguese, which lasted from the 9th century until the 12th-century independence of the County of Portugal from the Kingdom of León, by then reigning over Galicia. In the first part of the Galician-Portuguese period, the language was used for documents. For some time, it was the language of preference for poetry in Christian Hispania. Portugal became an independent kingdom in 1139, under King Afonso I of Portugal, in the second period of Old Portuguese, in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the Portuguese discoveries, the language was taken to many regions of Africa, Asia and the Americas. The language continued to be popular in parts of Asia until the 19th century, some Portuguese-speaking Christian communities in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia preserved their language even after they were isolated from Portugal. The end of the Old Portuguese period was marked by the publication of the Cancioneiro Geral by Garcia de Resende, Most literate Portuguese speakers were also literate in Latin, and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Portuguese. Portuguese is the language of the majority of people in Brazil and Portugal, perhaps 75% of the population of Angola speaks Portuguese natively, and 85% are fluent. Just over 40% of the population of Mozambique are native speakers of Portuguese, Portuguese is also spoken natively by 30% of the population in Guinea-Bissau, and a Portuguese-based creole is understood by all. No data is available for Cape Verde, but almost all the population is bilingual, there are also significant Portuguese speaking immigrant communities in many countries including Andorra, Bermuda, Canada, France, Japan, Jersey, Namibia, Paraguay, Macau, Switzerland, Venezuela. In some parts of former Portuguese India, namely Goa and Daman and Diu, in 2014, an estimated 1,500 students were learning Portuguese in Goa. Equatorial Guinea made an application for full membership to the CPLP in June 2010. In 2011, Portuguese became its official language and, in July 2014. Portuguese is a subject in The school curriculum in Uruguay
Portuguese language
–
Multilingual sign in Japanese, Portuguese, and English in
Oizumi,
Japan. Return immigration of
Japanese Brazilians has led to a large Portuguese-speaking community in the town.
Portuguese language
–
Percentage of worldwide Portuguese speakers per country.
Portuguese language
–
Library of the
Mafra National Palace, Portugal
Portuguese language
–
Baroque Library of the
Coimbra University, Portugal
2.
Island
–
An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge, examples are Singapore and its causeway, and the various Dutch delta islands, such as IJsselmonde. There are two types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it
Island
–
Atafu atoll in Tokelau
Island
–
São Miguel Island, in
Azores archipelago, is also referred as "The Green Island".
Island
–
A small
Fijian island
Island
–
The
British Isles are a large group of islands. The main islands include
Great Britain and
Ireland.
3.
Mauritania
–
Mauritania /mɔːrɪˈteɪniə/, officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country in the Maghreb region of western Africa. The country derives its name from the ancient Berber Kingdom of Mauretania, approximately 90% of Mauritanias land is within the Sahara and consequently the population is concentrated in the south, where precipitation is slightly higher. The capital and largest city is Nouakchott, located on the Atlantic coast, the government was overthrown on 6 August 2008, in a military coup détat led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz. On 16 April 2009, Aziz resigned from the military to run for president in the 19 July elections, about 20% of Mauritanians live on less than US$1.25 per day. Mauritania suffers from several human rights issues, including slavery, as at least 4% of the population are enslaved against their will, the Bafours were primarily agriculturalist, and among the first Saharan people to abandon their historically nomadic lifestyle. With the gradual desiccation of the Sahara, they headed south, many of the Berber tribes claimed Yemeni origins. There is little evidence to such claims, but a 2000 DNA study of Yemeni people suggested there might be some ancient connection between the peoples. Other peoples also migrated south past the Sahara to West Africa, in 1076, Moorish Islamic warrior monks attacked and conquered the large area of the ancient Ghana Empire. Over the next 500 years, Arabs overcame fierce resistance from the population to dominate Mauritania. The Char Bouba war was the final effort of the peoples to repel the Yemeni Maqil Arab invaders. The invaders were led by the Beni Hassan tribe, the descendants of the Beni Hassan warriors became the upper stratum of Moorish society. Hassaniya, a Berber-influenced Arabic dialect that derives its name from the Beni Hassan, berbers retained a niche influence by producing the majority of the regions marabouts, those who preserve and teach Islamic tradition. Imperial France gradually absorbed the territories of present-day Mauritania from the Senegal River area and upwards, in 1901, Xavier Coppolani took charge of the imperial mission. Through a combination of strategic alliances with Zawiya tribes, and military pressure on the Hassane warrior nomads, he managed to extend French rule over the Mauritanian emirates. Trarza, Brakna and Tagant quickly submitted to treaties with the colonial power, Adrar was finally defeated militarily in 1912, and incorporated into the territory of Mauritania, which had been drawn up and planned in 1904. Mauritania was part of French West Africa from 1920, French rule brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to inter-clan warfare. During the colonial period, 90% of the population remained nomadic, many sedentary peoples, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier, began to trickle back into Mauritania. After gaining independence, larger numbers of indigenous Sub-Saharan African peoples entered Mauritania, educated in French language and customs, many of these recent arrivals became clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state
Mauritania
–
The
Dutch trading post of
Arguin in 1665
Mauritania
Mauritania
–
Chinguetti was a center of Islamic scholarship in West Africa.
Mauritania
–
Road from Nouakchott to the Mauritanian–Senegalese border
4.
Bay of Arguin
–
The Bay of Arguin is a bay on the Atlantic shore of Mauritania. It is located south of Cap Blanc, north of Cap Timiris, the bay contains three islands, including Arguin and Tidra, as well as numerous sandbanks. Smaller bays includes Dakhlet Nouadhibou in the north and Baie de Tanoudert in the east, other promontories includes Minou, Cap Sainte-Anne, Argun, Alzaz, one stream flowing only when the climate is partly wet, the Oued Chibka is in the northcentral part. Places by the bay includes Nouadhibou in the north, Arkeiss and Tel-Alloul to the east and Teichott, RGueiba, the bay would be first known in 1035 as Abdallah ibn Yasin founded a ribat in the island of Tidra and was the origin of the Almoravid Dynasty. The first European to visit the bay was Nuno Tristão in 1443, the area is also known as the place where the French French frigate Méduse was wrecked in 1816. Satellite photographs of the bay by the European Space Agency
Bay of Arguin
–
Map of the bay showing the Banc d'Arguin National Park
5.
Reef
–
A reef is a bar of rock, sand, coral or similar material, lying beneath the surface of water. Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface, artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms, especially fish. There is a variety of reef types, including oyster reefs. These biotic reef types take on additional names depending upon how the reef lies in relation to the land, Reef types include fringing reef, barrier reefs, as well as atolls. A fringing reef is a reef that is attached to an island, a barrier reef forms a calcareous barrier around an island resulting in a lagoon between the shore and the reef. An atoll is a reef with no land present. The reef front is a high energy locale whereas the internal lagoon will be at an energy with fine grained sediments. One useful definition distinguishes reefs from mounds as follows, reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework. Coral reefs are an excellent example of this kind, corals and calcareous algae grow on top of one another and form a three-dimensional framework that is modified in various ways by other organisms and inorganic processes. By contrast, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal framework, mounds are built by microorganisms or by organisms that dont grow a skeletal framework. A microbial mound might be built exclusively or primarily by cyanobacteria, excellent examples of biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in the Great Salt Lake of Utah, and in Shark Bay, Western Australia. Cyanobacteria do not have skeletons and individuals are microscopic, cyanobacteria encourage the precipitation or accumulation of calcium carbonate and can produce distinct sediment bodies in composition that have relief on the seafloor. Cyanobacterial mounds were most abundant before the evolution of shelly macroscopic organisms, bryozoans and crinoids, common contributors to marine sediments during the Mississippian, produced a very different kind of mound. Bryozoans are small and the skeletons of crinoids disintegrate, however, bryozoan and crinoid meadows can persist over time and produce compositionally distinct bodies of sediment with depositional relief. The Proterozoic Belt Supergroup contains evidence of microbial mat and dome structures similar to stromatolite reef complexes. Ancient reefs buried within stratigraphic sections are of considerable interest to geologists because they provide information about the location in Earths history. Corals, including some major extinct groups Rugosa and Tabulata, have been important reef builders through much of the Phanerozoic since the Ordovician Period. However, other groups, such as calcifying algae, especially members of the red algae Rhodophyta
Reef
–
Pamalican island with surrounding reef,
Sulu Sea,
Philippines.
Reef
–
A reef surrounding an
islet.
Reef
–
Archeocyathids, the first reef building organisms, from the
Poleta formation in the
Death Valley area
Reef
–
Reefs off
Vanatinai in the
Louisiade Archipelago.
6.
History of colonialism
–
The historical phenomenon of colonisation is one that stretches around the globe and across time. The Spanish and Portuguese empires were the first global empires because they were the first to stretch across different continents, the phrase the empire on which the sun never sets was first used for the Spanish Empire in the 16th century. During the late 16th and 17th centuries, England, France, the end of the 18th and early 19th century saw the first era of decolonization, when most of the European colonies in the Americas gained their independence from their respective metropoles. In 1999, Portugal gave up the last of Europes colonies in Asia, Macau, to China, European colonization of both Eastern and Western Hemispheres has its roots in Portuguese exploration. There were financial and religious motives behind this exploration, by finding the source of the lucrative spice trade, the Portuguese could reap its profits for themselves. The first foothold outside of Europe was gained with the conquest of Ceuta in 1415, Portuguese successes led to Spanish financing of a mission by Christopher Columbus in 1492 to explore an alternative route to Asia, by sailing west. When Columbus eventually made landfall in the Caribbean Antilles he believed he had reached the coast of India, but had in fact discovered a new continent, the Americas. The two by now global empires, which had set out from opposing directions, had met on the other side of the world. During the 16th century the Portuguese continued to press both eastwards and westwards into the Oceans, the Roman Catholic Church played a large role in Spanish and Portuguese overseas activities. The Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans, notably Francis Xavier in Asia, due to the massive depletion of indigenous labour, plantation owners had to look elsewhere for manpower for these labour-intensive crops. From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public-private venture, in May 1498, the Portuguese set foot in Kozhikode in Kerala, making them the first Europeans to sail to India. Rivalry among reigning European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, English, French, Danish, the kingdoms of India were gradually taken over by the Europeans and indirectly controlled by puppet rulers. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I accorded a charter, forming the East India Company to trade with India, the English landed in India in Surat in 1612. By the 19th century, they had assumed direct and indirect control over most of India, during the five decades following 1770, Britain, France, Spain and Portugal lost many of their possessions in the Americas. A standing army was formed by the United Colonies, and independence was declared by the Second Continental Congress on 4 July 1776, the Patriots fought the British in the American Revolutionary War. The tensions caused by this would lead to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the American War of Independence continued until 1783, when the Treaty of Paris was signed. Britain recognised the sovereignty of the United States over the bounded by the British possessions to the North, Florida to the South. The Haitian Revolution, a revolt led by Toussaint LOuverture in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, established Haïti as a free, black republic
History of colonialism
–
Elmina Castle, Ghana, one in a chain of about fifty fortified
factories to enforce Portuguese trade rule along the coast. View from the sea in 1668.
History of colonialism
–
Lord Clive meeting with
Mir Jafar at the
Battle of Plassey in 1757, painted by
Francis Hayman
History of colonialism
–
The
British Indian Empire and surrounding countries in 1909
7.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
–
Reconstruction of
Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
–
A medieval
T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah — Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham)
Europe
–
Early modern depiction of
Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical
Europa of the 8th century BC.
8.
