1.
Rocket
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A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket engine. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from propellant carried within the rocket before use, Rocket engines work by action and reaction and push rockets forward simply by expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed, and can therefore work in the vacuum of space. In fact, rockets work more efficiently in space than in an atmosphere, multistage rockets are capable of attaining escape velocity from Earth and therefore can achieve unlimited maximum altitude. Compared with airbreathing engines, rockets are lightweight and powerful and capable of generating large accelerations. To control their flight, rockets rely on momentum, airfoils, auxiliary engines, gimballed thrust, momentum wheels, deflection of the exhaust stream, propellant flow, spin. Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th century China, significant scientific, interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the 20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology for the Space Age, including setting foot on the Earths moon. Rockets are now used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for satellites, human spaceflight. Chemical rockets are the most common type of high power rocket, chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use minimizes risks, the first gunpowder-powered rockets were developed in Song China, by the 13th century. The Chinese rocket technology was adopted by the Mongols and the invention was spread via the Mongol invasions to the Near East, medieval and early modern rockets were used militarily as incendiary weapons in sieges. An early Chinese text to mention the use of rockets was the Huolongjing, between 1270 and 1280, Hasan al-Rammah wrote al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya, which included 107 gunpowder recipes,22 of which are for rockets. In Europe, Konrad Kyeser described rockets in his military treatise Bellifortis around 1405. The name Rocket comes from the Italian rocchetta, meaning bobbin or little spindle, the Italian term was adopted into German in the mid 16th century by Leonhard Fronsperger and Conrad Haas, and by the early 17th century into English. Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima, an important early work on rocket artillery. The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the late 18th century in the Kingdom of Mysore, in 1814, Francis Scott Key wrote the line rockets red glare while held captive on a British ship that was laying siege to Fort McHenry. The first mathematical treatment of the dynamics of rocket propulsion is due to William Moore, in 1815, Alexander Dmitrievich Zasyadko constructed rocket-launching platforms, which allowed rockets to be fired in salvos, and gun-laying devices. William Hale in 1844 greatly increased the accuracy of rocket artillery, the Congreve rocket was further improved by Edward Mounier Boxer in 1865. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky first speculated on the possibility of manned spaceflight with rocket technology, robert Goddard in 1920 published proposed improvements to rocket technology in A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes
2.
Low Earth orbit
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A low Earth orbit is an orbit around Earth with an altitude between 160 kilometers, and 2,000 kilometers. Objects below approximately 160 kilometers will experience very rapid orbital decay, with the exception of the 24 human beings who flew lunar flights in the Apollo program during the four-year period spanning 1968 through 1972, all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO or below. The International Space Station conducts operations in LEO, the altitude record for a human spaceflight in LEO was Gemini 11 with an apogee of 1,374.1 kilometers. All crewed space stations to date, as well as the majority of satellites, have been in LEO, objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag from gases in the thermosphere or exosphere, depending on orbit height. Due to atmospheric drag, satellites do not usually orbit below 300 km, objects in LEO orbit Earth between the denser part of the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt. The mean orbital velocity needed to maintain a stable low Earth orbit is about 7.8 km/s, calculated for circular orbit of 200 km it is 7.79 km/s and for 1500 km it is 7.12 km/s. The delta-v needed to achieve low Earth orbit starts around 9.4 km/s, atmospheric and gravity drag associated with launch typically adds 1. 3–1.8 km/s to the launch vehicle delta-v required to reach normal LEO orbital velocity of around 7.8 km/s. Equatorial low Earth orbits are a subset of LEO and these orbits, with low inclination to the Equator, allow rapid revisit times and have the lowest delta-v requirement of any orbit. Orbits with an inclination angle to the equator are usually called polar orbits. Higher orbits include medium Earth orbit, sometimes called intermediate circular orbit, orbits higher than low orbit can lead to early failure of electronic components due to intense radiation and charge accumulation. Although the Earths pull due to gravity in LEO is not much less than on the surface of the Earth, people, a low Earth orbit is simplest and cheapest for satellite placement. It provides high bandwidth and low communication time lag, but satellites in LEO will not be visible from any point on the Earth at all times. Earth observation satellites and spy satellites use LEO as they are able to see the surface of the Earth more clearly as they are not so far away and they are also able to traverse the surface of the Earth. A majority of satellites are placed in LEO, making one complete revolution around the Earth in about 90 minutes. The International Space Station is in a LEO about 400 km above the Earths surface, since it requires less energy to place a satellite into a LEO and the LEO satellite needs less powerful amplifiers for successful transmission, LEO is used for many communication applications. Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary, a network of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage, lower orbits also aid remote sensing satellites because of the added detail that can be gained. Remote sensing satellites can also take advantage of sun-synchronous LEO orbits at an altitude of about 800 km, envisat is one example of an Earth observation satellite that makes use of this particular type of LEO. The LEO environment is becoming congested with space debris due to the frequency of object launches and this has caused growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can easily be dangerous, and even deadly
3.
Payload
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Payload is the carrying capacity of an aircraft or launch vehicle, usually measured in terms of weight. Depending on the nature of the flight or mission, the payload of a vehicle may include cargo, passengers, flight crew, munitions, scientific instruments or experiments, extra fuel, when optionally carried, is also considered part of the payload. In a commercial context, payload may refer only to revenue-generating cargo or paying passengers, for a rocket, the payload can be a satellite, space probe, or spacecraft carrying humans, animals, or cargo. For a ballistic missile, the payload is one or more warheads and related systems, the fraction of payload to the total liftoff weight of the air or spacecraft is known as the payload fraction. When the weight of the payload and fuel are considered together, in spacecraft, mass fraction is normally used, which is the ratio of payload to everything else, including the rocket structure. There is a natural trade-off between the payload and the range of an aircraft, a payload range diagram illustrates the trade-off. The top horizontal line represents the maximum payload and it is limited structurally by maximum zero-fuel weight of the aircraft. Maximum payload is the difference between maximum zero-fuel weight and operational empty weight, moving left-to-right along the line shows the constant maximum payload as the range increases. More fuel needs to be added for more range, the vertical line represents the range at which the combined weight of the aircraft, maximum payload and needed fuel reaches the maximum take-off weight of the aircraft. If the range is increased beyond that point, payload has to be sacrificed for fuel, the maximum take-off weight is limited by a combination of the maximum net power of the engines and the lift/drag ratio of the wings. The diagonal line after the point shows how reducing the payload allows increasing the fuel when taking off with the maximum take-off weight. The second kink in the curve represents the point at which the fuel capacity is reached. Flying further than that point means that the payload has to be reduced further, the absolute range is thus the range at which an aircraft can fly with maximum possible fuel without carrying any payload.314 m3 and 2 x 0.414 m3 Envelope, each 1. So even when the airplane has been loaded with its maximum payload that the wings can support, launch and transport system differ not only on the payload that can be carried but also in the stresses and other factors placed on the payload. The payload must not only be lifted to its target, it must also arrive safely, to ensure this the payload, such as a warhead or satellite, is designed to withstand certain amounts of various types of punishment on the way to its destination. Most aircraft payloads are carried within the fuselage for similar reasons, outsize cargo may require a fuselage with unusual proportions, such as the Super Guppy. The various constraints placed on the system can be roughly categorized into those that cause physical damage to the payload. Heavy-lift launch vehicle Medium-lift launch vehicle Tsiolkovsky rocket equation Shannon Ackert, using the Payload/Range and Takeoff Field Length Charts in the Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning Documents
4.
Orbital elements
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Orbital elements are the parameters required to uniquely identify a specific orbit. In celestial mechanics these elements are considered in classical two-body systems. There are many different ways to describe the same orbit. A real orbit changes over time due to perturbations by other objects. A Keplerian orbit is merely an idealized, mathematical approximation at a particular time, the traditional orbital elements are the six Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his laws of planetary motion. When viewed from a frame, two orbiting bodies trace out distinct trajectories. Each of these trajectories has its focus at the center of mass. When viewed from a non-inertial frame centred on one of the bodies, only the trajectory of the body is apparent. An orbit has two sets of Keplerian elements depending on which body is used as the point of reference, the reference body is called the primary, the other body is called the secondary. The primary does not necessarily possess more mass than the secondary, and even when the bodies are of equal mass, the orbital elements depend on the choice of the primary. The main two elements that define the shape and size of the ellipse, Eccentricity —shape of the ellipse, semimajor axis —the sum of the periapsis and apoapsis distances divided by two. For circular orbits, the axis is the distance between the centers of the bodies, not the distance of the bodies from the center of mass. For paraboles or hyperboles, this is infinite, tilt angle is measured perpendicular to line of intersection between orbital plane and reference plane. Any three points on an ellipse will define the ellipse orbital plane, the plane and the ellipse are both two-dimensional objects defined in three-dimensional space. Longitude of the ascending node —horizontally orients the ascending node of the ellipse with respect to the reference frames vernal point, and finally, Argument of periapsis defines the orientation of the ellipse in the orbital plane, as an angle measured from the ascending node to the periapsis. True anomaly at epoch defines the position of the body along the ellipse at a specific time. The mean anomaly is a mathematically convenient angle which varies linearly with time and it can be converted into the true anomaly ν, which does represent the real geometric angle in the plane of the ellipse, between periapsis and the position of the orbiting object at any given time. Thus, the anomaly is shown as the red angle ν in the diagram
5.
Le Bourget
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Le Bourget is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 10.6 km from the center of Paris, the commune features Le Bourget Airport, which in turn hosts the Musée de lAir et de lEspace. A very small part of Le Bourget Airport lies on the territory of the commune of Le Bourget, most of the airport lies on the territory of the communes of Dugny, Bonneuil-en-France, and Gonesse. The Bureau dEnquêtes et dAnalyses pour la Sécurité de lAviation civile is also headquartered on the airport grounds, Le Bourget has been twinned with Amityville, New York since 1979 and Zhukovsky in Russia. Le Bourget is served by Le Bourget station on Paris RER line B, there is also an extensive freight rail yard with international traffic to Belgium, among others. The town is served by two major Highways, A1 autoroute in the north of the town, and A86 autoroute in the south of the city. Those two highways ensure a connection to major Paris Region hubs like La Defense, Bobigny, Roissy Charles de Gaulle Airport. Paris–Le Bourget Airport is the first business flights airport in Europe and it connects with 800 destinations in Europe The world-renowned Gagosian Gallery is located in Le Bourget airport area. Le Bourget houses the Crèche intercommunale Maryse Bastié, an intercommunal daycare, École maternelle Saint-Exupéry is the sole maternelle public nursery school in Le Bourget, while École primaire Louis Blériot is the sole élémentaire- only public school in Le Bourget. Two municipal schools, Groupe scolaire Jean Jaurès and Groupe scolaire Jean Mermoz, collège Didier Daurat is the sole municipal collège. There is one high school, Lycée Germaine Tillion. Institution Privée Sainte-Marie, serving the maternelle, élémentaire and collège levels, is the private school in Le Bourget. The 350-square-metre Le Bourget Public Library has 45,000 books and it is located within the Urban Community of Le Bourget Airport. Communes of the Seine-Saint-Denis department Citations Bibliography INSEE Commune of Le Bourget
6.
