1.
Baltic Shipyard
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The Baltic Shipyard is one of the oldest shipyards in Russia. It is located in Saint Petersburg in the part of Vasilievsky Island. It is one of the three active in Saint Petersburg. Together with the Admiralty Shipyard it has been responsible for building a part of Imperial Russian battleships as well as Soviet nuclear-powered icebreakers. Currently it is specializing in merchant ships while the Admiralty yard specializes in diesel-electric submarines, part of United Shipbuilding Corporation The shipyard was founded in 1856 by the St. Petersburg merchant M. Carr and the Scotsman M. L. MacPherson. It subsequently became the Carr and MacPherson yard, in 1864 it built two monitors of the Uragan class. In 1874 the shipyard was sold to Prince Ochtomski, in 1934 the shipyard started work on the three prototypes for the S-class submarine, based on a German design produced by the Dutch company Ingenieurskantoor voor Scheepsbouw. The Soviets renamed the shipyard Zavod 189 im, sergo Ordzhonikidze on 30 December 1936
2.
FSUE Atomflot
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FSUE Atomflot or Rosatomflot is a Russian company and service base that maintains the worlds only fleet of nuclear-powered icebreakers. It is located two kilometres from the city of Murmansk, the company employs between 1000-2000 people. It has a ship to transport waste, and another to monitor radiation. It houses a museum ship, the N. S
3.
Icebreaker
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An icebreaker is a special-purpose ship or boat designed to move and navigate through ice-covered waters, and provide safe waterways for other boats and ships. Although the term refers to ice-breaking ships, it may also refer to smaller vessels. For a ship to be considered an icebreaker, it requires three traits most normal ships lack, a hull, an ice-clearing shape, and the power to push through sea ice. Icebreakers clear paths by pushing straight into ice pockets, the bending strength of sea ice is so low that usually the ice breaks without noticeable change in the vessels trim. In cases of very thick ice, an icebreaker can drive its bow onto the ice to break it under the weight of the ship, even in the earliest days of polar exploration, ice-strengthened ships were used. These were originally wooden and based on existing designs, but reinforced, particularly around the waterline with double planking to the hull, bands of iron were wrapped around the outside. Sometimes metal sheeting was placed at the bows, stern and along the keel, such strengthening was designed to help the ship push through ice and also to protect the ship in case it was nipped by the ice. Nipping occurs when ice floes around a ship are pushed against the ship, trapping it as if in a vise and this vise-like action is caused by the force of winds and tides on ice formations. Although such wind and tidal forces may be exerted many miles away, the first boats to be used in the polar waters were those of the indigenous Arctic people. Their kayaks are small human-powered boats with a deck, and one or more cockpits. Such boats, of course, have no icebreaking capabilities, but they are light, in the 9th and 10th centuries, the Viking expansion reached the North Atlantic, and eventually Greenland and Svalbard in the Arctic. Vikings, however, operated their ships in the waters that were ice-free for most of the year, in the 11th century, in North-Russia started settling the coasts of the White Sea, named so for being ice-covered for over half of a year. The mixed ethnic group of the Karelians and the Russians in the North-Russia that lived on the shores of the Arctic Ocean became known as Pomors. Gradually they developed a type of small one- or two-mast wooden sailing ships, used for voyages in the ice conditions of the Arctic seas. These earliest icebreakers were called kochi, the kochs hull was protected by a belt of ice-floe resistant flush skin-planking along the variable water-line, and had a false keel for on-ice portage. If a koch became squeezed by the ice-fields, its rounded bodylines below the water-line would allow for the ship to be pushed up out of the water, in the 19th century, similar protective measures were adopted to modern steam-powered icebreakers. Fram is said to be the ship to have sailed farthest north and farthest south. An early ship designed to operate in icy conditions was a 51-metre wooden paddle steamer,1, that was built for the city of Philadelphia by Vandusen & Birelyn in 1837
4.