Portuguese people
–
Portuguese people are an ethnic group indigenous to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and their predominant religion is Christianity, Portuguese people were a key factor to the Age of Exploration, discovering several lands unknown to the Europeans in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania, helping to pave the way for Globalization. There are around 10 million native Portuguese in Portugal, out of a population of 10.34 million. A small minority of about 15,000 speak the Mirandese language, in the municipalities of Miranda do Douro, Vimioso, all of the speakers are bilingual with Portuguese. An even smaller minority of no more than 2,000 people speak Barranquenho, some people from the former colonies have been migrating to Portugal since the 1900s. More recently, a number of Slavs, especially Ukrainians, Moldovans, Romanians and Russians. There is also a Chinese minority, in addition, there is a small minority Gypsies of about 40,000 people, Muslims about 34,000 people and an even smaller minority of Jews of about 5,000 people. Between 1886 and 1966, Portugal lost to more than any West European country except Ireland. From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, about 40 million Brazilians have relatively recent Portuguese background, due to massive immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. About 1.2 million Brazilian citizens are native Portuguese, significant verified Portuguese minorities exist in several countries. Portuguese Sephardic Jews are also in Israel, the Netherlands, the United States, France, Venezuela, Brazil, in Brazil many of the colonists were also originally Sephardic Jews, who, converted, were known as New Christians. In the United States, there are Portuguese communities in New Jersey, the New England states, in the Pacific, Hawaii has a sizable Portuguese element that goes back 150 years, Australia and New Zealand also have Portuguese communities. Canada, particularly Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia, has developed a significant Portuguese community since 1940, argentina and Uruguay had Portuguese immigration in the early 20th century. So has Chile where an estimated 50,000 descendants live, an estimated 800,000 Portuguese returned to Portugal as the countrys African possessions gained independence in 1975, after the Carnation Revolution, while others moved to Brazil and South Africa. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Equatorial Guinea, in 1989 some 4,000,000 Portuguese were living abroad, mainly in France, Germany, Brazil, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Canada, Venezuela, and the United States. Portuguese constitute 13% of the population of Luxembourg, in areas such as Thetford and the crown dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey, the Portuguese form the largest ethnic minority groups at 30% of the population, 20% and 3% respectively. The British capital London is home to the largest number of Portuguese people in the UK, with the majority being found in the boroughs of Kensington and Chelsea, Lambeth and Westminster. The Portuguese diaspora communities still are very attached to their language, their culture and their national dishes, in colonial times, over 700,000 Portuguese settled in Brazil, and most of them went there during the gold rush of the 18th century
Portuguese people
–
Portuguese men playing
Fado
Portuguese people
–
Distribution of
R1a (purple) and
R1b (red). See also
this map for distribution in Europe.
Portuguese people
–
Sign and frame about Portuguese immigration inside one
subway station in
Toronto,
Ontario,
Canada.
Portuguese people
–
Passport of an immigrant from the
Braga District to Brazil
9.
Henry the Navigator
–
Infante D. Henrique of Portugal, Duke of Viseu, better known as Prince Henry the Navigator, was an important figure in 15th-century Portuguese politics and in the early days of the Portuguese Empire. Through his administrative direction, he is regarded as the initiator of what would be known as the Age of Discoveries. King John I was the founder of the House of Aviz, Henry encouraged his father to conquer Ceuta, the Muslim port on the North African coast across the Straits of Gibraltar from the Iberian Peninsula. Henry is regarded as the patron of Portuguese exploration, Henry was the third surviving son of King John I and his wife Philippa, sister of King Henry IV of England. He was baptized in Porto, and may have been there, probably when the royal couple was living in the citys old mint, now called Casa do Infante. Another possibility is that he was born at the Monastery of Leça do Bailio, in Leça da Palmeira, Henry was 21 when he and his father and brothers captured the Moorish port of Ceuta in northern Morocco. Ceuta had long been a base for Barbary pirates who raided the Portuguese coast, following this success, Henry started to explore the coast of Africa, most of which was unknown to Europeans. His objectives included finding the source of the West African gold trade and the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John, at that time the ships of the Mediterranean were too slow and too heavy to make these voyages. This made the caravel largely independent of the prevailing winds, with the caravel, Portuguese mariners explored the shallow waters and rivers as well as the open ocean with wide autonomy. In 1419, Henrys father appointed him governor of the province of the Algarve, in 1425, his second brother the Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra, made a tour of Europe. While largely a diplomatic mission, among his goals was to seek out material for his brother Henry. Peter returned from Venice with a current world map drafted by a Venetian cartographer. In 1431 he donated houses for the Estudo Geral to reunite all the sciences — grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, music, for other subjects like medicine or philosophy, he ordered that each room should be decorated according to each subject that was being taught. When John I died in 1433, Henrys eldest brother Edward became king and he granted Henry all profits from trading within the areas he discovered as well as the sole right to authorize expeditions beyond Cape Bojador. Henry also held a monopoly on fishing in the Algarve. When Edward died eight years later, Henry supported his brother Peter for the regency during the minority of Edwards son Afonso V, Henry functioned as a primary organizer of the disastrous expedition to Tangier in 1437. Henrys younger brother Ferdinand was given as a hostage to guarantee that the Portuguese would fulfill the terms of the agreement that had been made with Çala Ben Çala. The Portuguese Cortes refused to approve the return of Ceuta in exchange for the Infante Ferdinand who remained in captivity until his death six years later, Prince Regent Peter had an important role and responsibility in the Portuguese maritime expansion in the Atlantic Ocean and Africa during his administration
Henry the Navigator
–
Infante Henrique;
St. Vincent Panels
Henry the Navigator
Henry the Navigator
–
Portrait believed to be the true likeness of Henry the Navigator. Detail from the fifth panel of the
polyptych of St. Vincent by
Nuno Gonçalves, c.1470
Henry the Navigator
–
Henry's tomb in the
Monastery of Batalha
10.
Gum arabic
–
Gum arabic, also known as acacia gum, is a natural gum consisting of the hardened sap of various species of the acacia tree. Producers harvest the gum commercially from wild trees, mostly in Sudan and throughout the Sahel, from Senegal to Somalia—though it is cultivated in Arabia. Gum arabic is a mixture of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. It is the source of the sugars arabinose and ribose. Gum arabic is used primarily in the industry as a stabilizer. It is edible and has E number E414, while gum arabic is now produced throughout the African Sahel, it is still harvested and used in the Middle East. For example, Arab populations use the gum to make a chilled, sweetened. Gum arabics mixture of polysaccharides and glycoproteins gives it the properties of a glue, other substances have replaced it where toxicity is not an issue, and as the proportions of the various chemicals in gum arabic vary widely and make it unpredictable. Still, it remains an important ingredient in soft drink syrup, hard gummy candies such as gumdrops, marshmallows, for artists, it is the traditional binder in watercolor paint, in photography for gum printing, and it is used as a binder in pyrotechnic compositions. Pharmaceutical drugs and cosmetics also use the gum as a binder, emulsifying agent, wine makers have used gum arabic as a wine fining agent. It is an important ingredient in shoe polish, and can be used in making homemade incense cones and it is also used as a lickable adhesive, for example on postage stamps, envelopes, and cigarette papers. Lithographic printers employ it to keep the areas of the plate receptive to water. This treatment also helps to stop oxidation of aluminium printing plates in the interval between processing of the plate and its use on a printing press. Also called acacia after the source, gum arabic is used as an emulsifier. Gum arabic is used as a binder for watercolor painting because it easily in water. Pigment of any color is suspended within the gum in varying amounts. Water acts as a vehicle or a diluent to thin the watercolor paint, when all moisture evaporates, the acacia gum typically does not bind the pigment to the paper surface, but is totally absorbed by deeper layers. If little water is used, after evaporation the acacia gum functions as a binder in a paint film, increasing luminosity
Gum arabic
–
The
Senegalia senegal, pictured in a medicinal handbook:
Franz Eugen Köhler, Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen (1887)
Gum arabic
–
A selection of
gouaches containing gum arabic
Gum arabic
–
Moorish tribes meet to trade gum arabic at
Bakel on the
Senegal River, 1890 (illustration from " Côte occidentale d'Afrique du Colonel Frey ", pl. en reg. p. 100)
Gum arabic
–
Animal products
11.
Slavery in Portugal
–
Slavery in Portugal occurred since before the countrys formation. During the pre-independence period, inhabitants of the current Portuguese territory were often enslaved and enslaved others, slavery was abolished in Portugal in 1761 by the Marquis of Pombal. Slavery was an economic and social institution in Europe during the classical era. The details of slavery in Roman Portugal are not well-known, however, there were forms of slavery, including enslaved miners. The Visigoths and the Suebi, of the 5th century AD, at the time, Portugal did not exist as a separate kingdom, but was primarily a part of the Visigothic Iberian kingdom. However, during this period, a transition to feudalism. The pattern of slavery and serfdom in the Iberian Peninsula differs from the rest of Western Europe due to the Islamic conquest and they established Moorish kingdoms in Iberia, including the area that is occupied by modern Portugal. Trade ties between the Moorish kingdoms and the North African Moorish state led to a flow of trade within those geographical areas. In addition, the Moors engaged sections of Spaniards and Portuguese Christians in slave labor, there was not a racial component to slavery in Iberia. The Moors utilised ethnic European slaves, 1/12 of Iberian population were slave Europeans, less than 1% of Iberia were Moors, periodic Arab and Moorish raiding expeditions were sent from Islamic Iberia to ravage the remaining Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back stolen goods and slaves. In addition, the Christian Iberians who lived within Arab and Moorish-ruled territories were subject to specific laws and it has been documented that other slaves were treated better than Moriscos, the slaves were less than 1% of population. After the Reconquista period, Moorish slaves began to outnumber Slavic slaves in both importance and numbers in Portugal, according to eleventh edition of The Encyclopædia Britannica, After 1450 yet another ethnical element was introduced into the nation, through the importation of African slaves in vast numbers. Negroid types are common throughout central and southern Portugal, by the mid-sixteenth century, slaves made up 10% of the populations of Lisbon, Evora, and the Algarve, Estremadura and the Alentejo counted 5% slave populations, northern towns were 1-2% slaves. Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese, hideyoshi blamed the Portuguese and Jesuits for this slave trade and banned Christian proselytizing as a result. Chinese were bought in large numbers as slaves by the Portuguese in the 1520s, Japanese Christian Daimyos mainly responsible for selling to the Portuguese their fellow Japanese. Japanese women and Japanese men, Javanese, Chinese, and Indians were all sold as slaves in Portugal, some Chinese slaves in Spain ended up there after being brought to Lisbon in Portugal and sold when they were boys. He was paid for his service as a translator on the 1525 Loaísa expedition, the survivors, including Tristan, were shipwrecked for a decade until 1537 when they were brought back by a Portuguese ship to Lisbon. There are records of Chinese slaves in Lisbon as early as 1540, purchased by João de Barros, he worked with the Portuguese historian on translating Chinese texts into Portuguese
Slavery in Portugal
–
Slavery
12.
Portugal
–
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
Portugal
–
Citânia de Briteiros, in the
Minho Province, is the best preserved
Iron Age and
Castro culture site in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Flag
Portugal
–
The
Roman Temple of Évora, in the
Alentejo, is a symbol of
Lusitania, Roman rule in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Monument in Porto to
Vimara Peres, first ruler of the County of Portugal
13.
Iberian Union
–
The governments, institutions, and legal traditions of each kingdom remained independent of each other. Alien laws determined that the national of one kingdom was a foreigner in all the other Iberian kingdoms, the unification of the peninsula had long been a goal of the regions monarchs with the intent of restoring the Visigothic monarchy. Sebastians successor, the Cardinal Henry of Portugal, was 70 years old at the time. Henrys death was followed by a crisis, with three grandchildren of Manuel I claiming the throne, Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza, António, Prior of Crato. António had been acclaimed King of Portugal by the people of Santarém on July 24,1580, some members of the Council of Governors of Portugal who had supported Philip escaped to Spain and declared him to be the legal successor of Henry. Philip II of Spain marched into Portugal and defeated the troops loyal to the Prior of Crato in the Battle of Alcântara, the troops occupying the countryside commanded by the 3rd Duke of Alba arrived in Lisbon. Philip II of Spain was crowned Philip I of Portugal in 1581, when Philip left in 1583 to Madrid, he made his nephew Albert of Austria his viceroy in Lisbon. In Madrid he established a Council of Portugal to advise him on Portuguese affairs, both monarchs gave excellent positions to Portuguese nobles in the Spanish courts, and Portugal maintained an independent law, currency, and government. It was even proposed to move the Royal capital to Lisbon, the history of Portugal from the dynastic crisis in 1578 to the first Braganza Dynasty monarchs was a period of transition. The Portuguese Empires spice trade was peaking at the start of this period and it continued to enjoy widespread influence after Vasco da Gama had finally reached the East by sailing around Africa in 1497–98. Vasco da Gamas achievement completed the exploratory efforts inaugurated by Henry the Navigator, after that, the Council answered afterwards a session to treat the issue and to raise the formal consultation to the monarch. The secretary raise the consultation to the king, and was returned to the Council with his response to be executed, the meetings of the Councils took place in the royal palace, and they did not count on the presence of the king habitually. In this polisynodial system, Consejo de Estado stood out for its importance, even, the Council of War exercised its jurisdiction on the troops placed in the Castilian strongholds established on the Portuguese littoral. Any decision of the king who concerning his Kingdom must do the object of a consultation to the Council before being transmitted to the chancellery of Lisbon and to the concerned courts. The Council of Portugal knows two eclipses, in 1619, for the presence of the King in Lisbon, and between 1639–1658, replaced with the Junta of Portugal, relating to the particular government of the kingdom of Portugal itself. Public offices were reserved for Portuguese subjects at home and overseas, the king was represented at Lisbon sometimes by a governor and sometimes by a viceroy. So, Spain left the administration of Portugal and its empire largely to the Portuguese themselves, important matters, however, were referred to Madrid, where they came before the Council of Portugal. In the kingdom of Portugal, the system is reinforced
Iberian Union
–
Political map of the Iberian Peninsula in 1570
Iberian Union
–
Coat of arms of
Philip II and I of Spain and Portugal,
inserting the coat of arms of Portugal over those of
Castile and León and
Aragon.