Medium lift launch vehicle
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In spaceflight, a launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket used to carry a payload from Earths surface into outer space. A launch system includes the launch vehicle, the launch pad, Earth orbital launch vehicles typically have at least two stages, and sometimes as many as four or more. Expendable launch vehicles are designed for one-time use and they usually separate from their payload and disintegrate during atmospheric reentry. In contrast, reusable vehicles are designed to be recovered intact. The Space Shuttle was a part of a vehicle with components used for multiple orbital spaceflights. SpaceX has developed a rocket launching system to successfully bring back a part—the first stage—of their Falcon 9. A fully reusable VTVL design is planned for all parts of the ITS launch vehicle, Launch vehicles are often classified by the amount of mass they can carry into orbit. For example, a Proton rocket can lift 22,000 kilograms into low Earth orbit, Launch vehicles are also characterized by their number of stages. Rockets with as many as five stages have been successfully launched, additionally, launch vehicles are very often supplied with boosters supplying high early thrust, normally burning with other engines. Boosters allow the engines to be smaller, reducing the burnout mass of later stages to allow larger payloads. Other frequently reported characteristics of vehicles are the launching nation or space agency. For example, the European Space Agency is responsible for the Ariane V, many launch vehicles are considered part of a historical line of vehicles of same or similar name, e. g. the Atlas V is the latest Atlas rocket. A small-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting up to 2,000 kg of payload into low Earth orbit, a medium-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting 2,000 to 20,000 kg of payload into LEO. A heavy-lift launch vehicle is capable of lifting 20,000 to 50,000 kg of payload into LEO, a super-heavy lift vehicle is capable of lifting more than 50,000 kg of payload into LEO. It refers to its 1,500 kg to LEO Vega launch vehicle as light lift, sounding rockets have long been used for brief, inexpensive unmanned space and microgravity experiments. Current human-rated suborbital launch vehicles include SpaceShipOne and the upcoming SpaceShipTwo, minimizing air drag requires a reasonably high ballistic coefficient, a ratio of length to diameter greater than ten. This generally results in a vehicle that is at least 20 m long. Leaving the atmosphere as early on in the flight as possible provides a velocity loss due to air drag of around 300 m/s, Launch vehicles of sufficient size are capable of launching payloads smaller than their orbital capability, to the Moon or beyond
7.
European Space Agency
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The European Space Agency is an intergovernmental organisation of 22 member states, dedicated to the exploration of space. Established in 1975 and headquartered in Paris, France, ESA has a staff of about 2,000. The main European launch vehicle Ariane 5 is operated through Arianespace with ESA sharing in the costs of launching, after World War II, many European scientists left Western Europe in order to work with the United States. The meeting was attended by representatives from eight countries, including Harrie Massey. The Western European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned with developing a system, ELDO, and the precursor of the European Space Agency. The latter was established on 20 March 1964 by an agreement signed on 14 June 1962, from 1968 to 1972, ESRO launched seven research satellites. ESA in its current form was founded with the ESA Convention in 1975, ESA has 10 founding member states, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. These signed the ESA Convention in 1975 and deposited the instruments of ratification by 1980, during this interval the agency functioned in a de facto fashion. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in 1975, Cos-B, ESA joined NASA in the IUE, the worlds first high-orbit telescope, which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in 1986 ESA began Giotto, its first deep-space mission, to study the comets Halley and Grigg–Skjellerup. Hipparcos, a mission, was launched in 1989 and in the 1990s SOHO, Ulysses. Recent scientific missions in co-operation with NASA include the Cassini–Huygens space probe, as the successor of ELDO, ESA has also constructed rockets for scientific and commercial payloads. Ariane 1, launched in 1979, brought mostly commercial payloads into orbit from 1984 onward, the successor launch vehicle of Ariane 5, the Ariane 6 is already in the definition stage and is envisioned to enter service in the 2020s. The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become, along with agencies like NASA, JAXA, ISRO, CSA and Roscosmos, one of the major participants in scientific space research. Although ESA had relied on co-operation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances led to decisions to rely more on itself, a 2011 press issue thus stated, Russia is ESAs first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. ESA maintains its scientific and research projects mainly for astronomy-space missions such as Corot, launched on 27 December 2006 and this is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be more important in the future. ESA describes its work in two overlapping ways, For the general public the various fields of work are described as Activities, Member states participate to varying degrees in the mandatory and optional space programmes
8.
ELA-1
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ELA-1, short for Ensemble de Lancement Ariane 1, also known as Ensemble de Lancement Vega, ELV, and CECLES, is a launch pad at the Centre Spatial Guyanais in French Guyana. It has been used to support launches of the Europa rocket, Ariane 1, Ariane 3, ELA-1, at the time designated CECLES was constructed as an equatorial launch site for the Europa-II rocket which was being built as part of the ELDO programme. The first launch occurred on 5 November 1971 and this was the only flight of the Europa-II, which ended in failure due to a guidance problem. The launch site was mothballed, and later demolished, when the Ariane 1 programme was started, to replace the failed ELDO programme, a new launch site was built on the site of the former CECLES pad. This was designated Ensemble de Lancement Ariane, or ELA for short, the first Ariane 1 launch occurred on 24 December 1979. ELA was also used by Ariane 2 and 3 rockets, which first flew on 31 May 1986 and 4 August 1984 respectively, ELA was redesignated ELA-1 when the Ariane 4 entered service in 1988, as this launched from a separate launch pad, designated ELA-2. The Ariane 1 was retired on 22 February 1986, the Ariane 2 on 2 April 1989, a new launch pad built at ELA-1 and designated Site de Lancement Vega, or SLV, was constructed for the Vega rocket. Vega made its first launch from the complex on 13 February 2012, situation on 31 December 2015 Ariane 1 Ariane 2 Ariane 3 Ariane Europa Vega ELA-2 Guiana Space Centre Encyclopedia Astronautica - Kourou
9.
Guiana Space Centre
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The Guiana Space Centre or, more commonly, Centre Spatial Guyanais is a French and European spaceport to the northwest of Kourou in French Guiana. The European Space Agency, the French space agency CNES, and this was the spaceport used by the ESA to send supplies to the International Space Station using the Automated Transfer Vehicle. The location was selected in 1964 to become the spaceport of France, in 1975, France offered to share Kourou with ESA. Commercial launches are bought also by non-European companies, ESA pays two thirds of the spaceports annual budget and has also financed the upgrades made during the development of the Ariane launchers. Since April 4,2017, the centre has been occupied by 30 labor union leaders in the midst of the 2017 social unrest in French Guiana, Kourou is located approximately 500 kilometres north of the equator, at a latitude of 5°10. The near-equatorial launch location provides an advantage for launches to low-inclination Earth orbits compared to launches from spaceports at higher latitude, the proximity to the equator also makes maneuvering satellites for geosynchronous orbits simpler and less costly. Originally built in the 1960s under the name of CECLES, the ELV pad located at 5. 236°N52. 775°W /5.236, one Europa-II was launched from the site, before the programme was cancelled. The pad was demolished, and subsequently rebuilt as the first launch complex for Ariane rockets, renamed ELA, it was used for Ariane 1 and Ariane 2 and 3 launches until being retired in 1989. It was again refurbished for the Vega with the first launch performed on 13 February 2012, the ELA2 pad, located at 5. 232°N52. 776°W /5.232, -52.776 had been used for Ariane 4 launches until 2003. ELA3 has been active for Ariane 5 launches since 1996 and this facility is located at 5. 239°N52. 768°W /5.239, -52.768 and covers an area of 21 square kilometres. ESA has built ELS at 5. 305°N52. 834°W /5.305, the first Soyuz launch from ELS was postponed several times, but launched on October 21,2011. ELS is located on the territory of Sinnamary commune,27 km from Kourou harbor and it is 10 km north of the site used for the Ariane 5 launches. Russia will use the Guiana Space Centre in addition to Baikonur Cosmodrome, the Guiana location has the significant benefit of greatly increased payload capability, owing to the near equatorial position. A Soyuz rocket with a 1.7 tonnes to geostationary transfer orbit performance from Baikonur, the ELS project is being co-funded by Arianespace, ESA, and the European Union, with CNES being the prime contractor. The project has a projected cost of approximately €320 million, where €120 million are allocated for modernizing the Soyuz vehicle, the official opening of the launch site construction occurred on 27 February 2007. Excavation work however, had begun several months beforehand. By October 2010,18 launch contracts had been signed, Arianespace has ordered 24 launchers from Russian industry. On October 21,2011, two Galileo IOV-1 & IOV-2 satellites were launched using a Soyuz-ST rocket, in the first Russian Soyuz vehicle ever launched from Europes Spaceport in French Guiana, astrium assembles each Ariane 5 launcher in the Launcher Integration Building
10.
Giotto (spacecraft)
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Giotto was a European robotic spacecraft mission from the European Space Agency. The spacecraft flew by and studied Halleys Comet and in doing so became the first spacecraft to make close up observations of a comet, on 13 March 1986, the mission succeeded in approaching Halleys nucleus at a distance of 596 kilometers. The spacecraft was named after the Early Italian Renaissance painter Giotto di Bondone and he had observed Halleys Comet in 1301 and was inspired to depict it as the star of Bethlehem in his painting Adoration of the Magi. Originally a United States partner probe was planned that would accompany Giotto, there were plans to have observation equipment on board a Space Shuttle in low-Earth orbit around the time of Giottos fly-by, but they in turn fell through with the Challenger disaster. The plan then became a cooperative armada of five spaceprobes including Giotto, because Giotto would pass so very close to the nucleus ESA was mostly convinced it would not survive the encounter due to bombardment from the many high speed cometary particles. The coordinated group of probes became known as the Halley Armada, the later Stardust spacecraft would use a similar Whipple shield. A mock up of the spacecraft resides at the Bristol Aero Collection hangar, at Filton, the mission was given the go-ahead by ESA in 1980, and launched on an Ariane 1 rocket on 2 July 1985 from Kourou, French Guiana. Attitude determination and control used sun pulse and IR Earth sensor data in the telemetry to determine the spacecraft orientation. The Soviet Vega 1 started returning images of Halley on 4 March 1986, and the first ever of its nucleus, Vega 1 closest approach to Halley was 8 889 km. Giotto passed Halley successfully on 14 March 1986 at 596 km distance, one impact sent it spinning off its stabilized spin axis so that its antenna no longer always pointed at the Earth, and importantly, its dust shield no longer protected its instruments. After 32 minutes Giotto re-stabilized itself and continued gathering science data, another impact destroyed the Halley Multicolor Camera, but not before it took photographs of the nucleus at closest approach. Giottos trajectory was adjusted for an Earth flyby and its instruments were turned off on 15 March 1986 at 02,00 UTC. Giotto was commanded to wake up on 2 July 1990 when it flew by Earth in order to sling shot to its next cometary encounter, the probe then flew by the Comet Grigg-Skjellerup on 10 July 1992 which it approached to a distance of about 200 km. Afterwards, Giotto was again switched off on 23 July 1992, in 1999 Giotto made another Earth flyby but was not reactivated. Images showed Halleys nucleus to be a dark peanut-shaped body,15 km long,7 km to 10 km wide, only 10% of the surface was active, with at least three outgassing jets seen on the sunlit side. Analysis showed the comet formed 4.5 billion years ago from volatiles that had condensed onto interstellar dust particles and it had remained practically unaltered since its formation. Measured volume of material ejected by Halley, 80% water, 10% carbon monoxide 2. 5% a mix of methane, other hydrocarbons, iron, and sodium were detected in trace amounts. Giotto found Halleys nucleus was dark, which suggested a thick covering of dust, the nucleuss surface was rough and of a porous quality, with the density of the whole nucleus as low as 0.3 g/cm³
11.