Nuclear reactor
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This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor, formerly known as a pile, is a device used to initiate. Nuclear reactors are used at power plants for electricity generation. Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a fluid, which runs through steam turbines. These either drive a ships propellers or turn electrical generators, Nuclear generated steam in principle can be used for industrial process heat or for district heating. Some reactors are used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial use, some are run only for research. As of April 2014, the IAEA reports there are 435 nuclear power reactors in operation, when a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more nuclei, releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. A portion of neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons. This is known as a chain reaction. To control such a chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron moderators can change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe conditions, commonly-used moderators include regular water, solid graphite and heavy water. Some experimental types of reactor have used beryllium, and hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility, the reactor core generates heat in a number of ways, The kinetic energy of fission products is converted to thermal energy when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms. The reactor absorbs some of the rays produced during fission. Heat is produced by the decay of fission products and materials that have been activated by neutron absorption. This decay heat-source will remain for some even after the reactor is shut down. A kilogram of uranium-235 converted via nuclear processes releases approximately three times more energy than a kilogram of coal burned conventionally. A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water but sometimes a gas or a metal or molten salt — is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates
5.
Mil Mi-2
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The Mil Mi-2 is a small, lightly armored turbine-powered transport helicopter that could also provide close air support when armed with 57 mm rockets and a 23 mm cannon. The Mi-2 was produced exclusively in Poland, in the WSK PZL-Świdnik factory in Świdnik, the first production helicopter in the Soviet Union was the Mil Mi-1, modelled along the lines of the S-51 and Bristol Sycamore and flown by Mikhail Mils bureau in September 1948. During the 1950s it became evident, and confirmed by American and French development, S. P. Isotov developed the GTD-350 engine and Mil used two of these in the far superior Mi-2. The twin shaft-turbine engines used in the Mi-2 develop 40% more power than the Mi-1s piston engines, for half the engine weight. The Mi-2 fuselage was altered from its predecessor, with the engines mounted overhead. However, the dimensions remained similar. The Mil-built prototype first flew in the Soviet Union on 22 September 1961, the first Świdnik-built example flew on 4 November 1965. PZL-Świdnik produced a total of 5,497 helicopters, about a third for military users, the factory also developed fiberglass rotor blades, and developed the wide-body Mi-2M seating 10 passengers instead of eight. Most typical kits include four stretchers for air ambulance usage, or aerospraying or cropdusting applications, the Mi-2 was first introduced into the Soviet Air Force in 1965. The Mi-2 is used by mainly former Soviet and Eastern Bloc countries, although it was purchased by Mexico. Most of the armed Mi-2 variants were used by Poland, some were also used by the former East Germany. North Korea still maintains an active fleet of Mi-2s. Mi-2A Mi-2B Upgraded export version for the Middle East, fitted with improved systems, mi-2Ch Chekla Chemical reconnaissance / smokescreen layer version. Mi-2D Przetacznik Aerial command post equipped with R-111 radio, mi-2P Passenger / cargo version, with accommodation for 6 passengers. Mi-2RM Sea rescue version equipped with winch for two people and dropped rafts. Mi-2Ro Reconnaissance version equipped with cameras, mi-2RS Padalec Chemical and biohazard reconnaissance version. Mi-2S Air ambulance version, equipped to carry four litters, plus an attendant, mi-2US Armed version fitted with a fixed 23mm NS-23 cannon,4 x 7, 62mm PKT machine gun pods and optional cabin PK machine gun. Mi-2URN Żmija Armed reconnaissance variant armed with a fixed 23mm NS-23 gun, optional 7, 62mm PK machine gun window-mounted
6.