Iberian Union
–
"Map of the Portuguese liberation of the city of Salvador in Brazil in 1631", João Teixeira Albernaz, o velho, 1631
Iberian Union
–
Acclamation of John IV as King of Portugal, painting by Veloso Salgado in the Military Museum,
Lisbon.
14.
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands in 5500 BC
Netherlands
–
Flag
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands in 500 BC
Netherlands
–
An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
15.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
16.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
17.
Brandenburg-Prussia
–
Brandenburg-Prussia is the historiographic denomination for the Early Modern realm of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollerns between 1618 and 1701. Another consequence of the intermarriage was the incorporation of the lower Rhenish principalities of Cleves, Mark, the Thirty Years War was especially devastating. The Elector changed sides three times, and as a result Protestant and Catholic armies swept the land back and forth, killing, burning, seizing men, upwards of half the population was killed or dislocated. Berlin and the major cities were in ruins, and recovery took decades. By the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years War in 1648, Brandenburg gained Minden and Halberstadt, also the succession in Farther Pomerania and the Duchy of Magdeburg. With the Treaty of Bromberg, concluded during the Second Northern War, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye expanded Brandenburgian Pomerania to the lower Oder. The second half of the 17th century laid the basis for Prussia to become one of the players in European politics later on. Brandenburg-Prussia also established a navy and German colonies in the Brandenburger Gold Coast, Frederick William also started to centralize Brandenburg-Prussias administration and reduce the influence of the estates. In 1701, Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, succeeded in elevating his status to King in Prussia, from 1701 onward, the Hohenzollern domains were referred to as the Kingdom of Prussia, or simply Prussia. Legally, the union between Brandenburg and Prussia continued until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. However, by time the emperors overlordship over the empire had become a legal fiction. Hence, after 1701, Brandenburg was de facto treated as part of the Prussian kingdom, the Margraviate of Brandenburg had been the seat of the main branch of the Hohenzollerns, who were prince-electors in the Holy Roman Empire, since 1415. In 1525, by the Treaty of Krakow, the Duchy of Prussia was created through partial secularization of the State of the Teutonic Order. It was a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland and was governed by Duke Albert of Prussia, on behalf of her mother Elisabeth of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollern, Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg became Alberts second wife in 1550, and bore him his successor Albert Frederick. In 1563, the Brandenburgian branch of the Hohenzollern was granted the right of succession by the Polish crown, Albert Frederick became duke of Prussia after Alberts death in 1568. His mother died in the year, and thereafter he showed signs of mental disorder. Because of the illness, Prussia was governed by Alberts nephew George Frederick of Hohenzollern-Ansbach-Jägersdorf. In 1573, Albert Frederick married Marie Eleonore of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, with whom he had several daughters, in 1594, Albert Fredericks then 14-year-old daughter Anna married the son of Joachim Frederick of Hohenzollern-Brandenburg, John Sigismund
Brandenburg-Prussia
–
A 19th century allegory visualizing the emergence of Brandenburg-Prussia through the marriage of
John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg to
Duchess Anna of Prussia.
Brandenburg-Prussia
Brandenburg-Prussia
–
George William, Elector of Brandenburg
Brandenburg-Prussia
–
Frederick William, "Great Elector" of Brandenburg-Prussia
18.
Colony
–
In politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state, distinct from the home territory of the sovereign. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies, some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. The metropolitan state is the state that rules the colony, in Ancient Greece, the city that founded a colony was known as the metropolis. Mother country is a reference to the state from the point of view of citizens who live in its colony. There is a United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, unlike a puppet state or satellite state, a colony has no independent international representation, and its top-level administration is under direct control of the metropolitan state. The term informal colony is used by historians to refer to a country under the de facto control of another state. The word colony comes from the Latin word colōnia and this in turn derives from the word colōnus, which means colonist but also implies a farmer. Cologne is an example of a settlement preserving this etymology, other, less obvious settlements that began as Roman colonia include cities from Belgrade to York. A tell-tale sign of a settlement once being a Roman Colony is a city centre with a grid pattern. The terminology is taken from architectural analogy, where a column pillar is beneath the head capital, so colonies are not independently self-controlled, but rather are controlled from a separate entity that serves the capital function. Roman colonies first appeared when the Romans conquered neighbouring Italic peoples and these were small farming settlements that appeared when the Romans had subdued an enemy in war. A colony could take many forms, as a trade outpost or a base in enemy territory. Its original definition as a settlement created by migrating from a central region to an outlying one became the modern definition. Kandahar formed as a Greek colony during the Hellenistic era by Alexander the great in 330 BC, alaska, a colony of Russia from the middle 18th century until sold to the United States in 1867. It became the 49th American state in 1959, angola, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Australia was formed as an independent country in 1901 from a federation of six distinct British colonies which were founded between 1788 and 1829, barbados, was a colony of Great Britain important in the Atlantic slave trade. It gained its independence in 1966, brazil, a colony of Portugal since the 16th century. Canada, colonized first by France as New France, then under British rule, congo, Democratic Republic of the, a colony of Belgium from 1908 to 1960
Colony
–
Puerto Rico, considered by some to be "the world's oldest colony"
Colony
–
Chart of non-self-governing territories (as of June 2012 [update]).
19.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
–
Wayback Machine
20.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
21.
Portuguese Empire
–
The Portuguese Empire, also known as the Portuguese Overseas, was one of the largest and longest-lived empires in world history and the first colonial empire. It existed for almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002, the first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would eventually expand across the globe, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the secret design. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts, by 1571, a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth. Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council of Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain, the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to defend its overstretched network of trading posts. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the era until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century. The third era represents the stage of Portuguese colonialism after the decolonization of the Americas of the 1820s. The colonial possessions had been reduced to the African coastline, Portuguese Timor, the disastrous 1890 British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa. Macau was returned to China in 1999, the origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. There were several motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate. In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast, under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira and Azores were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal. Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henrys captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to further along the coast
Portuguese Empire
–
The
Conquest of Ceuta, in 1415, was led by
Henry the Navigator, and initiated the Portuguese Empire.
Portuguese Empire
–
Map of Western Africa by Lázaro Luis (1563). The large castle in West Africa represents the
São Jorge da Mina (Elmina castle).
Portuguese Empire
–
Vasco da Gama 's departure to
India, in 1497
22.
Ceuta
–
Ceuta is an 18. 5-square-kilometre Spanish autonomous city located on the north coast of Africa, sharing its land border with Morocco, in which it is thus an enclave. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta, along with the Spanish exclave Melilla, is one of nine populated Spanish territories in Africa and it was part of Cádiz province until 14 March 1995 when the citys Statute of Autonomy was passed. Ceuta, like Melilla and the Canary Islands, was a port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2011, it has a population of 82,376 and its population consists of Christians, Muslims, and small minorities of Sephardic Jews and ethnic Sindhi Hindus. Spanish is the language, while Moroccan Darija of the northern Jebli variety is spoken by between 40% and 50% of the population which is of Moroccan origin. It was known variously in Ancient Greek as, Ἀβύλη, Ἀβύλα, Ἀβλύξ, or Ἀβίλη στήλη – Abyle, Abila, Ablyx or Abile Stele – Pillar of Abyle), together with Gibraltar on the European side, it formed one of the famous Pillars of Hercules. It changed hands again approximately 400 years later, when Vandal tribes ousted the Romans, after being controlled by the Visigoths, it then became an outpost of the Byzantine Empire. Ceuta was an important Christian center since the fourth century, in the 7th century the Umayyads tried to conquer the region but were unsuccessful. Under the leadership of the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Muslims used Ceuta as a ground for an assault on Visigothic Iberian Peninsula. After Julians death, the Berbers took direct control of the city and they destroyed Ceuta during the Kharijite rebellion led by Maysara al-Matghari in 740. Ceuta lay in ruins until it was resettled in the 9th century by Mâjakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived Banu Isam dynasty. His great-grandson briefly allied his tribe with the Idrisids, but the Banu Isam rule ended in 931 when he abdicated in favor of Abd ar-Rahman III, Ceuta reverted to Moorish Andalusian rule in 927 along with Melilla, and later Tangier, in 951. Chaos ensued with the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031, following this Ceuta and the rest of Muslim Iberia were controlled by successive North African dynasties. Starting in 1084, the Almoravid Berbers ruled the region until 1147, apart from Ibn Huds rebellion of 1232, they ruled until the Tunisian Hafsids established control. The Hafsids influence in the west rapidly waned, and Ceutas inhabitants eventually expelled them in 1249, after this, a period of political instability persisted, under competing interests from the Kingdom of Fez and the Kingdom of Granada. The Kingdom of Fez finally conquered the region in 1387, with assistance from the Crown of Aragon, in 1415, during the Battle of Ceuta, the city was captured by the Portuguese during the reign of John I of Portugal. The Benemerine sultan besieged the city in 1418 but was defeated, phillip II ascended the Portuguese throne in 1580 and Spanish kings of Portugal governed Ceuta for 60 years
Ceuta
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Ceuta, as seen from Monte Hacho
Ceuta
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Flag
Ceuta
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The
Royal Walls of Ceuta and navigable moats
Ceuta
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A street of Ceuta, c. 1905–1910
23.
Ksar es-Seghir
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Administratively, it belongs to Fahs-Anjra Province and the region of Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima. By the census of 2004, it had a population of 10,995 inhabitants and it is also known by its Portuguese name Alcácer-Ceguer and its Spanish name Alcázarseguir. Its name Ksar es-Seghir contrasts with Ksar-el-Kebir further south, the old name of the city is Ksar Masmuda, as reported by 13th-century historian Abdelwahid al-Marrakushi. The city is circular, an unusual in medieval Moroccan town planning. It is built from brick and ashlar masonry and flanked by semi-circular masonry towers, there are three monumental doors in the wall, each flanked by square towers. The Bāb al-Bahr, has an entrance for defensive purposes. These doors were used both for communication and trade and for taxation purposes, Ksar es-Seghir is located on the Strait of Gibraltar, about half-way between Tangier and Ceuta. Situated in a bay on a stretch of coast that is difficult to access by sea or land. Probably established by Phoenicians, it was known as a salting post in Roman times by the name of Lissa or Exilissa and Exilyssa in Byzantine times. The first settlement dates back to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb in 708-709 CE, in 971, the Umayyad Caliph of al-Andalus tried to capture the fort, as a stepping stone to a projected conquest of Idrisid Morocco. The 11th-century geographer al-Bakri called it al-Qasr al-Awwal, in 1287, Marinid sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf erected a new set of thick walls around the circular town, with 29 bastions and three monumental gates. But with the end of Marinid adventures across the sea in Spain, by the 15th century, it had become a notorious corsairs nest, preying on shipping in the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1458, a Portuguese expeditionary force of 25,000 men and 200 ships led by King Afonso V of Portugal, assaulted and captured the town after a two-day battle on 23–24 October. The Marinid sultan Abd al-Haqq II of Morocco attempted to recover it immediately, laying sieges in late 1458 and again in the summer of 1459 and it would remain in Portuguese hands for much of the next century, known by the name of Alcácer-Ceguer. In 1502, the Portuguese began a new set of fortifications that extended the towns walls well into the sea, the resident population of the town under the Portuguese reached around 800 persons. Finding Portuguese holdings in Morocco expensive to maintain, King John III of Portugal decided to abandon it in 1533, in 1609, Ksar es-Seghir became a destination for Moriscos expelled from Spain. A more modern town arose later, on the bank of the river. Ksar Sghir got a new lease on life in the 21st century, in 2007, a new commercial cargo port, Tanger-Med began being built nearby, around twelve kilometers to the northeast of Ksar Sghir
Ksar es-Seghir
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Ksar es-Seghir Ksar Sghir
Ksar es-Seghir
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Topographic map of the region around Ksar es-Seghir (1954 map)
24.