Viking (rocket engine)
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The version used on the Ariane 4 first stage, which clustered four together, had 667 kN thrust each. The second stage of Ariane used a single Viking, over 1000 were built, and achieved a high level of reliability from early in the program. The 144 Ariane 1 to 4 used a total of 958 Viking engines, only 2 engines have led to a failure. The first failure was due to a crack in the chamber, the second is of human origin. Initially, all the engines were tested before being integrated on a launcher, beginning in 1998, engineers, confident of the reliability of the engine, authorized the use of untested engines on launchers. Some engines, randomly taken in the workshops of assembly, were tested from time to time and this confidence is very rare in the world of space engines. Karl-Heinz Bringer - designer of Viking and A4 engine Vernon, French manufacturers history site
12.
Specific impulse
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Specific impulse is a measure of the efficiency of rocket and jet engines. By definition, it is the total impulse delivered per unit of propellant consumed and is equivalent to the generated thrust divided by the propellant flow rate. If mass is used as the unit of propellant, then specific impulse has units of velocity, if weight is used instead, then specific impulse has units of time. Multiplying flow rate by the gravity before dividing it into the thrust. In rockets, this means the engine is more efficient at gaining altitude, distance and this is much less of a consideration in jet engines that employ wings and outside air for combustion to carry payloads that are much heavier than the propellant. Specific impulse includes the contribution to impulse provided by air that has been used for combustion and is exhausted with the spent propellant. Jet engines use air, and therefore have a much higher specific impulse than rocket engines. The specific impulse in terms of propellant mass spent is in units of distance per time and this is higher than the actual exhaust velocity because the mass of the combustion air is not being accounted for. Actual and effective exhaust velocity are the same in rocket engines not utilizing air, Specific impulse is inversely proportional to specific fuel consumption by the relationship Isp = 1/ for SFC in kg/ and Isp = 3600/SFC for SFC in lb/lbf-hr. The amount of propellant is normally measured either in units of mass or weight, however, if propellant weight is used, an impulse divided by a force turns out to be a unit of time, and so specific impulses are measured in seconds. These two formulations are both used and differ from each other by a factor of g0, the dimensioned constant of gravitational acceleration at the surface of the Earth. Note that the rate of change of momentum of a rocket per unit time is equal to the thrust, the higher the specific impulse, the less propellant is needed to produce a given thrust during a given time. In this regard a propellant is more efficient the greater its specific impulse and this should not be confused with energy efficiency, which can decrease as specific impulse increases, since propulsion systems that give high specific impulse require high energy to do so. It is important that thrust and specific impulse not be confused, the specific impulse is a measure of the impulse produced per unit of propellant expended, while thrust is a measure of the momentary or peak force supplied by a particular engine. In many cases, propulsion systems with high specific impulses—some ion thrusters reach 10,000 seconds—produce low thrusts. When calculating specific impulse, only propellant that is carried with the vehicle use is counted. Air resistance and the inability to keep a high specific impulse at a fast burn rate are why all the propellant is not used as fast as possible. If an engine weighs more in order to gain a specific impulse, it may not be as efficient in gaining altitude, distance
13.
Dinitrogen tetroxide
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Dinitrogen tetroxide, commonly referred to as nitrogen tetroxide, is the chemical compound N2O4. It is a reagent in chemical synthesis. It forms a mixture with nitrogen dioxide. Dinitrogen tetroxide is an oxidizer that is hypergolic upon contact with various forms of hydrazine. Dinitrogen tetroxide could be regarded as two nitro groups bonded together and it forms an equilibrium mixture with nitrogen dioxide. The molecule is planar with an N-N bond distance of 1.78 Å, the N-N distance corresponds to a weak bond, since it is significantly longer than the average N-N single bond length of 1.45 Å. Unlike NO2, N2O4 is diamagnetic since it has no unpaired electrons, inevitably, some dinitrogen tetroxide is a component of smog containing nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen tetroxide is made by the oxidation of ammonia, steam is used as a diluent to reduce the combustion temperature. The gas is essentially pure nitrogen dioxide, which is condensed into dinitrogen tetroxide in a brine-cooled liquefier, dinitrogen tetroxide can also be made through the reaction of concentrated nitric acid and metallic copper. This synthesis is more practical in a setting and is commonly used as a demonstration or experiment in undergraduate chemistry labs. The unstable species further react to form nitrogen dioxide which is purified and condensed to form dinitrogen tetroxide. Nitrogen tetroxide is used as an oxidizer in one of the more important rocket propellants because it can be stored as a liquid at room temperature and it became the storable oxidizer of choice for many rockets in both the United States and USSR by the late 1950s. It is a propellant in combination with a hydrazine-based rocket fuel. One of the earliest uses of this combination was on the Titan family of rockets used originally as ICBMs and then as launch vehicles for many spacecraft. Used on the U. S. Gemini and Apollo spacecraft and also on the Space Shuttle, it continues to be used as stationkeeping propellant on most geo-stationary satellites, and many deep-space probes. It now seems likely that NASA will continue to use this oxidizer in the next-generation crew-vehicles which will replace the shuttle and it is also the primary oxidizer for Russias Proton rocket. When used as a propellant, dinitrogen tetroxide is usually referred to simply as Nitrogen Tetroxide, most spacecraft now use MON instead of NTO, for example, the Space Shuttle reaction control system used MON3. On 24 July 1975, NTO poisoning affected the three U. S. astronauts on board the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project during its final descent, one crew member lost consciousness during descent
14.
HM7B
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The HM7B is a European cryogenic upper stage rocket engine used in Ariane rocket family. It will be replaced by Vinci as an engine for Ariane 6. Nearly 300 engines have been produced to date, the development of HM7 engine begun in 1973 on a base of HM4 rocket engine. It was designed to power a third stage of newly constructed Ariane 1, maiden flight took place on 24 December 1979 successfully placing CAT-1 satellite on the orbit. Introduction of Ariane 2 and Ariane 3 it become necessary to improve performance of the upper stage engine and it was achieved by extending engine nozzle and increasing chamber pressure from 30 to 35 bar increasing specific impulse and by this burn time from 570 to 735 seconds. Qualification tests were completed in 1983 and a variant was designated HM7B. It was also used on Ariane 4 upper stage where the time increased to 780 seconds. The HM7B is a regeneratively cooled gas generator rocket engine fed with liquid oxygen and it has no restart capability, the engine is continuously fired for 950 seconds in its Ariane 5 version. It provides 62.7 kN of thrust with an impulse of 444.2 s. The engines chamber pressure is 3.5 MPa, spacecraft propulsion Timeline of hydrogen technologies Comparison of orbital rocket engines HM4 RL-10 Vinci CE-7.5
15.