Mil Mi-8
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The Mil Mi-8 is a medium twin-turbine helicopter, originally designed by the Soviet Union, and now produced by Russia. In addition to its most common role as a helicopter, the Mi-8 is also used as an airborne command post, armed gunship. Along with the related, more powerful Mil Mi-17, the Mi-8 is among the worlds most-produced helicopters, as of 2015, it is the third most common operational military aircraft in the world. Due to the position of the engine, this enabled Mikhail Mil to justify redesigning the front half of the aircraft around the single engine. The prototype, which was named V-8, was designed in 1958, powered by an AI-242,010 kW Soloviev turboshaft engine, the single engined V-8 prototype had its maiden flight in June 1961 and was first shown on Soviet Aviation Day parade in July 1961. During an official visit to the United States in September 1959, on Khrushchevs return, he ordered the creation of a similar helicopter, which was to be ready for the return visit by the American president, to save face. A luxury version of the Mi-4 was quickly created and Khrushchev took an inspection flight, however, it would be necessary to have a second engine for reliability. In May 1960, the order was given for Mikhail Mil to create his twin engine helicopter, the Sergei Isotov Design Bureau accepted the task of creating the engines. The second prototype flew in September 1961, the aircraft completed its factory based testing in February 1963. The fifth and final prototype was a production prototype for the passenger market. In November 1964, all joint testing had completed and the soviet government began mass production. Production started in the Kazan Production Plant, with the first aircraft completed by the end of 1965 and it was only then that the Soviet military rushed a troop-carrying variant of the Mil Mi-8 into production. By 1967, it had introduced into the Soviet Air Force as the Mi-8. There are numerous variants, including the Mi-8T, which, in addition to carrying 24 troops, is armed with rockets, the Mil Mi-17 export version is employed by around 20 countries, its equivalent in Russian service in the Mi-8M series. The only visible difference between the Mi-8 and Mi-17 is that the rotor is on the starboard side of the Mi-8. Also Mi-17 also has some improved armour plating for its crew, the naval Mil Mi-14 version is also derived from the Mi-8. The Mi-8 is constantly improving and the newest version still remains in production in 2016, the Mi-8 family of helicopters became the main Soviet and later Russian helicopter covering a large range of roles in both peace time and war time. Large fleets of Mi-8 and its derivatives are employed by military and civil operators
7.
Kamov Ka-27
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Variants include the Ka-29 assault transport, the Ka-28 downgraded export version, and the Ka-32 for civilian use. The helicopter was developed for ferrying and anti-submarine warfare, design work began in 1969 and the first prototype flew in 1973. It was intended to replace the decade-old Kamov Ka-25, and is similar in appearance to its due to the requirements of fitting in the same hangar space. Like other Kamov military helicopters it has coaxial rotors, removing the need for a tail rotor, Ka-32 variants, e. g. the Klimov-powered Ka-32A11BC, have been certified for commercial operations throughout the world, notably in Canada and Europe. A Russian Navy Ka-27 helicopter from the Russian Udaloy-class destroyer RS Severomorsk conducted interoperability deck landing training on board USS Mount Whitney on 22 July 2010, Ka-32A11BC multipurpose helicopters have been successfully operated in Portugal for over five years. In 2006, KAMOV JSC won the tender for the supply of Ka-32A11BC firefighting helicopters, to replace Aérospatiale SA-330 Pumas, the Ka-32A11BC features a high power-to-weight ratio and ease of handling, owing to its coaxial rotor design. The Ka-32A11BC may be equipped with the Bambi Bucket suspended fire-fighting system of up to five tons capacity, the service life has been extended to up to 32000 flight hours. Since the 1990s, China has purchased the Ka-28 export version, Ka-31 purchases were first revealed in 2010. It is believed that Chinese Ka-28s have been equipped with enhanced avionics compared to Ka-28s exported to other countries. In 2013, Russia tested the new Kamov Ka-27M with an electronically scanned array radar. The basis of the modernization of the Ka-27M is installed on the airborne radar with an active phased array antenna FH-A. This radar is part of the command and tactical system that combines several other systems, acoustic, magnetometric, signals intelligence. All the information on them is displayed on the display instrumentation, ka-32s are used for construction of transmission towers for overhead power lines, as it has somewhat higher lift capacity than the Vertol 107. In Canada, the Ka-32 is used for selective logging as it is able to lift selective species vertically, in August 2013, a Kamov Ka-32, C-GKHL operating in Bella Coola, Canada, experienced failure of one of its Klimov TV3-117BMA engines. Syrian Navy Ka-27s were used to bomb terrorist groups positions in Damascus during the ongoing Syrian War against terrorist groups, Ka-27PS Search and rescue helicopter, ASW equipment removed and winch fitted. Ka-27PV Armed version of the Ka-27PS, radar mounted under the fuselage and provides allround visibility in the search and detection of surface, air and ground targets. Serial upgrading to the level of combatant helicopters Ka-27M was planned to begin in 2014, until the end of 2016,46 Ka-27PLs planned to modernization, commissioned by the Russian Navy. The first 8 serial Ka-27M, transferred in December 2016, Ka-28 Export version of the Ka-27PL
8.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
9.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
10.