Asilah
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Asilah is a fortified town on the northwest tip of the Atlantic coast of Morocco, about 31 km south of Tangier. Its ramparts and gateworks remain fully intact, the towns history dates back to 1500 B. C. when the Phoenicians used it as a base for trade. The Portuguese conquered the city in 1471, but later it was decided to abandon it because of a debt crisis in 1549. The Moroccans in 1589 regained control of Asilah briefly, but then lost control of it to the Spanish, in 1692, the town was again taken by the Moroccans under the leadership of Moulay Ismail. Asilah served then as a base for pirates in the 19th and 20th centuries, and in 1829, from 1912 to 1956, it was part of Spanish Morocco. A major plan to restore the town was undertaken in 1978 by its mayor, the first edition of an art festival known as the International Cultural Moussem of Asilah was launched that year to help generate tourism. It was successful in generating revenue for the city and played a role in raising the average income from $50 in 1978 to $140 in 2014. The festival features local artwork and music and continues to attract large amounts of tourists, Asilah is now a popular seaside resort, with modern holiday apartment complexes on the coast road leading to the town from Tangier. Asilah hosts annual music and arts festivals, including a mural-painting festival, the houses of Asilah features mashrabiya, and blue or green painted wood can be seen along the main narrow streets of the town. The main cultural center is the Centre Hassan II des Rencontres Internationales, among the events held in Asilah, is the International Cultural Festival
Asilah
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Asilah waterfront
Asilah
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Asilah's ramparts seen from the pier
Asilah
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Portuguese fortress
Asilah
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Street in Arzila
25.
El Jadida
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El Jadida is a port city on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, located 106 km south of the city of Casablanca in the region of Doukkala-Abda and the province of El Jadida. It has a population of 194,934, from the sea, El Jadidas old city has a very un-Moorish appearance, it has massive Portuguese walls of hewn stone. According to UNESCO, the most important buildings from the Portuguese period are the cistern, the city, and particularly its neighboring town of Sidi Bouzid, becomes extremely busy in the summer season with an influx of mainly Moroccan holiday-makers. Nearby is the resort complex of Mazagan, which attracts the Moroccan elite as well as many international visitors from the Persian Gulf as well as from Europe. Mazagan has a course designed by Gary Player, casino, nightclub. Between Mazagan and El Jadida is the Pullman Hotel, attached to which is Royal Golf El Jadida, the presence of nearby ports and factories is responsible for the pollution of El Jadidas beaches. At present, the main exports are beans, almonds, maize, chickpeas, wool, hides, wax. It imports cotton, sugar, tea and rice, the city is expanding as of 2014, partly as a result of increased activity at the nearby Jorf Lasfar port and industrial area. The underground chamber, measuring 34 meters by 34 meters, was constructed with five rows of five stone pillars and its visual qualities are such that several movies have been filmed within the cavernous space, of which Orson Welles Othello is the best known internationally. The design of the Fortress of Mazagan is a response to the development of artillery in the Renaissance. The star form of the fortress measures c 250m by 300m, the slightly inclined, massive walls are c 8m high on average, with a thickness of 10m, enclosing a patrolling peripheral walkway 2m wide. At the present time the fortification has four bastions, the Angel Bastion in the east, St Sebastian in the north, St Antoine in the west, and the Holy Ghost Bastion in the south. The fifth, the Governor’s Bastion at the entrance, is in ruins. Numerous colonial-era Portuguese cannons are still positioned on top of the bastions, a ditch, c 20m wide and 3m deep, formerly filled with seawater, surrounded the fort. During the time of the French Protectorate the ditch was filled in earth and a new entrance gate was opened leading to the main street, the Rua da Carreira. Along this street are situated the best preserved buildings, including the Catholic Church of the Assumption. El Jadida, previously known as Mazagan, was seized by the Portuguese in 1502, the Portuguese built a citadel in 1514, and a larger fortification in 1541. The Portuguese would continue to control the city until 1769, when they abandoned Mazagão, upon their forced departure, the Portuguese destroyed the Governors Bastion and evacuated to the Portuguese colony of Brazil, where they founded a new settlement called Nova Mazagão
El Jadida
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Panorama of El Jadida
El Jadida
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Market, El Jadida, 2012
El Jadida
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Manueline cistern of the El Jadida fortress.
El Jadida
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Ramparts of El Jadida
26.
Ouadane
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Ouadane or Wādān is a small town in the desert region of central Mauritania, situated on the southern edge of the Adrar Plateau,93 km northeast of Chinguetti. The town was a staging post in the trade and for caravans transporting slabs of salt from the mines at Idjil. A Portuguese trading post was established in 1487, but was soon abandoned. The town declined from the century and most of it now lies in ruins. The old town, a World Heritage Site, though in ruins, is substantially intact. Ouadane is the closest town to the Richat Structure, a massive circular landmark visible from space, the early history of Ouadane is uncertain but it is possible that the town prospered from the trans-Saharan gold trade. In the middle of the 11th century, the Arabic geographer al-Bakri described a route that ran between Tamdoult near Akka in Morocco to Aoudaghost on the southern edge of the Sahara. This route was used for the transport of gold during the time of the Ghana Empire, in his account al-Bakri mentioned a series of place names but these have not been identified and historians have suggested several possible routes. The first written reference to the town is in Portuguese by Ca de Mosto in middle of the 15th century in an account that confused the salt mines of Idjil with those of Taghaza. At about the same date Gomes Eanes de Zurara described Ouadane as the most important town of the Adrar region, fifty years later Valentim Fernandes wrote a detailed account of the trade in slabs of salt from the Idjil mines and role of Ouadane as an entrepôt. He described Ouadane as a town with a population of 400 inhabitants, by contrast Duarte Pacheco Pereira in his Esmeraldo de situ orbis described the town as having approximately 300 hearths which would suggest between 1,500 and 1,800 people. The Idjil sebkha lies roughly 240 km northwest of Ouadane, to the west of the town of Fderîck, the date when salt was first extracted from the sebkha is unknown. It is usually assumed that exploitation of the Idjil mines began after the mid 11th century as al-Bakri did not mention them, instead he described a salt mine at a place that he called Tatantal. Historians have usually assumed this corresponds to Tegahza but his description could possibly apply to the mines at Idjil. According to Pereira, in 1487 the Portuguese built an entrepôt in Ouadane in an attempt to access to the trans-Saharan gold, salt. The entrepôt was probably short lived and is not mentioned in the description provided by Fernandes. In the 16th century the Moroccans made various attempts to control of the trans-Saharan trade in salt. They organised military expeditions to occupy Ouadane in 1543-44 and again in 1584, then in 1585 they occupied Taghaza and finally in 1591 their victory in the battle of Tondibi led to the collapse of the Songhay Empire
Ouadane
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Old tower, Ouadane
27.
Safi, Morocco
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Safi is a city in western Morocco on the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of Safi Province, it has a population of 308,508, the city was under protectorate by the Portuguese Empire from 1488 to 1541, the fortress built by Vasco da Gamas brother-in-law to protect the city, under Portuguese rule is still there today. Safi is the fishing port for the countrys sardine industry. During the Second World War, Safi was one of the sites for Operation Torch. The citys name as it is pronounced is Asfi, which was Latinized as Safi. Asfi means flood or river estuary in Berber and comes from the Berber root sfi/sfey which means to flood, 11th-century geographer Al-Idrisi gave an apparently false explanation to the origin the name Asfi as he linked it to the Arabic word Asaf, Asafi. The ships eventually ended on the shores of Asfi and locals helped the lost sailors, upon hearing this one of the sailors responded by saying, Wa asafi. Al-Idrisi wrote that from time the city carried the name Asafi. This story is thought to be a legend and unlikely explanation of the origin of the name, Safi, under the name Safim, is one of the oldest cities in Morocco, hence its foundation date is unknown. Under the Almohads it functioned as an important port to the capital Marrakesh, the city was under Portuguese rule from 1488 to 1541, it is believed that they abandoned it to the Saadians, since the city proved difficult to defend from land attacks. The Portuguese fortress built to protect the city is there today. After the Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah built the city of Mogador, consequently, Safi stopped playing a leading role in the Moroccan trade. Safis patron saint is Abu Mohammed Salih, in 1942 as part of Operation Torch, American forces attacked Safi and took relatively quickly and with relatively few casualties compared to the other operations at Casablanca and at Port Mehdia. The inhabitants are composed of Berbers and Arabs descended from the following, the berbers who came later from the sous plains, south of the region. Two Arab tribes namely, Abda, They descend from Banu Hilal of Tunisia and have been installed in the region in the century and spawned, Bhatra. Ahmar, They descend from Maqil of Algeria, also note that Safi had a large Jewish community that emigrated to France today, Canada or Israel, which at the time represented more than 20% of the population. Football and rugby are popular sports in Safi, the local football team Olympic Safi have been competing in Moroccos premier football division, Botola, since 2004. The Rugby Union team of the name is one of Moroccos best, having won the Coupe du Trône several times. com People from Safi
Safi, Morocco
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Moroccan ceramic vessel, lid is cloche-shaped, openwork metal casing fitted tightly to outside of bowl with mounted coral beads, painted in underglaze blue, " Jobbana -Butter Pot " made Safi 19th - 20th.
Safi, Morocco
Safi, Morocco
28.
Agadir
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It is at a distance of 508 km to the south of Casablanca. It is the capital of the Agadir-Ida Ou Tanane Prefecture and of the Souss-Massa economic region, a majority of its inhabitants speak Shilha/Tashelhit, a Berber language of the Atlas branch, as their first language. The city of Agadir together with the cities of Inezgane. According to the 2004 census, there were 346,106 inhabitants in that year, Agadir is governed by Tariq Kabagge and its one of the major urban centres of Morocco, the seventh-largest conurbation of the country after Casablanca, Rabat, Fès, Marrakech, Meknes and Tangier. The population density is quite high, three languages are spoken in the city, Tashelhit, Moroccan Arabic, and French. The city was destroyed by an earthquake in 1960, it has completely rebuilt with mandatory seismic standards. It is now the largest seaside resort in Morocco, where foreign tourists, since 2010 it has been well served by low-cost flights and a motorway from Tangier. The city attracts all walks of life, it has had a growth rate of over 6% per year in housing demand while housing production barely exceeds 3. 4%. The mild winter climate and good beaches have made it a winter sun destination for northern Europeans. The name Agadir is a common Berber noun agadir meaning wall, enclosure, fortified building and this noun is attested in most Berber languages, and may be a loanword from Phoenician-Punic, a Semitic language spoken in North-Africa until the fifth century CE. There are many towns in Morocco called Agadir. The city of Agadirs full name in Tashelhit is Agadir n Yighir, literally the fortress of the cape, in Moroccan Arabic, an inhabitant is a gadiri, plural gadiriyin, feminine gadiriya, plural gadiriyat. History is virtually silent on Agadir before the 12th century, in the 2nd century AD, the historian Polybius referred to North Africa on the Atlantic, a place called cap Rhysaddir, that may have been located near Agadir but its location is still under debate. At the end of the period, Agadir was a town of some notoriety. The name itself, Agadir el-arba, was attested to for the first time in 1510, quickly, the Portuguese were exposed to the hostility of the tribes of the region. From 1530, they were blockaded in Santa Cruz, Portuguese weakness showed itself on 12 March 1541 when Sherif Saâdien Mohammed ash-Sheikh captured the fortress of Santa Cruz de Aguer. Six hundred Portuguese survivors were taken prisoner, including the governor, Guterre de Monroy, the captives were redeemed by the holy men mostly from Portugal. Dona Mecia, whose husband was killed during the battle, became the wife of Sheikh Mohammed ash-Sheikh, in the same year, Mohammed ash-Sheikh released the Governor Guterre de Monroy, whom he had befriended
Agadir
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View of Agadir
Agadir
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Fog in Agadir
Agadir
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The Fishing Port seen from the Casbah
Agadir
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Hill of the old Casbah
29.