Liquid hydrogen
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Liquid hydrogen is the liquid state of the element hydrogen. Hydrogen is found naturally in the molecular H2 form, one common method of obtaining liquid hydrogen involves a compressor resembling a jet engine in both appearance and principle. Liquid hydrogen is used as a concentrated form of hydrogen storage. As in any gas, storing it as liquid takes less space than storing it as a gas at temperature and pressure. However, the density is very low compared to other common fuels. Once liquefied, it can be maintained as a liquid in pressurized, liquid hydrogen consists of 99. 79% parahydrogen,0. 21% orthohydrogen. In 1885 Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski published hydrogens critical temperature as 33 K, critical pressure,13.3 atmospheres, hydrogen was liquefied by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask. The first synthesis of the stable form of liquid hydrogen, parahydrogen, was achieved by Paul Harteck. Room–temperature hydrogen consists mostly of the orthohydrogen form, practical H2–O2 rocket engines run fuel-rich so that the exhaust contains some unburned hydrogen. This reduces combustion chamber and nozzle erosion and it also reduces the molecular weight of the exhaust which can actually increase specific impulse despite the incomplete combustion. Liquid hydrogen can be used as the fuel for an internal combustion engine or fuel cell, various submarines and concept hydrogen vehicles have been built using this form of hydrogen. Due to its similarity, builders can sometimes modify and share equipment with systems designed for LNG, however, because of the lower volumetric energy, the hydrogen volumes needed for combustion are large. Unless LH2 is injected instead of gas, hydrogen-fueled piston engines usually require larger fuel systems, unless direct injection is used, a severe gas-displacement effect also hampers maximum breathing and increases pumping losses. Liquid hydrogen is used to cool neutrons to be used in neutron scattering. Since neutrons and hydrogen nuclei have similar masses, kinetic energy exchange per interaction is maximum, finally, superheated liquid hydrogen was used in many bubble chamber experiments. The first thermonuclear bomb, Ivy Mike, used liquid deuterium, the product of its combustion with oxygen alone is water vapor, which can be cooled with some of the liquid hydrogen. Since water is harmless to the environment, an engine burning it can be considered zero emissions, liquid hydrogen also has a much higher specific energy than gasoline, natural gas, or diesel. The density of hydrogen is only 70.99 g/L
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Liquid oxygen
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Liquid oxygen—abbreviated LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace, submarine and gas industries—is one of the physical forms of elemental oxygen. Liquid oxygen has a blue color and is strongly paramagnetic. Liquid oxygen has a density of 1.141 g/cm3 and is cryogenic with a point of 54.36 K. Because of its nature, liquid oxygen can cause the materials it touches to become extremely brittle. Liquid oxygen is also a powerful oxidizing agent, organic materials will burn rapidly and energetically in liquid oxygen. Further, if soaked in liquid oxygen, some such as coal briquettes, carbon black, etc. can detonate unpredictably from sources of ignition such as flames. Petrochemicals, including asphalt, often exhibit this behavior, the tetraoxygen molecule was first predicted in 1924 by Gilbert N. Lewis, who proposed it to explain why liquid oxygen defied Curies law. Modern computer simulations indicate that there are no stable O4 molecules in liquid oxygen, O2 molecules do tend to associate in pairs with antiparallel spins. Conversely, liquid nitrogen or liquid air can be oxygen-enriched by letting it stand in air, atmospheric oxygen dissolves in it. In commerce, liquid oxygen is classified as a gas and is widely used for industrial and medical purposes. Liquid oxygen is obtained from the oxygen found naturally in air by fractional distillation in an air separation plant. Liquid oxygen is a cryogenic liquid oxidizer propellant for spacecraft rocket applications, usually in combination with liquid hydrogen. Liquid oxygen is useful in this role because it creates a specific impulse. It was used in the very first rocket applications like the V2 missile and Redstone, R-7 Semyorka, Atlas boosters, many modern rockets use liquid oxygen, including the main engines on the now-retired Space Shuttle. U. S. Army has long recognized the importance of liquid oxygen. In 1985 it started a program of building its own facilities at all major consumption bases. By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, six gases, however, resisted every attempt at liquefaction and were known at the time as permanent gases. They were oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, in 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air
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Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene
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Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene is an oligomer of butadiene terminated at each end with a hydroxyl functional group. It reacts with isocyanates to form polyurethane polymers, HTPB is a translucent liquid with a color similar to wax paper and a viscosity similar to corn syrup. The properties vary because HTPB is a rather than a pure compound. A typical HTPB is R-45HTLO. 4-2.6, which means there is one additional hydroxyl group located along the chain for every two oligomeric units. This provides side-to-side linkage for a stronger cured product, HTPB is usually cured by an addition reaction with di- or poly-isocyanate compounds. Polyurethanes prepared from HTPB can be engineered for specific properties, polyurethanes may be highly elastic or tough. An important application of HTPB is in solid rocket propellant and it binds the oxidizing agent and other ingredients into a solid but elastic mass. The cured polyurethane acts as a fuel in such mixtures, for example, HTPB is used in all 3/4 stages of the Japanese M-5 rocket satellite launchers and PSLV rocket developed by ISRO for satellite launches. JAXA describes the propellant as HTPB/AP/Al=12/68/20, which means, proportioned by mass, HTPB plus curative 12%, ammonium perchlorate 68%, similar propellants, often referred to as APCP are used in larger model rockets. A typical APCP produces 2–3 times the specific impulse of the black powder propellant used in most smaller rocket motors, HTPB is also used as a hybrid rocket fuel. With N2O as the oxidizer, it is used to power the SpaceShipTwo hybrid rocket motor developed by SpaceDev
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Solid-propellant rocket
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A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid propellants. The earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder, they were used in warfare by the Chinese, Indians, Mongols and Persians, all rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid-propellant rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are used today in model rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability. Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for periods, and then reliably launch on short notice. Solids are, however, frequently used as boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as launch vehicles for low Earth orbit payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500 kilograms. A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain, the grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases. The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can not only be throttled but also be extinguished, also, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments and that can be ignited upon command are available. Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel/oxidizer mass, grain geometry and chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics. The following are chosen or solved simultaneously, the results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and case geometries, The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber pressure. The chamber pressure is determined by the orifice diameter and grain burn rate. Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design, the length of burn time is determined by the grain web thickness. The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing, case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible. Common modes of failure in rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding. All of these produce an increase in burn surface area and a corresponding increase in exhaust gas production rate and pressure. Another failure mode is casing seal failure, seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and this was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
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Ariane (rocket family)
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Ariane is a series of a European civilian expendable launch vehicles for space launch use. The name comes from the French spelling of the mythological character Ariadne, France first proposed the Ariane project and it was officially agreed upon at the end of 1973 after discussions between France, Germany and the UK. The project was Western Europes second attempt to develop its own following the unsuccessful Europa project. The Ariane project was code-named L3S, Arianespace launches Ariane rockets from the Guiana Space Centre at Kourou in French Guiana. Ariane 1 was a launcher, derived from missile technology. Arianes 2 through 4 are enhancements of the basic vehicle, the major differences are improved versions of the engines, allowing stretched first- and third-stage tanks and greater payloads. The largest versions can launch two satellites, mounted in the SPELDA adapter, such later versions are often seen with strap-on boosters. These layouts are designated by suffixes after the generation number, first is the total number of boosters, then letters designating liquid- or solid-fueled stages. For example, an Ariane 42P is an Ariane 4 with two solid-fuel boosters, an Ariane 44LP has two solid, two liquid boosters, and a 44L has four liquid-fuel boosters. Ariane 5 is a complete redesign. The two storable lower stages are replaced with a single, cryogenic core stage and this simplifies the stack, along with the use of a single core engine. Because the core cannot lift its own weight, two solid-fuel boosters are strapped to the sides, the boosters can be recovered for examination, but are not reused. The upper stage is storable and restartable, powered by a single Aestus engine, on 4 May 2007, an Ariane 5-ECA rocket set a new commercial payload record, lifting two satellites with a combined mass of 9.4 tonnes. By January 2006,169 Ariane flights had boosted 290 satellites, attesting to the ubiquity of Ariane launch vehicles, Frances Cerise satellite, which was orbited by an Ariane in 1995, struck a discarded Ariane rocket stage in 1996. The incident marked the first verified case of a collision with a piece of catalogued space debris, on February 16,2011, the 200th Ariane rocket was launched, successfully carrying the Johannes Kepler ATV into low Earth orbit. Flyable models of the Ariane 4 and 5 are available as kits from Noris Raketen in Germany, Ariane 5 scale models are offered French Heller Joustra S. A in 1/125 scale, Arianespace in 1/125 and 1/100 scale, and Dragon Models Limited in 1/400 scale. ESA links to several models on its website, including Ariane 4. In 1987 Lambert Shelter built a 5.40 metre long flyable model of the Ariane, now displayed at the Hermann Oberth Space Travel Museum in Feucht
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Expendable launch system
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An expendable launch system is a launch system that uses an expendable launch vehicle to carry a payload into space. The vehicles used in launch systems are designed to be used only once. The vehicle typically consists of several stages, discarded one by one as the vehicle gains altitude. The ELV design differs from that of reusable systems, where the vehicle is launched and recovered more than once. Reuse might seem to make systems like the Space Shuttle more cost effective than ELVs, most satellites are currently launched using expendable launchers, they are perceived as having a low risk of mission failure, a short time to launch and a relatively low cost. Many orbital expendable launchers are derivatives of 1950s-era ballistic missiles, as such, cost was not a major consideration in their design. The largest of these is the Titan IV, the second costliest per-flight launch vehicle in history, on the other hand, a reusable launcher requires stronger parts and additional parts, thus decreasing payload capacity. The Space Shuttle was a national asset, used with great. Only five orbiters were built, and the loss of two cause great concern and a hiatus in Shuttle flights. Expendable launch failures usually caused a much shorter pause, each of which impacted only that model of launcher, for these reasons the Space Shuttle did not reduce the costs of constructing and launching payloads into orbit and did not replace expendable satellite launchers. On March 26,1980, the European Space Agency and the Centre National dEtudes Spatiales created Arianespace, Arianespace produces, operates and markets the Ariane launcher family. By 1995 Arianespace lofted its 100th satellite and by 1997 the Ariane rocket had its 100th launch, arianespaces 23 shareholders represent scientific, technical, financial and political entities from 10 different European countries. The major shareholder is the CNES, with 34. 68% of capital, at the start, NASA subsidized satellite launches, intending to eventually price Shuttle service for the commercial market at long-run marginal cost. On October 30,1984, United States President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Commercial Space Launch Act and this enabled an American industry of private operators of expendable launch systems. Prior to the signing of this law, all commercial satellite launches in the United States were limited to NASAs Space Shuttle, on November 5,1990, United States President George H. W. Bush signed into law the Launch Services Purchase Act. The Russian government sold part of its stake in RSC Energia to private investors in 1994, Energia together with Khrunichev constituted most of the Russian manned space program. In 1997, the Russian government sold off enough of its share to lose the majority position, in 1996 the United States government selected Lockheed Martin and Boeing to each develop Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles to compete for launch contracts and provide assured access to space. The governments acquisition strategy relied on the commercial viability of both vehicles to lower unit costs
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Commercial use of space
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Commercial use of space is the provision of goods or services of commercial value by using equipment sent into Earth orbit or outer space. Examples of the use of space include satellite navigation, satellite television. Operators of such services typically contract the manufacturing of satellites and their launch to private or public companies, some commercial ventures have long-terms plans to exploit natural resources originating outside Earth, for example asteroid mining. Space tourism, currently an exceptional activity, could also be an area of growth, as new businesses strive to reduce the costs. The first commercial use of space occurred in 1962, when the Telstar 1 satellite was launched to transmit television signals over the Atlantic ocean. By 2004, global investment in all sectors was estimated to be $50.8 billion. As of 2010, 31% of all launches were commercial. The first commercial use of satellites may have been the Telstar 1 satellite, launched in 1962, Telstar 1 was capable of relaying television signals across the Atlantic Ocean, and was the first satellite to transmit live television, telephone, fax, and other data signals. Two years later, the Hughes Aircraft Company developed the Syncom 3 satellite, Commercial possibilities of satellites were further realized when the Syncom 3, orbiting near the International Date Line, was used to telecast the 1964 Olympic Games from Tokyo to the United States. Between 1960 and 1966, NASA launched a series of weather satellites known as Television Infrared Observation Satellites. These satellites greatly advanced meteorology worldwide, as satellite imagery was used for better forecasting, on April 6,1965, the Hughes Aircraft Company placed the Intelsat I communications satellite geosynchronous orbit over the Atlantic Ocean. Intelsat I was built for the Communications Satellite Corporation, and demonstrated that satellite-based communication was commercially feasible, Intelsat I allowed for near-instantaneous contact between Europe and North America by handling television, telephone and fax transmissions. Two years later, the Soviet Union launched the Orbita satellite, which provided television signals across Russia, similarly, the 1972 Anik A satellite, launched by Telesat Canada, allowed the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation to reach northern Canada for the first time. The commercial space transportation industry derives the bulk of its revenue from the launching of satellites into the Earth’s orbit, Commercial launch providers typically place private and government satellites into low Earth orbit and geosynchronous Earth orbit. In 2002, commercial space transportation generated 6.6 billion dollars, Launch sites within Russia and China have added to the global commercial launch capacity. The Delta IV and Atlas V family of vehicles are made available for commercial ventures for the United States. The three largest Russian systems are the Proton, Soyuz, and Zenit, between 1996 and 2002,245 launches were made for commercial ventures while government launches only total 167 for the same period. Commercial space flight has spurred investment into the development of an efficient reusable launch vehicle which can place payloads into orbit
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Geosynchronous orbit
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A geosynchronous orbit is an orbit about the Earth of a satellite with an orbital period that matches the rotation of the Earth on its axis of approximately 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds. Over the course of a day, the position in the sky traces out a path, typically in a figure-8 form, whose precise characteristics depend on the orbits inclination. Satellites are typically launched in an eastward direction, a special case of geosynchronous orbit is the geostationary orbit, which is a circular geosynchronous orbit at zero inclination. A satellite in a geostationary orbit appears stationary, always at the point in the sky. Popularly or loosely, the term geosynchronous may be used to mean geostationary, specifically, geosynchronous Earth orbit may be a synonym for geosynchronous equatorial orbit, or geostationary Earth orbit. A semi-synchronous orbit has a period of ½ sidereal day. Relative to the Earths surface it has twice this period, examples include the Molniya orbit and the orbits of the satellites in the Global Positioning System. Circular Earth geosynchronous orbits have a radius of 42,164 km, all Earth geosynchronous orbits, whether circular or elliptical, have the same semi-major axis.4418 km3/s2. In the special case of an orbit, the ground track of a satellite is a single point on the equator. A geostationary equatorial orbit is a geosynchronous orbit in the plane of the Earths equator with a radius of approximately 42,164 km. A satellite in such an orbit is at an altitude of approximately 35,786 km above sea level. It maintains the position relative to the Earths surface. The theoretical basis for this phenomenon of the sky goes back to Newtons theory of motion. In that theory, the existence of a satellite is made possible because the Earth rotates. Such orbits are useful for telecommunications satellites, a perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. Elliptical geosynchronous orbits can be and are designed for satellites in order to keep the satellite within view of its assigned ground stations or receivers. A satellite in a geosynchronous orbit appears to oscillate in the sky from the viewpoint of a ground station. Satellites in highly elliptical orbits must be tracked by ground stations
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Ariane 2
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Ariane 2 was a European expendable carrier rocket, which was used for six launches between 1986 and 1989. It was a member of the Ariane family of rockets, and was produced by Aérospatiale in France, the Ariane 2 is similar to Ariane 3, without additional solid rocket boosters. Its payload capacity was increased to 2,175 kilograms to a transfer orbit. Ariane 2 first flew on 31 May 1986 carrying the Intelsat-5A F-14 satellite, the third stage had a partial ignition followed by another ignition above nominal pressure which led to the engine failure. Because upper stage was shared with other Ariane rockets all flights was suspended until 16 September 1987, as a result of investigation more powerful igniters were installed. Following this, five more launches were conducted, all of which were successful, the last Ariane 2 launch occurred on 2 April 1989, successfully placing Tele-X into orbit. Ariane 2 and 3 photo gallery ESA Ariane 1,2,3
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Ariane 3
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Ariane 3 was a European expendable carrier rocket, which was used for eleven launches between 1984 and 1989. It was a member of the Ariane family of rockets, derived from the Ariane 2 and it was designed by the Centre National dEtudes Spatiales, and produced by Aérospatiale in France. The Ariane 3 followed the basic design as the earlier Ariane 1. Unlike the Ariane 2, two solid-fuelled PAP strap-on booster rockets were used to augment the first stage at liftoff, the core of the Ariane 3 was essentially an Ariane 2. The first stage was powered by four Viking 2B bipropellant engines, the second stage was powered by a Viking 4B, which used the same fuel-oxidiser combination. The third stage used a cryogenically fuelled HM7B engine, burning hydrogen in liquid oxygen. On some flights, a Mage 2 kick motor was flown as a fourth stage. The Ariane 3 made its flight on 4 August 1984. Eleven were launched with ten successes and one failure, the failure occurred on the fifth flight, launched on 12 September 1985, when the third stage failed to ignite resulting in the rocket failing to achieve orbit. The ECS-3 and Spacenet-3 satellites were lost in the failure, the Ariane 3 was quickly replaced by the more capable Ariane 4, resulting in a comparatively small number of launches. It made its flight on 12 July 1989, carrying the Olympus F1 satellite. Ariane 2 and 3 photo gallery ESA Ariane 1,2,3
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Ariane 4
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The Ariane 4 was an expendable launch system, designed by the Centre national détudes spatiales while being manufactured and marketed by its subsidiary Arianespace. The launcher became known as the workhorse of the Ariane family. Since its first flight on 15 June 1988 until the final flight, in 1982, the Ariane 4 programme was approved by the European Space Agency. Capable of being equipped with a variety of strap-on boosters. Once in service, the launcher soon became recognised for being ideal for launching communications and Earth observation satellites, as well as those used for scientific research. In February 2003, the final Ariane 4 was launched, Arianespace had decided to retire the type in favour of the newer and larger Ariane 5, which effectively replaced it in service. In 1973, eleven nations decided to pursue joint collaboration in the field of exploration and formed a new pan-national organisation to undertake this mission. By early 1986, the Ariane 1, along with the Ariane 2, the Ariane 4 would be a considerably larger and more flexible launcher that the earlier members of its family, being intended to compete with the upper end of launchers worldwide. Work on the Ariane 4 was substantially eased via drawing heavily on both the technology and experiences gained from producing and operating the earlier members of the Ariane rocket, the total development cost for the Ariane 4 was valued at 476 million European Currency Units in 1986. Posed with the requirement to produce a rocket with substantially greater thrust, overall, the Ariane 4 was 15 per cent smaller than the Ariane 3. Another innovation of the Ariane 4 was the dual-launch SPELDA fairing and this had the function of allowing a pair of satellites, one placed on top of the other, several different SPELDA nose fairings could be installed, including normal and extended models. The SPELDA was considerably lighter than its predecessor, the system also used much more accurate ring laser gyroscopes. According to aviation author Brian Harvey, the present in the design of the Ariane 4 represented a conservative and evolutionary, rather than revolutionary. As the Ariane 4 programme took shape, it gained the support of Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Germany, Britain, France, Sweden, and Switzerland. This railway provided the benefit of enabling faulty rockets to be withdrawn from the pad. On 15 June 1988, the first successful launch of the Ariane 4 was conducted,50 seconds after take-off, the solid boosters would be expended and be detached in order to reduce the rockets weight. 143 seconds after take-off, the liquid boosters also detached, further lightening the vehicle, the maiden flight was considered a success, having put multiple satellites into orbit. For the V50 launch onwards, a third stage, known as the H10+, was adopted for the Ariane 4
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Ariane 5
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Ariane 5 is a European heavy lift launch vehicle that is part of the Ariane rocket family, an expendable launch system used to deliver payloads into geostationary transfer orbit or low Earth orbit. Ariane 5 rockets are manufactured under the authority of the European Space Agency, airbus Defence and Space is the prime contractor for the vehicles, leading a consortium of other European contractors. Ariane 5 is operated and marketed by Arianespace as part of the Ariane programme, the rockets are launched by Arianespace from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana. Ariane 5 succeeded Ariane 4, but was not derived from it directly, Ariane 5 has been refined since the first launch in successive versions, G, G+, GS, ECA, and most recently, ES. ESA originally designed Ariane 5 to launch the Hermes spaceplane, two satellites can be mounted using a SYLDA carrier. Three main satellites are possible depending on size using SPELTRA, up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or minisatellites, can be carried with an ASAP platform. As of July 2015 Arianespace has signed contracts for Ariane 5 ECA launches up till 2023, on 14 February 2017, Ariane 5 performed its 77th consecutive successful mission since 2003. Ariane 5’s cryogenic H173 main stage is called the EPC. It consists of a large tank 30.5 metres high with two compartments, one for liquid oxygen and one for hydrogen, and a Vulcain 2 engine at the base with a vacuum thrust of 1,390 kilonewtons. The H173 EPC weighs about 189 tonnes, including 175 tonnes of propellant, after the main cryogenic stage runs out of fuel, it can re-enter the atmosphere for an ocean splashdown. Attached to the sides are two P241 solid rocket boosters, each weighing about 277 tonnes full and delivering a thrust of about 7,080 kilonewtons and they are fueled by a mix of ammonium perchlorate and aluminum fuel and HTPB. They each burn for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean, the most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis, prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003. The French M51 SLBM shares a substantial amount of technology with these boosters, in February 2000 the suspected nose cone of an Ariane 5 booster washed ashore on the South Texas coast, and was recovered by beachcombers before the government could get to it. The second stage is on top of the stage and below the payload. The Ariane 5 G used the EPS, which is fueled by monomethylhydrazine and it also has 10 tonnes of storable propellants. The EPS was improved for use on the Ariane 5 G+, GS, Ariane 5 ECA uses the ESC, which is fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The EPS upper stage is capable of multiple ignitions, first demonstrated during flight V26 which was launched on 5 October 2007 and this was purely to test the engine, and occurred after the payloads had been deployed
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France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
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Europa (rocket)
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The Europa rocket was an early expendable launch system of the European Launcher Development Organisation, which was the precursor to the European Space Agency and its Ariane family of launchers. Europa was built to develop space technology and put European-wide telecommunication. The rocket primarily consisted of Blue Streak, Coralie, and Astris rocket stages, the British Blue Streak ballistic missile was cancelled in 1960, when it was realised it could not compete with the types of missile that the Americans or Russians were building. As part of deciding how to implement Blue Streak inconspicuously, the British inadvertently arrived at the concept of the launch facility. The difficult storage of oxygen in the rocket stalled the introduction of Blue Streak. The Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough was given the job of considering how the missile could be adapted as a launching vehicle. A possible Anglo-French collaboration was looked at, and ELDO was signed on 16 April 1962, the three-stage design was arrived at, and given the name Eldo A, later named Europa. It would still use the Blue Streak as the first stage, ELDO later disagreed, but the French would get their way, as Eldo B would become Ariane, first launching in 1979. The programme was initiated by the UK and the first launch was planned for November 1966, by April 1966, estimated costs had increased to £150 million, from an initial estimated of £70 million. Hopes were not high that it would be suitable for the job, the Italians wanted to give up on ELDO and go for a single European space organisation, not divided nationally as ELDO. Britain was contributing 40% of the costs, in early June 1966, the British government decided it could not afford the cost, and wanted to leave the ELDO organisation - one of the few European organisations in which it was a lead player. This was also at a time when technology was about to change the world. But geosynchronous satellites would need to be 22,000 miles above Earth, Britains contribution was reduced to 27%. In mid-November 1968, a European Space Conference in Bonn decided on a proposal to merge ELDO with ESRO to form a pan-European space authority by early 1970, Britain was lukewarm to the idea, because it did not believe Europe could launch satellites economically. Although only on paper, Britains involvement in the project was much reduced, however all of the launchers, to the very end, were completely dependent on the British rocket in the first stage. In 1970 the project was under an economic threat from Americas offer to fly satellites for foreign powers on a reimbursable basis. That agreement had been signed between ESRO and NASA on 30 December 1966 and by 1970 it was becoming clear that the advantage in having a national launch vehicle was insufficient to justify the cost. In 1972 NASA approved development of the Shuttle which many perceived would offer savings in having satellites launched on this system
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Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
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Willy Brandt
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He was the first Social Democrat chancellor since 1930. Brandt was originally considered one of the leaders of the wing of the SPD. He served as Foreign Minister and as Vice Chancellor in Kurt Georg Kiesingers cabinet, Brandt was controversial on both the right wing, for his Ostpolitik, and on the left wing, for his support of American policies, including the Vietnam War, and right-wing authoritarian regimes. The Brandt Report became a measure for describing the general North-South divide in world economics and politics between an affluent North and a poor South. Brandt was also known for his fierce anti-communist policies at the domestic level, Brandt resigned as chancellor in 1974, after Günter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret service. Willy Brandt was born Herbert Ernst Carl Frahm in the Free City of Lübeck on 18 December 1913 and his mother was Martha Frahm, a single parent, who worked as a cashier for a department store. His father was an accountant from Hamburg named John Möller, whom Brandt never met, as his mother worked six days a week, he was mainly brought up by his mothers stepfather, Ludwig Frahm, and his second wife, Dora. After passing his Abitur in 1932 at Johanneum zu Lübeck, he became an apprentice at the shipbroker and he joined the Socialist Youth in 1929 and the Social Democratic Party in 1930. He left the SPD to join the left wing Socialist Workers Party, which was allied to the POUM in Spain. In 1933, using his connections with the port and its ships and it was at this time that he adopted the pseudonym Willy Brandt to avoid detection by Nazi agents. In 1934, he took part in the founding of the International Bureau of Revolutionary Youth Organizations, Brandt was in Germany from September to December 1936, disguised as a Norwegian student named Gunnar Gaasland. The real Gunnar Gaasland was married to Gertrud Meyer from Lübeck in a marriage of convenience to protect her from deportation, Meyer had joined Brandt in Norway in July 1933. In 1937, during the Civil War, Brandt worked in Spain as a journalist, in 1938, the German government revoked his citizenship, so he applied for Norwegian citizenship. In 1940, he was arrested in Norway by occupying German forces, on his release, he escaped to neutral Sweden. In August 1940, he became a Norwegian citizen, receiving his passport from the Norwegian legation in Stockholm, in exile in Norway and Sweden Brandt learned Norwegian and Swedish. Brandt spoke Norwegian fluently, and retained a relationship with Norway. In late 1946, Brandt returned to Berlin, working for the Norwegian government, in 1948, he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany and became a German citizen again, formally adopting the pseudonym Willy Brandt as his legal name. In 1950, Brandt, being a member of the federal parliament, being confronted with this during his life, Brandt always denied
31.