Essaouira
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Essaouira, formerly known as Mogador, is a city in the western Moroccan economic region of Marrakesh-Safi, on the Atlantic coast. The modern name means the little rampart, a reference to the walls that still enclose part of the city. The name of the city is usually spelled Essaouira in Latin script, both spellings represent its name in Moroccan Arabic, ṣ-Ṣwiṛa. This is the diminutive of the noun ṣuṛ which means wall, the pronunciation with pharyngealized /ṣ/ and /ṛ/ is a typically Moroccan development. In Classical Arabic, the noun is sūr, diminutive suwayrah, hence the spelling of the name in Arabic script according to the classical pronunciation is السويرة al-Suwayrah. In the Berber language which is spoken by a proportion of the citys inhabitants, it is called Taṣṣort. In Moroccan Arabic, a single male inhabitant is called ṣwiṛi, plural ṣwiṛiyin, in the Berber language, a single male inhabitant is U-Taṣṣort, plural, Ayt Taṣṣuṛt, a single female inhabitant is Ult Taṣṣort, plural Ist Taṣṣort. Until the 1960s, Essaouira was generally known by its Portuguese name and this name is probably a corruption of the older Berber name Amaqdūl that is mentioned by the 11th-century geographer al-Bakrī. Archaeological research shows that Essaouira has been occupied since prehistoric times, the bay at Essaouira is partially sheltered by the island of Mogador, making it a peaceful harbor protected against strong marine winds. Essaouira has long considered as one of the best anchorages of the Moroccan coast. The Carthaginian navigator Hanno visited in the 5th century BC and established the trading post of Arambys and this dye colored the purple stripe in Imperial Roman Senatorial togas. A Roman villa was excavated on Mogador island, a Roman vase was found as well as coinage from the 3rd century CE. Most of the artifacts are now visible in the Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum, during the Middle Ages, a Muslim saint named Sidi Mogdoul was buried in Essaouira, probably giving its origin to the name Mogador. In 1506, the king of Portugal, D. Manuel I, ordered a fortress to be built there, four of them only had a short duration, Graciosa, São João da Mamora, Castelo Real of Mogador and Aguz. Two became permanent urban settlements, Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué, following the 1541 Fall of Agadir, the Portuguese had to abandon most of their settlements between 1541 and 1550, although they were able to keep Ceuta, Tangier and Mazagan. The fortress of Castelo Real of Mogador fell to the resistance of the Regraga fraternity four years after its establishment. During the 16th century, powers including Spain, England, the Netherlands, Essaouira remained a haven for the export of sugar, molasses and the anchoring of pirates. France was involved in an attempt to colonize Mogador in 1629
Essaouira
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Essaouira Sidi Megdoul
Essaouira
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Coat of arms
Essaouira
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Phoenician plate with red
slip, 7th century BCE, excavated in
Mogador island, Essaouira.
Sidi Mohammed ben Abdallah Museum.
Essaouira
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Aegean amphora found in Essaouira, 3-4th century CE.
30.
Souira Guedima
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Souira Guedima, formerly known as Aguz, is a Moroccan town 36 km south of Safi, at the mouth of the Tensift River on the Atlantic seacoast. Guedima may also be spelt Kadima, Kdima, Qadima, or Qdima, Aguz may also be spelt Agouz, Gouz or Couz. The town was an important port in the 11th century, serving the city of Aghmat which was inland 3 days journey to the east. Between 1506 and 1525 the stronghold of Aguz was an enclave under Portuguese colonial rule, as were various other Moroccan towns, such as Safim. It was governed by the following Portuguese Captains, 1506-1507 - Diogo de Azambuja 15. -1525 - Gonçalo Mendes Sacoto WorldStatesmen- Morocco Moroccan Government document on the Safi area
Souira Guedima
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Description of the "Souia Qadima" fortress, in Edmond Doutté (1867-1926)
Souira Guedima
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The small fort of Souira Qdima which date back to the 16th century
31.
Azemmour
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Azemmour or Azamor is a Moroccan city, lying at the Atlantic ocean coast, on the left bank of the Oum Er-Rbia River,75 km southwest of Casablanca. Before 1486, it was a dependency of the King of Fez, in 1486 its inhabitants became vassals and tributaries of João II of Portugal. In 1513 Azemmours governor Moulay Zayam refused to pay the tribute and mustered a powerful, manuel responded to this challenge by sending a massive fleet of 500 ships and 15 thousand soldiers. James, Duke of Braganza led this army and on 1 September he conquered the city with no resistance from its inhabitants. Ferdinand Magellan, the man famed for leading the first-ever circumnavigation of the earth, was among the Portuguese soldiers there, Portuguese control of the city lasted only for a short period, it was abandoned by João III of Portugal in 1541 due to his courts economic difficulties. Azemmour is located on the Oum Er-Rbia River 75 kilometres west of Casablanca, Azemmours beach, referred to locally as Azemmour Plage, is a place for surfing and kitesurfing. Also called Haouzia, the flora includes eucalyptus and pine. A spring festival is annually in Azemmour in March. It was first held in 2007, the patron saint of Azemmour is Abu Shuayb. His mausoleum was built on the order of Mohammed ben Abdallah, each year, a moussem is celebrated to honour him. The Old Citys walls are decorated by local artists. The city features a Portuguese medina, which has three parts, a Jewish mellah, a kasbah, and the old medina, a historic lighthouse called Sidi Boubeker is located 8 kilometres north of Azemmour. Estevanico, also known as Esteban the Moor, was enslaved and traveled with a Spanish expedition to North America in 1527
Azemmour
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Azemmour old city.
Azemmour
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Azemmour seen from Oum Er-Rbia River.
Azemmour
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Synagogue.
Azemmour
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Azemmour 16th century.
32.
Bioko
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Bioko is an island 32 km off the west coast of Africa, and the northernmost part of Equatorial Guinea. Its population was 334,463 at the 2015 Census and it covers an area of 2,017 km2, the island is located off Cameroon, in the Bight of Bonny portion of the Gulf of Guinea. Its geology is volcanic, its highest peak is Pico Basile at 3,012 m, Bioko has a total area of 2,017 km2. It is 70 km long from NNE to SSW and about 32 km across and it is volcanic and very mountainous with the highest peak Pico Basile. It thus resembles neighbouring islands São Tomé and Príncipe, like them, it lies on the Cameroon line. Bioko used to be the end of an attached to the mainland in what is now Cameroon. The island has a population of 334,463 inhabitants and its historic indigenous people are the Bubi people who currently constitute 58% of the population. Other ethnicities include the Fang, the Igbo who constitute 7% of the population, biokos native name is Otcho in the Bube language. The Portuguese navigator Fernão do Pó in 1472 named it Formosa Flora, the island was inhabited in the middle of the first millennium BC by Bantu tribes from the mainland, who formed the Bubi ethnic group. Unlike other islands in the area, Bioko had an indigenous African population, the Bubi speak a Bantu language. The island has probably been inhabited by this or other Bantu-speaking groups since before the 7th century BC, in 1472, the Portuguese navigator Fernão do Pó was the first European to visit the island. In 1494 it was renamed Fernando Pó in his honor after being claimed as a colony by the Portuguese, the Portuguese developed the island for sugarcane crops, and while considered poor quality, the refineries output was such that Fernando Po sugar briefly dominated the trade centres in Europe. In 1642, the Dutch East India Company established trade bases on the island without Portuguese consent and it temporarily centralized from there its slave trade in the Gulf of Guinea. The Portuguese appeared again on the island in 1648, replacing the Dutch Company with one of their own, also dedicated to slave trading and established in its neighbour island Corisco. Parallel with this establishment, the Bubi clans began the process of establishing the core of a new kingdom on the island. During a period when enslavement was increasing in the region, local clans abandoned their coastal settlements, under the 1778 Treaty of El Pardo, Portugal ceded Fernando Po, Annobón, and the Guinea coast, Rio Muni, to Spain, together forming modern Equatorial Guinea. The treaty was signed by Queen Mary I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain, in exchange for territory on the American continent, Spain mounted an expedition to Fernando Po, led by the Conde de Argelejos, who stayed for four months. In October 1778, Spain installed a governor on the island who stayed until 1780, chief Molambo was succeeded by another local leader, Lorite, who was succeeded by Lopoa
Bioko
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Bioko in the distance from
Limbe, Cameroon
Bioko
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Map of Bioko
Bioko
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Coastline of Bioko
33.
Elmina
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Elmina is the first European settlement in West Africa and it has a population of 33,576 people. Prior to the arrival of the Portuguese, the town was called Anomansah, in 1478, near the coast at Elmina was fought a large battle between a Castilian armada of 35 caravels and a Portuguese fleet for hegemony of the Guinea trade. This was the first colonial war among European powers, the town grew around São Jorge da Mina Castle, built by the Portuguese Diogo de Azambuja in 1482 on the site of a town or village called Amankwakurom or Amankwa. It was Portugals West African headquarters for trade and exploitation of African wealth. The original Portuguese interest was gold, with 8,000 ounces shipped to Lisbon from 1487 to 1489,22,500 ounces from 1494 to 1496, and 26,000 ounces by the start of the sixteenth century. Later the port expanded to tens of thousands of slaves channeled through the trading post of Elmina. By 1479, the Portuguese were transporting slaves from as far away as Benin, accounted for 10 percent of the trade in Elmina, the location of Elmina made it a significant site for reprovisioning ships headed south towards the Cape of Good Hope on their way to India. After years of Portuguese wealth on the Elmina Coast, the Dutch learned of the activity taking place through Barent Eriksz of Medenblick, one of the oldest traders. The Dutch West India Company captured it in 1637, in subsequent centuries it was used for the slave trade. The British attacked the city in 1782, but it remained in Dutch hands until 1872, Elmina is also home to Fort Coenraadsburg on St. Jago Hill, built by the Portuguese in 1555 under the name Forte de Santiago, it was used for commerce. In 1637 it was conquered and remained by the Dutch, after the conquest of Elminas main castle, today, Elminas main economic industry is fishing and tourism. Apart from Elmina Castle and Fort Coenraadsburg, the main tourist attractions in Elmina include the Dutch Cemetery, list of sister cities of Elmina, designated by Sister Cities International, Books Diffie, Bailey W. and Winius, George D. - Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580, Volume 1, NEWITT, Malyn- A history of Portuguese overseas expansion, 1400-1668, Routledge, New York,2005. Ghana-pedia website - Elmina Elmina Site Page from Aluka Digital Library Elminaheritage. com
Elmina
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Elmina Castle (St. George of the Mine Castle)
Elmina
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Komenda/Edina/Eguafo/Abirem Municipal logo
Elmina
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Fort São Jago da Mina in Elmina
Elmina
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Elmina
fishing fleet
34.
Portuguese Gold Coast
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The Portuguese Gold Coast was a Portuguese colony on the West African Gold Coast on the Gulf of Guinea. On August 29,1637 the Dutch occupied São Jorge da Mina, on January 9,1642 the whole colony was ceded to the Dutch, who made it part of their Dutch Gold Coast colony. The Portuguese governors, going by this modest, military style, were,1482 -1485 - Diogo de Azambuja 1485 -1486 - Álvaro Vaz Pestano 148, - Álvaro Mascarenhas c.1487 - João Fogaça 1495 -1499 - Lopo Soares de Albergaria 1499. - Diogo Lopes de Sequeira 1506, - António de Bobadilha c.1510 - Manuel de Góis 1513 - Afonso Caldeira c.1513 - António Fróis 1514 -1516. - Nuno Vaz de Castelo Branco 1516,1540 -1543 - António de Miranda de Azevedo 1541 -1545. - Lopo de Sousa Coutinho 1545 - Diogo Soares de Albergaria 1545 -1548 - António de Brito 1548 -1550 - Lopo de Sousa Coutinho 1550, - Diogo Soares de Albergaria 1552. - Rui de Melo 1556 -155, - Afonso Gonçalves de Botafogo 155. -1559 - António de Melo 1559 - Manuel da Fonseca 1559 -1562 - Rui Gomes de Azevedo 1562 -15, - Manuel de Mesquita Perestrelo c.1562 - João Vaz de Almada Falcão 156. - Francisco de Barros de Paiva 1564 -15,1570 -1573 - António de Sá c.1573 - Martim Afonso c.1574 - c.15. 1579 - c.1583 - Vasco Fernandes Pimentel 1583 -1586 - João Rodrigues Pessanha 1586 -15, - Luís Tomé de Castro 162. -1629 - João da Serra de Morais 1629 - c.1632 -,1632 -1634 - Pedro de Mascarenhas 1634 -1634 - Duarte Borges 1634 -1642 - André da Rocha Magalhães 1642 -1642 - Francisco de Sotte WorldStatesmen. org, Portuguese Gold Coast
Portuguese Gold Coast
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Gold Coast
Portuguese Gold Coast
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Flag
35.
Madagascar
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Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar, and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Southeast Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar, and numerous smaller peripheral islands, consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The islands diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by the encroachment of the growing human population. The first archaeological evidence for human foraging on Madagascar dates to 2000 BC, human settlement of Madagascar occurred between 350 BC and AD550 by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo. These were joined around AD1000 by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa, other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is divided into 18 or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands. Until the late 18th century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by an assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early 19th century, most of the island was united and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles, the monarchy collapsed in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the French colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergone four major constitutional periods, since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its capital at Antananarivo. However, in an uprising in 2009, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign. Constitutional governance was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president following a 2013 election deemed fair, Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie and the Southern African Development Community. Madagascar belongs to the group of least developed countries, according to the United Nations, Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to traditional beliefs, Christianity, ecotourism and agriculture, paired with greater investments in education, health, and private enterprise, are key elements of Madagascars development strategy. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009-2013 political crisis, in the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara and its people are referred to as Malagasy. The islands appellation Madagascar is not of origin, but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. On St. Laurences Day in 1500, Portuguese explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island, polos name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. At 592,800 square kilometres, Madagascar is the worlds 47th largest country, the country lies mostly between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. Neighboring islands include the French territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, as well as the state of Comoros, the nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west
Madagascar
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The terraced paddy fields of the
central highlands of Madagascar (left) give way to tropical rainforest along the eastern coast (center) bordered by the shores of the
Indian Ocean (right).
Madagascar
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Flag
Madagascar
Madagascar
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The grassy plains that dominate the western landscape are dotted with stony massifs (left), patches of deciduous forest, and
baobab trees (center), while the south is characterized by desert and
spiny forests (right).
36.
Mascarene Islands
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The Mascarene Islands is a group of islands in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar consisting of Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues. The collective title is derived from the Portuguese navigator Pedro Mascarenhas, the islands share a common geologic origin in the volcanism of the Réunion hotspot beneath the Mascarene Plateau and form a distinct ecoregion with a unique flora and fauna. The terrain includes a variety of reefs, atolls, and small islands and they present various topographical and edaphic regions. On the largest islands these gave rise to unusual biodiversity, the climate is oceanic and tropical. The youngest islands to form were Mauritius, the oldest of the existing islands, the islands of Rodrigues and Réunion were created in the last two million years. Réunion is the largest of the islands, followed by Mauritius, eventually Saya de Malha, Nazareth and Soudan were completely submerged, Cargados Carajos remaining as a coral atoll. The Réunion hotspot was beginning to cool and Rodrigues came out as a tiny island, Réunion is home to the highest peaks in the Mascarenes, the shield volcanoes Piton des Neiges and Piton de la Fournaise. Piton de la Fournaise, on the corner of Réunion, is one of the most active volcanoes in the world. Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire is the highest peak on Mauritius, the Mascarene Plateau is an undersea plateau that extends approximately 2000 km, from the Seychelles to Réunion. The plateau covers an area of over 115,000 km2 of shallow water, with depths ranging from 8 to 150 meters, plunging to 4000 m to the abyssal plain at its edges. The southern part of the plateau, including the Saya de Malha Bank, Nazareth Bank, Soudan Banks and Cargados Carajos Shoals, was formed by the Réunion hotspot. These were once islands, much like Mauritius and Réunion. The Saya de Malha Bank formed 35 million years ago, and the Nazareth Bank, limestone banks found on the plateau are the remnants of coral reefs, indicating that the plateau was a succession of islands. Some of the banks may have been islands as recently as 18, 000–6,000 years ago, the habitats of the islands differ in size, topography, age, and in proximity to the nearest major land mass, namely. As is common among remote islands, the Mascarene fauna and flora display a degree of endemism. In prehistoric times the islands were covered in a range of tropical moist broadleaf forest. The freshwater biota includes coastal wetlands and swamp forests, grading into rainforest to windward, dryland areas include palm savannas, montane deciduous forests and heathlands on the highest peaks of Réunion. The dry lowland forests range from sea level to elevations of some 200 metres and they occur in regions with less than 1000 mm average annual rainfall
Mascarene Islands
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Piton de la Fournaise
Mascarene Islands
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Topographic map of Mascarene Islands
Mascarene Islands
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The
dodo was a frugivore giant columbiforme of
Mauritius Island where there are several
Ocotea species. Painted by
Jacob Hoefnagel, c. 1602
Mascarene Islands
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Foetidia mauritiana
37.
Malindi
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Malindi is a town on Malindi Bay at the mouth of the Galana River, lying on the Indian Ocean coast of Kenya. It is 120 kilometres northeast of Mombasa, the population of Malindi was 207,253 as of the 2009 census. It is the largest urban centre in Kilifi County, Tourism is the major industry in Malindi. The city is popular among Italian tourists. Malindi is served with an airport and a highway between Mombasa and Lamu. The nearby Watamu resort and Gedi Ruins are south of Malindi, the mouth of the Sabaki River lies in northern Malindi. The Watamu and Malindi Marine National Parks form a protected coastal area south of Malindi. The area shows classic examples of Swahili architecture, the majority of Malindis population is Muslim. Malindi is home to the Malindi Airport and Broglio Space Centre, the first written reference to the present day Malindi likely comes from Abu al-Fida, Kurdish geographer and historian. He wrote that Malindi is situated to the south of the mouth of the river and this mountain may be Mount Kenya, where Galana River originates. Therefore, Malindi has existed as a Swahili settlement since the 13th century, once rivalled only by Mombasa for dominance in this part of East Africa, Malindi has traditionally been a port city for foreign powers. In 1414, the town was visited by the fleet of the Chinese explorer Zheng He, Malindis ruler sent a personal envoy with a giraffe as a present to China on that fleet. The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama met Malindi authorities in 1498 to sign an agreement and hire a guide for the voyage to India. Vasco da Gama was given a reception from Shiek of Malindi. The pillar stands to day, though there have been calls by conservationists to take care of it. It is a popular tourist attraction for both local and international tourists. In 1498 Malindi was a town with population of about 6,000. The Arabs were the class with many Africans as well as Indian traders living in the town
Malindi
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Pillar of Vasco da Gama
Malindi
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A view of the old town of Malindi
Malindi
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Close to Robinson Island Kenya north of Malindi
Malindi
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Sun rise over the Indian Ocean at Malindi
38.
Portuguese Mozambique
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Portuguese Mozambique or Portuguese East Africa are the common terms by which Mozambique is designated when referring to the historic period when it was a Portuguese overseas territory. Portuguese Mozambique constituted a string of Portuguese colonies and later a single Portuguese overseas province along the south-east African coast, Portuguese trading settlements and, later, colonies, were formed along the coast from 1498, when Vasco da Gama first reached the Mozambican coast. Lourenço Marques explored the area that is now Maputo Bay in 1544 and he settled permanently in present-day Mozambique, where he spent most of his life, and his work was followed by other Portuguese explorers, sailors and traders. In 1951 the colonies were combined into an overseas province under the name Moçambique as an integral part of Portugal. Most of the colonies have given their names to the modern provinces of Mozambique. Mozambique, according to policy, was not a colony at all. Portugal sought in Mozambique, as it did in all its colonies, to Europeanise the local population, Lisbon also wanted to retain the colonies as trading partners and markets for its goods. African inhabitants of the colony were ultimately supposed to become citizens with full political rights through a long development process. To that end, segregation in Mozambique was minimal compared to that in neighbouring South Africa, however, paid forced labour, to which all Africans were liable if they failed to pay head tax, was not abolished until the early 1960s. For four centuries the Portuguese presence was meagre, coastal and river trading posts were built, abandoned, and built again. In Portugal, however, Mozambique was considered to be a part of a world empire. It was believed that through missionary activity and other contact between Africans and Europeans, the Africans could be taught to appreciate and participate in Portuguese culture. In the last decade of the 19th century and the first part of the 20th century, Portugal never officially had a racist policy or sanctioned discrimination based on race. Its concept of what it called a multiracial society envisaged complete racial integration, including intermarriage, the historically determined position of the Portuguese as conquerors and governors of the Africans, however, resulted in barriers to the formation of this ideal. The uneducated Portuguese immigrant peasants in areas were frequently in direct competition with Africans for jobs. The society was divided into two peripherally interrelated sectors, communication between members of the ten different major ethnolinguistic groups was also difficult. Economically and socially, all but a few educated and Europeanised Africans were at a disadvantage vis-à-vis the Europeans, access to education above the primary level was limited by lack of means, by age limitations, or by lack of sufficient preparations. Access to economic opportunity was limited by lack of adequate training and this transitional group included individuals who had acquired a modicum of education or skills and some of the aspirations associated with a modern European way of life
Portuguese Mozambique
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The
Island of Mozambique was first occupied by Portuguese explorers in the late 15th century. They quickly established a fort there, and with time a community sprang up and achieved importance as port of call, missionary base and a trading centre. The island is a
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Portuguese Mozambique
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Flag
Portuguese Mozambique
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Painting by
Johannes Vingboons of
Sofala, c. 1665
Portuguese Mozambique
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View of Lourenço Marques, ca. 1905
39.
Saint Helena
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It is part of the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. Saint Helena measures about 16 by 8 kilometres and has a population of 4,534 and it was named after Saint Helena of Constantinople. The island, one of the most remote islands in the world, was uninhabited when discovered by the Portuguese in 1502 and it was an important stopover for ships sailing to Europe from Asia and South Africa for centuries. Napoleon was imprisoned there in exile by the British, as were Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo, between 1791 and 1833, Saint Helena became the site of a series of experiments in conservation, reforestation and attempts to boost rainfall artificially. This environmental intervention was closely linked to the conceptualisation of the processes of environmental change, Saint Helena is Britains second-oldest remaining overseas territory after Bermuda. The Portuguese found the island uninhabited, with an abundance of trees and they imported livestock, fruit trees and vegetables, and built a chapel and one or two houses. Englishman Sir Francis Drake probably located the island on the leg of his circumnavigation of the world. In developing their Far East trade, the Dutch also began to frequent the island, the Dutch Republic formally made claim to Saint Helena in 1633, although there is no evidence that they ever occupied, colonized, or fortified it. By 1651, the Dutch had mainly abandoned the island in favour of their colony at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1657, Oliver Cromwell granted the English East India Company a charter to govern Saint Helena and, the following year, the first governor Captain John Dutton arrived in 1659, making Saint Helena one of Britains oldest colonies outside North America and the Caribbean. A fort and houses were built, after the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, the East India Company received a royal charter giving it the sole right to fortify and colonise the island. The fort was renamed James Fort and the town Jamestown, in honour of the Duke of York, between January and May 1673, the Dutch East India Company forcibly took the island, before English reinforcements restored English East India Company control. The company experienced difficulty attracting new immigrants, and sentiments of unrest, a census in 1723 recorded 1,110 people, including 610 slaves. The island enjoyed a period of prosperity from about 1770. Captain James Cook visited the island in 1775 on the leg of his second circumnavigation of the world. St. James Church was erected in Jamestown in 1774, the site of this telescope is near Saint Mathews Church in Hutts Gate in the Longwood district. The 680-metre high hill there is named for him and is called Halleys Mount, throughout this period, Saint Helena was an important port of call of the East India Company. East Indiamen would stop there on the leg of their voyages to British India
Saint Helena
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A View of the Town and Island of St Helena in the Atlantic Ocean belonging to the
English East India Company, engraving,
c. 1790.
Saint Helena
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Flag
Saint Helena
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Napoleon at Saint-Helene by Francois-Joseph Sandmann
Saint Helena
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Longwood House (photographed June 1970)
40.