Chancellor of Germany
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The Chancellor of Germany is the head of government of Germany. The official title in German is Bundeskanzler, sometimes shortened to Kanzler, the term, dating from the early Middle Ages, is derived from the Latin term cancellarius. In German politics, the Chancellor is equivalent to that of a minister in many other countries. German has two equivalent translations of prime minister, Premierminister and Ministerpräsident, while Premierminister usually refers to heads of governments of foreign countries, Ministerpräsident may also refer to the heads of government of most German states. The current Chancellor is Angela Merkel, who is serving her term in office. She is the first female chancellor, thus being known in German as Bundeskanzlerin, the role of the Chancellor has varied greatly throughout Germanys modern history. Today, the Chancellor is the effective leader. The office of Chancellor has a history, stemming back to the Holy Roman Empire. The title was, at times, used in several states of German-speaking Europe, the modern office of Chancellor was established with the North German Confederation, of which Otto von Bismarck became Chancellor in 1867. After the Unification of Germany in 1871, the became known in German as Reichskanzler. With Germanys constitution of 1949, the title Bundeskanzler was revived in German, during the various eras, the role of the Chancellor has varied. From 1871 to 1918, the Chancellor was only responsible to the Emperor, with the founding of the republic and the constitutional reform in 1918, the Parliament was granted the right to dismiss the Reichskanzler. According to the Weimar Constitution of 1919, the Chancellor was appointed by the President and responsible to Parliament, when the Nazis came to power on 30 January 1933, the Weimar Constitution was de facto set aside. After the death of President Hindenburg in 1934, Adolf Hitler, the 1949 constitution gave the Chancellor much greater powers than during the Weimar Republic, while strongly diminishing the role of the President. Since 1867,33 individuals have served as heads of government of Germany or its predecessor, due to his administrative tasks, the head of the clerics at the chapel of an Imperial palace during the Carolingian Empire was called Chancellor. The chapels college acted as the Emperors chancery issuing deeds and capitularies and these three Prince-Archbishops were also Prince-electors of the Empire electing the King of the Romans. Already in medieval times, the German Chancellor had political power like Archbishop Willigis or Rainald von Dassel under Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. In 1559, Emperor Ferdinand I established the agency of an Imperial chancellery at the Vienna Hofburg Palace, upon the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, Emperor Ferdinand II created the office of an Austrian Court Chancellor in charge of the internal and foreign affairs of the Habsburg Monarchy
32.
Georges Pompidou
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Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou was Prime Minister of France from 1962 to 1968—the longest tenure in the positions history—and later President of the French Republic from 1969 until his death in 1974. He had long been a top aide to president Charles de Gaulle, as president, he was a moderate conservative who repaired Frances relationship with the United States, and maintained positive relations with the newly-independent former colonies in Africa. He strengthened his party, the Union of Democrats for the Republic. Pompidous presidency is held in high esteem by French political commentators. Pompidou was born in the commune of Montboudif, in the department of Cantal in central France and he first taught literature at the lycée Henri IV in Paris until hired in 1953 by Guy de Rothschild to work at Rothschild. In 1956, he was appointed the general manager, a position he held until 1962. Later, he was hired by Charles de Gaulle to manage the Anne de Gaulle Foundation for Down syndrome. Jacques Chirac served as an aide to Prime Minister Pompidou and recalled, The man gave the appearance of being secretive, wily, however, it was primarily his intelligence, culture, and competence that conferred indisputable authority on him and commanded respect. Naturally reserved, little given to outbursts, Pompidou did not forge very close ties with his colleagues. His nomination was controversial because he was not a member of the National Assembly, in October 1962, he was defeated in a vote of no-confidence, but de Gaulle dissolved the National Assembly. The Gaullists won the election and Pompidou was reappointed as Prime Minister. In 1964, he was faced with a miners strike and he led the 1967 legislative campaign of the Union of Democrats for the Fifth Republic to a narrow victory. Pompidou was widely regarded as being responsible for the resolution of the student uprising of May 1968. His strategy was to break the coalition of students and workers by negotiating with the trade-unions, until this crisis, he was the Prime Minister of a quiet and prosperous France. However, during the events of May 1968, disagreements arose between Pompidou and de Gaulle, Pompidou did not understand why the President did not inform him of his departure to Baden-Baden on May 29. Their relationship, until then very good, would be strained from then on, Pompidou led and won the 1968 legislative campaign, overseeing a tremendous victory of the Gaullist Party. Nevertheless, in due to his actions during the May 1968 crisis. Pompidou announced his candidature for the Presidency in January 1969, some weeks later, his wifes name was mentioned in the Markovic scandal, thus appearing to confirm her husbands status as a cuckold
33.
President of France
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The President of the French Republic, is the executive head of state of the French Fifth Republic. The powers, functions and duties of prior presidential offices, and their relation with the prime minister, the current President of France is François Hollande, who took office on 15 May 2012. Hollande has announced that he stand down in the upcoming 2017 French presidential election. President Chirac was first elected in 1995 and again in 2002, at that time, there was no limit on the number of terms, so Chirac could have run again, but chose not to. He was succeeded by Nicolas Sarkozy on 16 May 2007, following a further change, the Constitutional law on the Modernisation of the Institutions of the Fifth Republic,2008, a president cannot serve more than two consecutive terms. François Mitterrand and Jacques Chirac are the only Presidents to date who have served a two terms. In order to be admitted as a candidate, potential candidates must receive signed nominations from more than 500 elected officials. These officials must be from at least 30 départements or overseas collectivities, furthermore, each official may nominate only one candidate. There are exactly 45,543 elected officials, including 33,872 mayors, spending and financing of campaigns and political parties are highly regulated. There is a cap on spending, at approximately 20 million euros, if the candidate receives less than 5% of the vote, the government funds €8,000,000 to the party. Advertising on TV is forbidden but official time is given to candidates on public TV, an independent agency regulates election and party financing. After the president is elected, he or she goes through an investiture ceremony called a passation des pouvoirs. The French Fifth Republic is a semi-presidential system, unlike many other European presidents, the French President is quite powerful. The president holds the nations most senior office, and outranks all other politicians, the presidents greatest power is his/her ability to choose the prime minister. When the majority of the Assembly has opposite political views to that of the president, when the majority of the Assembly sides with them, the President can take a more active role and may, in effect, direct government policy. The prime minister is then the choice of the President. This device has been used in recent years by François Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, since 2002, the mandate of the president and the Assembly are both 5 years and the two elections are close to each other. Therefore, the likelihood of a cohabitation is lower, among the powers of the government, The president promulgates laws
34.
Ballistic missile
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A ballistic missile is a missile that follows a ballistic trajectory with the objective of delivering one or more warheads to a predetermined target. A ballistic missile is only guided during relatively brief periods of flight and this contrasts to a cruise missile, which is aerodynamically guided in powered flight. Long range intercontinental ballistic missiles are launched on a flight trajectory. Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earths atmosphere, the earliest use of rockets as a weapon date to the 13th Century. A pioneer ballistic missile was the A-4, commonly known as the V-2 rocket developed by Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s under the direction of Wernher von Braun. The first successful launch of a V-2 was on October 3,1942, by the end of World War II in May 1945, over 3,000 V-2s had been launched. The R-7 Semyorka was the first intercontinental ballistic missile, a total of 30 nations have deployed operational ballistic missiles. Development continues with around 100 ballistic missile tests in 2007, mostly by China, Iran. In 2010, the U. S. and Russian governments signed a treaty to reduce their inventory of intercontinental ballistic missiles over a period to 1550 units each. Ballistic missiles can be launched from fixed sites or mobile launchers, including vehicles, aircraft, ships, the powered flight portion can last from a few tenths of seconds to several minutes and can consist of multiple rocket stages. When in space and no more thrust is provided, the missile enters free-flight, the re-entry stage begins at an altitude where atmospheric drag plays a significant part in missile trajectory, and lasts until missile impact. The course taken by ballistic missiles has two significant desirable properties, first, ballistic missiles that fly above the atmosphere have a much longer range than would be possible for cruise missiles of the same size. Powered rocket flight through thousands of kilometers of air would require greater amounts of fuel, making the launch vehicles larger and easier to detect. Powered missiles that can cover similar ranges, such as missiles, do not use rocket motors for the majority of their flight. Despite this, cruise missiles have not made ballistic missiles obsolete, due to the major advantage. An ICBM can strike a target within a 10,000 km range in about 30 to 35 minutes, with terminal speeds of over 5,000 m/s, ballistic missiles are much harder to intercept than cruise missiles, due to the much shorter time available to intercept them. This is why ballistic missiles are some of the most feared weapons available, despite the fact that cruise missiles are cheaper, more mobile, Ballistic missiles can vary widely in range and use, and are often divided into categories based on range. A comparable missile would be the decommissioned Chinas JL-1 SLBM with a range of less than 2, tactical, short- and medium-range missiles are often collectively referred to as tactical and theatre ballistic missiles, respectively
35.