Zanzibar
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Zanzibar is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania in East Africa. It is composed of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, 25–50 kilometres off the coast of the mainland, the capital is Zanzibar City, located on the island of Unguja. Its historic centre is Stone Town, which is a World Heritage Site, the name Zanzibar is apparently derived from the Persian zang-bâr signifying black coast. Zanzibars main industries are spices, raffia, and tourism, in particular, the islands produce cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, and black pepper. For this reason, the islands, together with Tanzanias Mafia Island, are called the Spice Islands. Zanzibar is the home of the endemic Zanzibar red colobus monkey, the Zanzibar servaline genet, the word Zanzibar came from Arabic Zanjibār, which is in turn from Persian Zang-bār, a compound of Zang + bār. The presence of microlithic tools suggest that it has been home to humans for at least 20,000 years, a Greco-Roman text between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, mentioned the island of Menuthias, which is probably Unguja. Little is known about the history of Zanzibar between the time of the Periplus and the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, from that point forward, wars in Asia and increasing trade motivated Persians, Arabs, and Indians to visit or migrate to Zanzibar. Persian traders used Zanzibar as a base for voyages between the Middle East, India, and Africa and they established garrisons on the islands and built the first Zoroastrian fire temples and mosques in the Southern Hemisphere. The impact of these traders and immigrants on the Swahili culture is uncertain, during the Middle Ages, Zanzibar and other settlements on the Swahili Coast were advanced. The littoral contained a number of autonomous trade cities and these towns grew in wealth as the Bantu Swahili people served as intermediaries and facilitators to local, Arab, Persian, Indonesian, Malaysian, Indian, and Chinese merchants. This interaction contributed in part to the evolution of the Swahili culture, although a Bantu language, Swahili as a consequence today includes some elements that were borrowed from other civilizations, particularly Arabic loanwords. With the wealth that they had acquired through trade, some of the Arab traders also became rulers of the coastal cities, vasco da Gamas visit in 1498 marked the beginning of European influence. In 1503 or 1504, Zanzibar became part of the Portuguese Empire when Captain Ruy Lourenço Ravasco Marques landed and demanded and received tribute from the sultan in exchange for peace, Zanzibar remained a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries. It initially became part of the Portuguese province of Arabia and Ethiopia and was administered by a governor general, around 1571, Zanzibar became part of the western division of the Portuguese empire and was administered from Mozambique. It appears, however, that the Portuguese did not closely administer Zanzibar, the first English ship to visit Unguja, the Edward Bonaventure in 1591, found that there was no Portuguese fort or garrison. The extent of their occupation was a depot where produce was purchased and collected for shipment to Mozambique. In other respects, the affairs of the island were managed by the local king and this hands-off approach ended when Portugal established a fort on Pemba around 1635 in response to the Sultan of Mombasas slaughter of Portuguese residents several years earlier
Zanzibar
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The old castle in Zanzibar
Zanzibar
Zanzibar
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The Harem and Tower Harbour of Zanzibar (p.234), London Missionary Society
Zanzibar
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A
Zanj slave gang in Zanzibar (1889)
41.
Kilwa Kisiwani
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Kilwa Kisiwani is a community on an island off the southern coast of present-day Tanzania in eastern Africa. Historically, it was the center of the Kilwa Sultanate, a medieval sultanate whose authority at its height in the 13th-15th centuries AD stretched the length of the Swahili Coast. Kilwa Kisiwani has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the nearby stonetown Songo Mnara, Kilwa Kisiwani is an archaeological city-state site located along the Swahili Coast on the Kilwa archipelago. It was occupied from at least the 8th century AD and became one of the most powerful settlements along the coast, the seasonal wind reversals would affect trade circulations. Many of the Swahili settlements showed complex layouts that reflected social relations between groups, however at Kilwa, there are many questions left unanswered about the town layout. The cemeteries were located on the edge of the town, which was common for the region, an important city for trade, around the 13th century there were increased fortifications and a greater flow of goods. For these to take place, there would need to be a form of political administration overseeing the city, much of the trade networks were with the Arabian peninsula. Kilwa Kisiwani reached its highest point in wealth and commerce between 13th and 15th centuries AD, evidence of growth in wealth can be seen with the appearance of stone buildings around the 13th century AD, before which all of the buildings were wattle-and-daub. The socio-economic status of the individuals residing there could be seen in the type of structure they were living in. Among Kilwas exports were spices, tortoise shell, coconut oil, ivory, at around this time, Kilwa had seized control over the trade of gold at Sofala. The wealthy also possessed more commercial goods than the individuals who were of lower class did, luxury cloths and foreign ceramics were among a few of the items they would have owned, though some items, such as luxury cloths, do not preserve in the archaeological record. For approximately 500 years, Kilwa was minting coins and this lasted from about A. D 1100-1600 and the coins have been found across the region, including Great Zimbabwe. Marine resources were abundant and utilized for food, food sources would also come from the surrounding land. But because of the impact the sea, with all of the resources and trade opportunities, had on Kilwa. The soil at Kilwa that was found over the limestone was of poor quality, however, the soil in the Kilwa region would have been suitable for growing cotton, which could be used in sail manufacture. 12th century spindle whorls have been found, indicating that cotton was used and processed in this area, at first, most of the focus was placed on the archaeology of Kilwas ports and harbors, however, more and more emphasis is being placed on Kilwas hinterlands. Ceramic artifacts are plentiful at the site and can be divided into two groups, regional and coastal, all of the ceramics with regional distribution were locally produced, but the area of distribution is limited. These unglazed ceramics were referred to as Kitchen Wares, though their uses were not necessarily just as cooking vessels and it is important to note that all of the varieties of locally produced pottery found in the region were also uncovered at the site of Kilwa itself
Kilwa Kisiwani
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UNESCO World Heritage Site
Kilwa Kisiwani
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A 1572 depiction of the city of Kilwa from
Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis terrarum.
Kilwa Kisiwani
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The fort on the banks of Kilwa Kisiwani.
42.
Socotra
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Socotra, also spelled Soqotra, is an island and a small archipelago of four islands in the Arabian Sea. The territory is part of Yemen, and had long been a subdivision of the Aden Governorate, in 2004, it became attached to the Hadhramaut Governorate, which is much closer to the island than Aden. In 2013, the archipelago became its own governorate, the Soqatra Governorate, the island of Socotra constitutes around 95% of the landmass of the archipelago. It lies some 240 kilometres east of the Horn of Africa and 380 kilometres south of the Arabian Peninsula, the island is very isolated and a third of its plant life is found nowhere else on the planet. It has been described as the most alien-looking place on Earth, the island measures 132 kilometres in length and 49.7 kilometres in width. In the notes to his translation of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, huntingford remarks that the name Suqotra is not Greek in origin, but from the Sanskrit dvīpa sukhadhara. Another posited origin of the name is the Arabic suq meaning market, there was initially an Oldowan culture in Socotra. Oldowan stone tools were found in the area around Hadibo by V. A, zhukov, a member of the Russian Complex Expedition in 2008. Socotra appears as Dioskouridou in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, in 2001 a group of Belgian speleologists of the Socotra Karst Project investigated a cave on the island Socotra. There, they came across a number of inscriptions, drawings. Further investigation showed that these had left by sailors who visited the island between the 1st century BC and the 6th century AD. Most of the texts are written in the Indian Brāhmī script and this corpus of nearly 250 texts and drawings thus constitutes one of the main sources for the investigation of Indian Ocean trade networks in that time period. A local tradition holds that the inhabitants were converted to Christianity by Thomas the Apostle in AD52, in the 10th century, the Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani stated that in his time most of the inhabitants were Christians. They were Nestorians but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop and he reported in a letter home that the tribesmen, due to lack of missionaries, had only retained a faint knowledge of Christianity. In 1507, a Portuguese fleet commanded by Tristão da Cunha with Afonso de Albuquerque landed at the capital of Suq. Their objective was to set a base in a place on the route to India. Tomás Fernandes started to build a fortress at Suq, the Forte de São Miguel de Socotorá, however, the infertility of the land led to famine and sickness in the garrison. Thus the Portuguese abandoned the island four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base, the islands passed under the control of the Mahra sultans in 1511, and its inhabitants were completely Islamized during their rule
Socotra
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Landsat view over Socotra
Socotra
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Halah Cave (كهف حالة) east of the island.
Stalagmites and
stalactites show how high it can reach compared to the 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) man with the torch. It is several hundred metres deep, with total darkness.
Socotra
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1893 map of the
Bombay Presidency including
Aden Province and Socotra.
Socotra
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Endemic tree species
Dracaena cinnabari
43.
Accra
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Accra /əˈkrɑː/ is the capital and most populous city of Ghana, with an estimated urban population of 2.27 million as of 2012. It is also the capital of the Greater Accra Region and of the Accra Metropolis District, Accra stretches along the Ghanaian Atlantic coast and extends north. Originally built around three different settlements including a port, it served as the capital of the British Gold Coast between 1877 and 1957, Accra serves as the Greater Accra Regions economic and administrative hub. It is furthermore a centre of a range of nightclubs, restaurants. Since the early 1990s, a number of new buildings have been built, the citys National Theatre was built with Chinese assistance. In 2010, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network designated Accra a Gamma-minus-level world city, indicating a level of international influence. The central business district of Accra contains the main banks and department stores, and an area known as the Ministries. Economic activities in Accra include the financial and commercial sectors, fishing, and the manufacture of processed food, lumber, plywood, textiles, clothing, tourism is soon becoming a thriving business for arts and crafts, history cites and local travel & tour agents. The oxford street in Osu – Accra has grown to become the hub of business, the word Accra is derived from the Akan word Nkran meaning ants, a reference to the numerous anthills seen in the countryside around Accra. The name specifically refers to ants, and was applied to both the town and people by the Twi speakers. The name of Accra in the Ga language is also Ga or Gaga, the nasalised vowels sometimes shown as Gã or Gãgã, which is a cognate with Nkran. Historian Carl Christian Reindorf confirmed this etymology, proposing a link between the qualities and migratory behaviour of the local ants and those of the Ga people. The link between the ethonym and ants was explicitly reflected in the recognition of anthills as sacred places. Often ringed by sacred fences, the tall red mounds dotting Accras hinterland were seen as microcosms of human community, instead of viewing Ga speakers as a formidable military force, the Akan-speaking term Nkran cast Ga peoples as pests or nuisances to be controlled or exterminated. The name Ga is actually a version of the name Akan, Ga also gave its name to the Ga districts surrounding Accra. The name Accra was given to Nkran by Europeans, the main Ga group known as the Tumgwa We led by Ayi Kushie arrived by sea. When the Guan on the coast saw them on their canoes at sea, hence, the Lartehs refer to them as Nkran. Nkran was later corrupted by the Danes to Akra, then to present-day Accra, Nkran in the Ga language is Gaga, thus they also started calling themselves Ga
Accra
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Counter-clockwise from top:
Black Star Square; The Black Star Monument;
The Planetarium of Accra;
terraced houses of Accra.
Accra
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Seal
Accra
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A contemporary drawing of the
Danish empire fort, Fort Christiansborg, now Osu Castle. The outpost to the right is Fort Prøvestenen
Accra
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A main street of central Accra between 1885 and 1908
44.
Portuguese Angola
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Portuguese Angola or Portuguese West Africa are the common terms by which Angola is designated when referring to the historic period when it was a Portuguese overseas territory in southwestern Africa. The former Portuguese Angola became an independent country in 1975 and now forms the Republic of Angola and it is to note that the term Colony of Angola began to be used occasionally since 1914, but only in 1926 it completely replaced the designation Province of Angola. The history of Portuguese presence on the territory of contemporary Angola lasted from the arrival of the explorer Diogo Cão in 1484 until the decolonization of the territory in 1975, during these five centuries, several entirely different situations have to be distinguished. When Diogo Cão and other reached the Kongo Kingdom at the end of the 15th century. Its present territory comprised a number of peoples, some organized as kingdoms or tribal federations of varying sizes. The Portuguese were interested in trade, principally in slaves and they established small trading posts on the lower Congo, in the area of the present Democratic Republic. A more important trading settlement on the Atlantic coast was erected at Soyo in the territory of the Kongo Kingdom and it is now Angolas northernmost town, apart from the Cabinda exclave. In 1575, the settlement of Luanda was established on the coast south of the Kongo Kingdom, from 1580 to the 1820s, well over a million people from present-day Angola were exported as slaves to the so-called New World, mainly to Brazil, but also to North America. According to Oliver and Atmore, for 200 years, the colony of Angola developed essentially as a gigantic slave-trading enterprise, the Portuguese had Catholic beliefs and their military expeditions included from the very beginning the conversion of foreign peoples. In the 17th century, conflicting interests led to a military confrontation with the Kongo Kingdom. Portugal defeated the Kongo Kingdom in the Battle of Mbwila on October 29,1665, control of most of the central highlands was achieved in the 18th century. However, the treaty, meeting with opposition there and in Germany, was not ratified, since the 1920s, Portugals administration showed an increasing interest in developing Angolas economy and social infrastructure. In 1951, the Portuguese Colony of Angola became a province of Portugal. Organized guerrilla warfare began in 1961, the year that a law was passed to improve the working conditions of the largely unskilled native workforce. In 1961, the Portuguese government indeed abolished a number of legal provisions which discriminated against black people. After visiting the United Nations, Holden Roberto returned to Kinshasa, Holden Roberto launched an incursion into Angola on March 15,1961, leading 4,000 to 5,000 militants. His forces took farms, government outposts, and trading centers, at least 1,000 whites and an unknown number of blacks were killed. Commenting on the incursion, Roberto said, this time the slaves did not cower, the effective military in Angola were composed of approximately 6,500 men,5,000 black Africans and 1,500 white Europeans sent from Portugal
Portuguese Angola
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Portuguese soldiers in Angola
Portuguese Angola
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Portuguese Angola
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Bullfighting in Luanda, 1899
Portuguese Angola
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José Águas was born in Luanda in 1930
45.
Cacheu
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Cacheu is a town in northwestern Guinea-Bissau, lying on the Cacheu River. Its population was estimated to be 9,849 as of 2008, the town of Cacheu is situated in territory of the Papel people. The name is of Bainuk origin, i. e. Caticheu, Cacheu was one of the earliest European colonial settlements in sub-saharan Africa, due to its strategic location on the Cacheu river. Cacheu developed a European/Afro-European population from the fifteenth century through informal settlement of Cape Verdian and Portuguese traders, adventurers. The authorities in mainland Portugal also sent to Cacheu degredados - people condemned to exile for a variety of offences, notable buildings in Cacheu include the Portuguese-built 16th century fort, dating from the period when Cacheu was a centre for the slave trade. Roads in the town are paved with oil palm kernels, other attractions in the town include the Tarafes de Cacheu Natural Park mangrove swamp and a regular market. Cacheu is twinned with, Lisbon, Portugal
Cacheu
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Fortress of Cacheu
46.
Mombasa
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Mombasa is a city on the coast of Kenya. It is the countrys second-largest city, after the capital Nairobi and its metropolitan region is the second largest in the country and has a population of approximately two million people. Administratively, Mombasa is the capital of Mombasa County, a regional cultural and economic hub, Mombasa has an extra-large port and an international airport, and is an important regional tourism centre. The city had a population of about 939,000 per the 2009 census and it is located on Mombasa Island and sprawls to the surrounding mainlands. The island is separated from the mainland by two creeks, Tudor Creek and Kilindini Harbour. It is connected to the mainland to the north by the Nyali Bridge, to the south by the Likoni Ferry, the port serves both Kenya and countries of the interior, linking them to the ocean. The city is served by Moi International Airport located in the northwest mainland suburb of Chaani, Mombasa has a cosmopolitan population, with the Swahili people and Mijikenda predominant. Other communities include the Akamba and Taita Bantus as well as a significant population of Luo, the major religions practised in the city are Islam, Christianity and Hinduism. Over the centuries, many immigrants and traders have settled in Mombasa, particularly from the Middle East, Somalia, and the Indian sub-continent, the founding of Mombasa is associated with two rulers, Mwana Mkisi and Shehe Mvita. According to oral history and medieval commentaries, Shehe Mvita superseded the dynasty of Mwana Mkisi, Shehe Mvita is remembered as a Muslim of great learning and so is connected more directly with the present ideals of Swahili culture that people identify with Mombasa. The ancient history associated with Shehe Mvita and the founding of a settlement on Mombasa Island is still linked to present-day peoples living in Mombasa. The Thenashara Taifa Swahili lineages recount this ancient history today and are the keepers of local Swahili traditions, even though today Mombasa is a very heterogeneous cultural mix, families associated with the Twelve Nations are still considered the original inhabitants of the city. Most of the information on Mombasa comes from Portuguese chroniclers writing in the 16th century. In 1331, the famous Moroccan scholar and traveller Ibn Battuta also visited the area during his travels to the Swahili Coast and made mention of the city. He noted that the people of Mombasa were Shãfii Muslims, a people, trustworthy. Their mosques are made of wood, expertly built, the exact founding date of the city is unknown, but it has a long history. Kenyan school history books place the founding of Mombasa as 900 A. D and it must have been already a prosperous trading town in the 12th century, as the Arab geographer Al Idrisi mentions it in 1151. During the pre-modern period, Mombasa was an important centre for the trade in spices, gold and its trade links reached as far as the Indian subcontinent and modern-day China and oral historians today can still recall this period of local history
Mombasa
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Clockwise:
Fort Jesus, Mombasa Town Hall,
Mombasa Old Town,
Nyali beach, sunset panorama,
Moi Avenue 's elephant tusks and Downtown Mombasa.
Mombasa
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Kenya–Uganda railway near Mombasa, circa 1899
Mombasa
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1572 Mombasa from
Civitates orbis terrarum by
Georg Braun and Franz Hogenberg
Mombasa
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Old Town
47.
Ziguinchor
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Ziguinchor is the capital of the Ziguinchor Region, and the chief town of the Casamance area of Senegal, lying at the mouth of the Casamance River. It has a population of over 230,000 and it is the second largest city of Senegal, but largely separated from the north of the country by The Gambia. The city has a savanna climate, with an average annual accumulated rainfall of 1547mm. The first European settlement in the area was founded by the Portuguese in 1645, the local people, seeing the Europeans, began crying, thinking they were to be enslaved. The Portuguese objective was to form a trading post and an alliance with the local king. Ziguinchor became in fact a slave port during much of the Portuguese occupation, the spot was not chosen at random. While a Jola village predated the town, it was situated to trade with the Jola kingdom of Kasso, which dates back to the Mali Empire, when Mandinke people moved into the area from the south and east. Under the French, Ziguinchor became a trade port, mostly due to the intensive groundnut cultivation the colonial government encouraged in the interior. By 1900, the area was converted to Christianity, although significant Syncretist. Rice growing, the crop of the region, was hurt by the push to cultivate groundnuts. The French government also imported rice across West Africa from the farming they encouraged in French Indochina. After independence, the city saw its economic growth slow, in due to the War of Independence in neighboring Guinea-Bissau. Portuguese military crossed into the area at least once, pursuing PAIG rebels, during this period Ziguinchor became a main post for both the Senegalese Army and French forces, guarding the frontier, a frontier which cut in two Diola families and communities. As the capital of Casamance, Ziguinchor has been at the center of the three decade long conflict with Dakar, that has flared into open war on more than one occasion. With a population with a majority of Diola and Christian, the effects of a migration of Wolof Muslims fleeing drought in the north during the 1970s caused tensions to flare. The 2004 peace accords, signed in Ziguinchor, were hoped to be the end of the violence, Ziguinchor remains economically dependent on its role as a cargo port, transport hub and ferry terminal. The Nationale 4 highway crosses the Casamance River just east of the city, linking the region with Bignona about 25 km to the north, and, the MV Joola, which sank in 2002, was sailing from Ziguinchor to Dakar. The loss of the ferry, cut the link between Casamance and the rest of the country
Ziguinchor
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Place Jean-Paul II in the Escale neighborhood of Ziguinchor
Ziguinchor
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A church on the outskirts of Ziguinchor
48.
Bissau
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Bissau is the capital city of Guinea-Bissau. In 2007 Bissau had an population of 407,424. Bissau is located on the Geba River estuary, off the Atlantic Ocean, and is Guinea-Bissaus largest city, major port, the city was founded in 1687 by Portugal as a fortified port and trading center. In 1942 it became the capital of Portuguese Guinea, after the declaration of independence by the anti-colonial guerrillas of PAIGC in 1973, the capital of the de facto independent territories was declared to be Madina do Boe. Bissau remained as the capital of the Portuguese-occupied regions, and the de jure capital of all of Portuguese Guinea, the city is known for its annual carnival. The city, as the seat of government, was the scene of fighting during the beginning. Bissau is located at 11°52 North, 15°36 West, on the Geba River estuary, the land surrounding Bissau is extremely low-lying, and the river is accessible to ocean-going vessels despite its modest discharge for about 80 kilometres beyond the city. Bissau has a savanna climate, not quite wet enough to qualify as a tropical monsoon climate. Almost no rain falls from November to May, but during the five months of the year the city receives around 2,020 millimetres of rain. During the wet season and even during the three months beforehand, high humidity makes heat discomfort extreme, the last time an official census was held in the country in 1991, Bissau had a population of 195,389. By 2007 Bissau had an population of 407,424. Bissau is the countrys largest city, major port, educational, administrative, peanuts, hardwoods, copra, palm oil, and rubber are the chief products. The airport that serves Bissau is Osvaldo Vieira International Airport, historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau. Media related to Bissau at Wikimedia Commons Bissau travel guide from Wikivoyage
Bissau
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Downtown Bissau
Bissau
Bissau
49.
Portuguese Guinea
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The Portuguese Crown commissioned its navigators to explore the Atlantic coast of West Africa to find the sources of gold. The gold trade was controlled by Morocco, and Muslim caravan routes across the Sahara also carried salt, kola, textiles, fish, grain, and slaves. The navigators first passed the obstruction of Cape Bojador in 1437 and were able to explore the West African coast as far as Sierra Leone by 1460 and colonize the Cape Verde islands from 1456. The gold ultimately came from the reaches of the Niger River and Volta River. To control this trade, the king ordered the building of a castle, called São Jorge da Mina, on the Portuguese Gold Coast in 1482, the Portuguese government instituted the Company of Guinea to deal with the trading and to fix the prices of the goods. Besides gold, ivory, Melegueta pepper and slaves were traded and it is estimated that the Atlantic slave trade transported around 11 million people from Africa between 1440 and 1870, including 2 million from Senegambia or Upper Guinea. The Portuguese used slaves to grow cotton and indigo in the previously uninhabited Cape Verde islands, Portuguese traders and exiled criminals penetrated the rivers and creeks of Upper Guinea forming a mulatto population using Portuguese-based Creole language as their lingua franca. After 1500 the main area of Portuguese interest for gold and slaves was further south in the Gold Coast. At the start of the 17th century, the main Portuguese bases for the export of slaves were Santiago, Cape Verde for the Upper Guinea traffic, and São Tomé Island for the Gulf of Guinea. In the 17th century, the French at Saint-Louis, Senegal, Bissau, founded in 1765, became the centre of Portuguese control. Further British interest in the led to a brief attempt in the 1790s to establish a base on the island of Bolama. Between the retreat of the British settlers in 1793 and the official Portuguese occupation of the island in 1837 there were attempts to establish a European presence on the island. The abolition of the trade by Britain in 1807 presented the slave traders of Guinea with a virtual monopoly of the West Africa slave trade with Brazil. The last significant consignment of West African slaves reached Brazil in 1852, britains interest in the Upper Guinea region declined with the end of the British slave trade in 1807 and became focused on Sierra Leone after the Boloma Island settlement was abandoned. At the start of the 19th century the Portuguese felt reasonably secure in Bissau and their control was tenuous, for much of the 19th century the Portuguese presence in Guinea was mainly limited to the rivers of Guinea, the settlements of Bissau, Cacheu and Ziguinchor. Elsewhere it was preserved, with official assistance, by local Creole people and Cape Verde islanders. The existence of French- and Senegalese-run plantations brought a risk of French claims south of the Casamance River, at this time, Portugal occupied half a dozen coastal or river bases, controlling some maritime trade but few of Guineas people. However, in 1892, Portugal made Guinea a separate district to promote its occupation
Portuguese Guinea
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Portuguese-held (green), disputed (yellow) and rebel-held areas (red) in Portuguese-Guinea 1970.
Portuguese Guinea
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Portuguese Guinea
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PAIGC soldiers during the war of liberation.
Portuguese Guinea
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A Portuguese landing craft in Portuguese Guinea, 1973.