Aerospace manufacturer
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Aerospace is a high technology industry. In Russia, large companies like Oboronprom and the United Aircraft Corporation are among the major global players in this industry. In the United States, the Department of Defense and NASA are the two biggest consumers of technology and products. By 1999 U. S. share of the market fell to 52 percent. Important locations of the aerospace industry worldwide include Seattle, Wichita, Kansas, Dayton, Ohio. Several consolidations took place in the aerospace and defense industries over the last few decades, between 1988 and 2010, more than 5,452 mergers & acquisitions with a total known-value of US$579 billion were announced worldwide. The largest transactions include the merger of Boeing with McDonnell Douglas valued at US$13.3 billion in 1996, marconi Electronic Systems, a subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc, was acquired by British Aerospace for US$12.3 billion in 1999 merger, to forme BAE Systems. Raytheon acquired Hughes Aircraft Company for $9.5 billion in 1997, Aerospace Aviation accidents and incidents List of aircraft manufacturers List of spacecraft manufacturers Aerospace Industries Association Associação das Indústrias Aeroespaciais do Brasil
36.
Safran Aircraft Engines
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Snecma S. A. or Safran Aircraft Engines is a French multinational aircraft and rocket engine manufacturer headquartered in Courcouronnes, France. Alone or in partnership, Snecma designs, develops, produces and markets engines for civil and military aircraft, the company also offers a complete range of engine support services to airlines, armed forces and other operators. Snecma is a subsidiary of Safran, Snecma used to be an acronym for Société nationale détudes et de construction de moteurs daviation until 27 April 2004. Snecma was formed in 1945 with German BMW jet engine technology when the large French aero engine firm Gnome & Rhône was nationalised, in 1961, Snecma and Bristol Siddeley agreed to a joint venture to produce the power plant for Concorde, which would become the Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593. The main body of the came from the Bristol Olympus with the refinements being the addition of the variable intakes necessary for supersonic flight. In 1968, Snecma took control of Hispano-Suiza, Socata and Bugatti, in a subsequent reorganisation, all aero-engine maintenance services would be grouped as Socata-Snecma. In 1970, Messier and Snecma agreed to merge their landing gear businesses, the following year, Messier-Hispano was formed in which Snecma held a stake. Snecma took full control of Messier-Hispano in 1973, in 1977, the landing gear business was further consolidated by the creation of Messier-Hispano-Bugatti. Snecma and General Electric created a joint venture in 1974, CFM International, testing of FADEC, a joint development of the two companies, began in 1985. In 1990, Snecma announced its participation in the General Electric GE90 engine programme, Messier-Dowty was formed in 1994 following the merger of the landing gear businesses of Snecma and the British TI Group. In 1997 Snecma acquired 100 per cent of Société européenne de propulsion, in 1998, Snecma took full control of Messier-Dowty. In 1999, Snecma Services was created to consolidate all maintenance, repair, in 2000, Snecma became a holding company and the propulsion business was reformed as Snecma Moteurs. Later in the year Snecma acquired Labinal, along with its Turbomeca, in 2001, Hurel-Hispano was created to consolidate the groups engine nacelle and thrust reverser businesses. In 2005, Snecma merged with Sagem to form SAFRAN, Snecma was divided, with the companys subsidiaries contributing to the propulsion and equipment divisions of the new group. Snecma moteurs was then renamed Snecma, in 2010, Snecma and GE formed CFM Materials as a joint venture. In 2016, Snecma was renamed Safran Aircraft Engines, the companys major civil aircraft engine is the CFM International CFM56. Produced by a partnership between Snecma and General Electric, CFM56s power more than 4,900 aircraft around the world, Snecma is also the main partner for the General Electric CF6-80 and GE90 programs. This engine is one of two available to power the Airbus A380
37.
Air Liquide
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Air Liquide S. A. or Air Liquide, is a French multinational company which supplies industrial gases and services to various industries including medical, chemical and electronic manufacturers. Founded in 1902, it is the worlds first largest supplier of industrial gases by revenues and has operations in over 80 countries and it is headquartered in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, France. Air Liquide owned the patent for Aqua-Lung until it time-expired, although Air Liquides headquarters are located in Paris, France, it also has a major site in Japan, as well as in Houston, TX, and Newark, DE, USA. There is an emphasis on research and development throughout the Air Liquide company, R&D targets the creation of not only industrial gases, but also gases that are used in products such as healthcare items, electronic chips, foods and chemicals. The major R&D groups within Air Liquide focus on analysis, bioresources, combustion, membranes, modeling, the company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. As of 2009, the company is ranked 484 in the Fortune Global 500,1902, Georges Claude and Paul Delorme develop a process for liquefying air to separate the components. First drops of liquid air and creation of the company of the same name, Paul Delorme is the first president. 1906, Launch of international expansion, first in Belgium and Italy, then also in Canada, Japan,1913, Air Liquide joins the Paris Bourse. 1938, Acquisition of La oxígena S. A and they were the first modern diving regulators. 1945, After the war, Jean Delorme, second president of the Group seeks to restore roads, renovate,1946, Air Liquide founds La Spirotechnique, its own division destined to conceive and commercialize regulators and other diving equipment. The same year La Spirotechnique launches the CG45, the first modern regulator to be commercialized, the year 1946 represents thus the beginning of the popularisation of scuba diving. 1957, Launch of great activity and industry networking pipes irrigating several major areas in the world. 1962, Launch of space adventure 1986, Deployment in the United States with the acquisition of Big Three and implementation in many countries, particularly in Europe, Acquisition of SEPPIC, the French specialty chemicals company, as part of its Healthcare World Business Line. 1995, Creation of Air Liquide Health, structure, teams,1996, Acquisition of Schuelke and Mayr in Germany. 2001, Acquisition of Messer Griesheim in South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, Canada, Egypt, Argentina,2003, Creation of a joint venture with The BOC Group in Japan, Japan Air Gases, strengthening the groups presence in the Far East market. 2004, Acquisition of Messer Griesheim in Germany, UK and the USA,2007, Acquisition of Linde Gas UK. 2007, Acquisition of the German engineering company Lurgi, which doubles the capacity of the engineering group,2007, Acquisition of Scott Specialty Gases, LLC. in the USA, UK and Netherlands. 2008, The investment company Eurazeo, which owns 5. 6% since 2006 group, from 2005 to 2008, Air Liquide increased its hydrogen production by more than 50 percent
38.
Matra
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Mécanique Aviation Traction or Matra was a French company covering a wide range of activities mainly related to automobiles, bicycles, aeronautics and weaponry. In 1994, it became a subsidiary of the Lagardère Group, Matra was owned by the Floirat family. The name Matra became famous in the 1960s when it went into car production by buying Automobiles René Bonnet, Matra Automobiles produced racing cars and sports cars, and was successful in racing. Matra was privatized in 1988, with Lagardère holding 6% of the stock, in 1992 the Lagardère Group was radically restructured, acquiring more shares in Matra from Floirat, Daimler Benz and GEC, and Hachette from Floirat, Crédit Lyonnais and Aberly. Lagardère merged Matra and Hachette to form Matra Hachette, of which Lagardère Group held 37. 6%, following a share swap in 1994 Lagardère held 93. 3% of Matra Hachettes stock. In 1996 Matra Hachette was formally merged into Lagardère, Matra Hautes Technologies or MHT was the defence arm of Matra. The company was involved in aerospace, defence and telecommunications, in February 1999 Matra Hautes Technologies merged with Aérospatiale to form Aérospatiale-Matra. On July 10,2000 Aérospatiale-Matra became part of EADS, Matra Défense Matra Systèmes & Information Matra BAe Dynamics, formed in 1996, Matra BAe Dynamics brought together the missile business of BAe and half of the missile business of Matra Défense. Matra Marconi Space, was the division of Matra which merged with the space operations of GEC in 1989 to form Matra Marconi Space. In 2000, it was merged with the division of DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG to form Astrium. This was later renamed to EADS Astrium, Matra Nortel Communications R.511 air to air missiles R.530 air to air missiles Super 530 air to air missiles R.550 Magic air to air missiles MICA air to air missiles R. In 1984 Renault launched the Matra built Espace minivan, the car became a big success, after the discontinuation of the Renault Avantime, on February 27,2003 Matra announced its intention to close its automobile factory in Romorantin-Lanthenay, with the factory closing a month later. In September 2003, Pininfarina SpA acquired Matra Automobiles engineering, testing, the company was subsequently named Matra Automobile Engineering. On January 13,2009, Pininfarina sold its share in Matra Automobile Engineering to Segula Technologies, Matra competed as a constructor in Formula One from 1967 to 1972 and as an engine supplier between 1975 to 1982, winning the Drivers and Constructors Championships in 1969. Matra also competed in car racing from 1966 to 1974 winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1972,1973 and 1974. Matra sponsored Racing Club de France in 1987~1989, Matra produced a home computer, the Matra Alice. Matra produced a fiberglass 14 ft sailing dinghy with a double bottom. Though some hundreds were sold and a class association briefly existed, Matra created an automatic light rubber-tyred metro, the VAL Matra attempted, and failed to produce a personal rapid transit system, Aramis
39.
Volvo
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The Volvo Group is a Swedish multinational manufacturing company headquartered in Gothenburg. While its core activity is the production, distribution and sale of trucks, buses and construction equipment, Volvo also supplies marine and industrial drive systems, the companies still share the Volvo logo and co-operate in running the Volvo Museum. Volvo means I roll in Latin, conjugated from volvere, in reference to ball bearings, the brand name Volvo was originally registered as a trademark in May 1911 with the intention to be used for a new series of SKF ball bearings. This idea was used for a short period and SKF decided to simply use SKF as the trademark for all its bearing products. In 1924, Assar Gabrielsson, an SKF sales manager, and a KTH Royal Institute of Technology educated engineer Gustav Larson and their vision was to build cars that could withstand the rigors of the countrys rough roads and cold temperatures. AB Volvo began activities on 10 August 1926, after one year of preparations involving the production of ten prototypes the firm was ready to commence the car-manufacturing business within the SKF group. AB Volvo was introduced at the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1935, Volvo was delisted from NASDAQ in June 2007, but remains listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange. The Volvo Group has its origin in 1927, when the first Volvo car rolled off the line at the factory in Gothenburg. Only 280 cars were built that year, the first truck, the Series 1, debuted in January 1928, as an immediate success and attracted attention outside the country. In 1930, Volvo sold 639 cars, and the export of trucks to Europe started soon after, pentaverken, who had manufactured engines for Volvo, was acquired in 1935, providing a secure supply of engines and entry into the marine engine market. The first bus, named B1, was launched in 1934, in 1963, Volvo opened the Volvo Halifax Assembly plant, the first assembly plant in the companys history outside of Sweden in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. In 1991, Volvo Group participated in joint venture with Japanese automaker Mitsubishi Motors, the operation, branded NedCar, began producing the first generation Mitsubishi Carisma alongside the Volvo S40/V40 in 1996. In 1999, the European Union blocked a merger with Scania AB, in January of that same year, Volvo Group sold its car division Volvo Car Corporation to Ford Motor Company for $6.45 billion. The division was placed within Fords Premier Automotive Group alongside Jaguar, Land Rover, the Volvo T5 petrol engine was used in the Ford Focus ST and RS performance models, and Volvos satellite navigation system was used on certain Aston Martin Vanquish, DB9 and V8 Vantage models. In November 1999, Volvo Group purchased a 5% stake in Mitsubishi Motors, Ford sold the Volvo Car Corporation in 2010 to Geely Automobile of China for $1.8 billion. The move followed Fords 2007 sale of Aston Martin, and 2008 sale of Jaguar Land Rover, Volvo Group sold its stake in Mitsubishi Motors back to Mitsubishi Heavy Industries in 2001. Renault Véhicules Industriels was sold to Volvo during January 2001, Renault became AB Volvos biggest shareholder with a 19. 9% stake as part of the deal. Renault increased its shareholding to 21. 7% by 2010, AB Volvo acquired 13% of the shares in the Japanese truck manufacturer UD Trucks from Nissan Motor Co Ltd during 2006, becoming a major shareholder
40.
Dornier Flugzeugwerke
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Dornier Flugzeugwerke was a German aircraft manufacturer founded in Friedrichshafen in 1914 by Claude Dornier. Over the course of its lifespan, the company produced many designs for both the civil and military markets. Originally Dornier Metallbau, Dornier Flugzeugwerke took over Flugzeugbau Friedrichshafen production facilities when it failed in 1923, Dornier built its aircraft outside Germany during much of this period, in compliance with the restrictions placed on German aircraft manufacturers by the Treaty of Versailles. Foreign factories licence-building Dornier products included CMASA and Piaggio in Italy, CASA in Spain, Kawasaki in Japan, once the Nazi government came to power and abandoned the treatys restrictions, Dornier resumed production in Germany. Dorniers most significant military aircraft design before and during World War II was the Do 17 and it was developed and first flown in 1934 as a commercial aircraft in competition for a Lufthansa contract. Due to its narrow fuselage it was not commercially attractive and was passed over by Lufthansa, Dornier then further developed it as a military aircraft with a prototype bomber first flying in 1935. In 1937, it was employed in pro-Fascist terror bombings by the German Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War, production continued within Germany and this versatile two-engined aircraft was developed by the Luftwaffe into multiple combat variations. The medium bomber variant saw much service during the part of World War II including extensive use in the Battle of Britain. It was later developed into an effective nightfighter to defend Germany from the RAF bomber offensive, Dornier developed the successful Do 217 based on the Do 17, ostensibly looking like its younger sibling, this larger and much heavier bomber was in fact a completely new design. Dornier also developed the fastest piston-engined fighter of the war, the two-engined Do 335, introduced too late to enter combat service. Dorniers history of flying boats lead to new models that saw service in several armed forces around the world as well as Germany, including the Do 22, Do 18. Post-war, Dornier quickly re-established itself with highly successful small STOL transports such as the Do 27, additionally, in 1974 it developed the Alpha Jet as part of a joint venture with French aircraft manufacturers Dassault-Breguet. The plane was received and established itself as the new standard NATO trainer during the 1970s and 80s. In 1983, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited bought a licence for the Dornier Do 228. By 2013 a total of 117 Dornier DO-228 aircraft had been produced by HAL with plans to build 20 more during 2013-14, in 1985, Dornier became a member of the Daimler-Benz group integrating its aeronautic assets with the parent company. As part of transaction, Lindauer Dornier GmbH was spun off, creating a separate, family-owned firm, concentrating on textile machinery design. The rest of the company was split into several subsidiaries for defence, satellites, medtech, in 1996, the majority of Dornier Aircraft was acquired by Fairchild Aircraft, forming Fairchild Dornier. This company became insolvent in early 2002, production of its 328 Jet was acquired by US company Avcraft
41.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
42.
Ferranti
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Ferranti or Ferranti International plc was a UK electrical engineering and equipment firm that operated for over a century from 1885 until it went bankrupt in 1993. Known primarily for defence electronics, the company was once a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, the firm was known for work in the area of power grid systems and defence electronics. In addition, in 1951 Ferranti began selling the first commercially available computer, sebastian Ziani de Ferranti established his first business Ferranti, Thompson and Ince in 1882. The company developed the Ferranti-Thompson Alternator, Ferranti focused on alternating current power distribution early on, and was one of the few UK experts. To avoid confusion, he is referred to as Dr Ferranti to distinguish him from the Ferranti company itself. In 1885 Dr Ferranti established a new business, with Francis Ince and Charles Sparks as partners, despite being a proponent of AC Ferranti became an important supplier to many electric utility firms and power-distribution companies for both AC and DC meters. In 1887, the London Electric Supply Corporation hired Dr Ferranti for the design of their station at Deptford. He designed the building, the plant and the distribution system and on its completion in October 1890. It supplied high-voltage AC power at 10,000 volts, which was transformed to a voltage for consumer use where required. Success followed and Ferranti started producing equipment for sale. Soon the company was looking for more manufacturing space. Land prices in the London area were too high, so the moved to Hollinwood in Oldham in 1896. Over-optimistic market projections in the boom of 1896–1903, declining revenues and liquidity problems, the business was restructured in 1905, Dr Ferrantis shareholding being reduced to less than 10%. For the next years the company was run by receiver managers. He spent much of this working in partnership with the likes of J P Coats of Paisley on cotton spinning machinery. Through the early part of the power was supplied by small companies. Each plant supplied a different standard, which made the production of domestic electrical equipment inefficient. In 1910 Dr Ferranti made a speech to the IEE addressing this issue
43.
Guglielmo Marconi
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He is often credited as the inventor of radio, and he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy. Marconi was an entrepreneur, businessman, and founder of The Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company in the United Kingdom in 1897 and he succeeded in making a commercial success of radio by innovating and building on the work of previous experimenters and physicists. In 1929, the King of Italy ennobled Marconi as a Marchese, Marconi was born into the Italian nobility as Guglielmo Giovanni Maria Marconi in Bologna on 25 April 1874, the second son of Giuseppe Marconi and his Irish/Scots wife Annie Jameson. Between the ages of two and six, Marconi and his elder brother Alfonso were brought up by his mother in the English town of Bedford, Marconi received further education in Florence at the Istituto Cavallero and, later, in Livorno. Marconi did not do well in school, according to Robert McHenry and he was baptized as a Catholic but had been brought up as a member of the Anglican Church, being married into it. Marconi was confirmed in the Catholic faith and became a member of the Church before his marriage to Maria Christina in 1927. During his early years, Marconi had an interest in science and electricity, the transmission of telegraph messages without connecting wires as used by the electric telegraph. There was a deal of interest in radio waves in the physics community. Righis article renewed Marconis interest in developing a wireless telegraphy based on radio waves. In the summer of 1894, he built a storm alarm made up of a battery, a coherer, and an electric bell, soon after he was able to make a bell ring on the other side of the room by pushing a telegraphic button on a bench. One night in December 1894, Guglielmo woke his mother and invited her into his secret workshop and showed her the experiment that he had created. The next day, he showed his work to his father. In the summer of 1895, Marconi moved his experimentation outdoors, with these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles and over hills. The monopole antenna reduced the frequency of the waves compared to the dipole antennas used by Hertz, by this point, he concluded that a device could become capable of spanning greater distances, with additional funding and research, and would prove valuable both commercially and militarily. Marconis experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful radio transmission system, Marconi wrote to the Ministry of Post and Telegraphs, then under the direction of the honorable Pietro Lacava, explaining his wireless telegraph machine and asking for funding. He never received a response to his letter which was dismissed by the Minister who wrote to the Longara on the document. In 1896, Marconi spoke with his family friend Carlo Gardini, Honorary Consul at the United States Consulate in Bologna, Gardini wrote a letter of introduction to the Ambassador of Italy in London, Annibale Ferrero, explaining who Marconi was and about these extraordinary discoveries. In his response, Ambassador Ferrero advised them not to reveal the results until after they had obtained the copyrights
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British Aerospace
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British Aerospace plc was a British aircraft, munitions and defence-systems manufacturer. Its head office was at Warwick House in the Farnborough Aerospace Centre in Farnborough, in 1999 it purchased Marconi Electronic Systems, the defence electronics and naval shipbuilding subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc, to form BAE Systems. The company was formed in the United Kingdom as a corporation on 29 April 1977 as a result of the Aircraft. This called for the nationalisation and merger of the British Aircraft Corporation, Hawker Siddeley Aviation, Hawker Siddeley Dynamics, in 1979 BAe officially joined Airbus, the UK having previously withdrawn support for the consortium in April 1969. On 4 February 1981 the government sold 51. 57% of its shares, the British government sold its remaining shares in 1985, maintaining a £1 golden share which allows it veto foreign control of the board or company. On 26 September 1985, the UK and Saudi Arabian governments signed the Al-Yamamah arms deal with BAe as prime contractor, the Al Yamamah deals are valued at anything up to £20 billion and still continue to provide a large percentage of BAE Systems profits. In 1986, With Alenia Aeronautica, CASA and DASA, BAe formed Eurofighter GmbH for the development of the Eurofighter Typhoon, on 22 April 1987, BAe acquired Royal Ordnance, the British armaments manufacturer, for £190 million. Heckler & Koch GmbH was folded into this division when BAe acquired it in 1991, in 1988, BAe purchased the Rover Group which then was privatised by the British government of Margaret Thatcher. In August 1991, BAe formed a naval systems joint venture, BAeSEMA, BAe acquired Semas 50% share in 1998. 1991 also saw BAe begin to experience major difficulties, BAe saw its share price fall below 100p for the first time. On 9 September 1991, the company issued a profits warning, Evans described the troubles as a confluence of events, our property company was hit with a lousy market. Sales of the Rover Group sank by about a fifth and losses mounted, the governments defence spending volumes underwent a major review. Losses in our commercial aerospace division increased dramatically with the recession in the airline industry, in 1992, BAe formed Avro RJ Regional Jets to produce the Avro RJ series, an evolution of the BAe 146. In mid-1992 BAe wrote off £1 billion of assets, largely as part of redundancies and this was largest asset write-off in UK corporate history. The General Electric Company, later to sell its interests to BAe. BAe cut 47% of its workforce,40,000 of which were from the aircraft division. Evans decided to sell non-core business activities which included The Rover Group, Arlington Securities, BAe Corporate Jets, BAe Communications and Ballast Nedam. Although the rationale of diversification was sound the company could not afford to continue the position