Nuclear-powered icebreaker
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A nuclear-powered icebreaker is a nuclear-powered ship purpose-built for use in waters covered with ice. The only country constructing nuclear-powered icebreakers is Russia, nuclear-powered icebreakers have been constructed by the USSR and later Russia primarily to aid shipping along the Northern Sea Route in the frozen Arctic waterways north of Siberia. During the winter, the ice along the Northern Sea Route varies in thickness from 1.2 to 2.0 metres, the ice in central parts of the Arctic Ocean is on average 2.5 metres thick. Nuclear-powered icebreakers can force through this ice at speeds up to 10 knots, in ice-free waters the maximum speed of the nuclear-powered icebreakers is as much as 21 knots. Other important ports include Dikson, Tiksi, and Pevek, of six Arktika-class icebreakers built in 1975–2007, four are currently in service. The icebreakers have also used for a number of scientific expeditions in the Arctic. On August 17,1977, Arktika was the first surface vessel in the world to reach the North Pole, since 1989, some icebreakers have been used for Arctic tourist cruises. In all, ten civilian nuclear-powered vessels have been built in the USSR, nine of these are icebreakers, and one is a container ship with an icebreaking bow. All six nuclear-powered icebreakers of the Arktika class have been built at the Baltic Shipyard in St. Petersburg, Vaigach and Taimyr were built at the Helsinki New Shipyard in Finland and then brought to Russia for installation of the reactors and turbogenerators. At its launch in 1957 the icebreaker NS Lenin was both the worlds first nuclear-powered surface ship and the first nuclear-powered civilian vessel, Lenin was put into ordinary operation in 1959. Lenin had two accidents, the first in 1965, and the second in 1967. The second accident resulted in one of the three OK-150 reactors being damaged beyond repair, all three reactors were removed, and replaced by two OK-900 reactors, the ship returned to service in 1970. The Lenin was taken out of operation in November 1989 and laid up at Atomflot, conversion to a museum ship was scheduled to be completed during 2005. Arktika class icebreakers are the bulk of the Russian nuclear icebreaker fleet, since they have been built over a period of thirty years, ships of different classes vary among one another, thus specifications are listed as a range of values. In general, the ships are larger, faster. There is water ballast between the inner and outer hulls which can be shifted to aid icebreaking, icebreaking is also assisted by an air bubbling system which can deliver 24 m³/s of air from jets 9 m below the surface. Some ships have polymer coated hulls to reduce friction, Arktika-class ships can break ice while making way either forwards or backwards. Although they have two reactors, normally only one is used to power, with the other being maintained in a standby mode
11.
Murmansk Shipping Company
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Murmansk Shipping Company, often abbreviated as MSCO, is a Russian shipping company based in Murmansk. One of the shipping companies operating in Arctic Russia and northern Europe, as of 2014 the company has 303 vessels. The company runs a museum in Murmansk. The company was established in 1939 as the Murmansk State Dry-Cargo and Passenger Shipping Company and it specialised in arctic transportation, and by 1940 it had 37 vessels with a total deadweight of 112,200 tons. During World War II its carriers served as allied escorts and this is the only company in the world which uses nuclear-powered icebreakers and the only Russian shipping company which is active in the Arctic during all the seasons. It performs passenger as well as cargo navigation, in 1973, the Northern Fleet and the Murmansk Shipping Company commenced transporting spent nuclear fuel by barges to Murmansk, and then delivering it to Mayak by train. In 1977, one of its ships, the nuclear-powered icebreaker Arktika, the company was reorganized into the Joint Stock Company in 1993.5 million curies of liquid and solid radioactive waste in the Arctic Ocean between 1959 and 1991. In 1996 the Murmansk Shipping Company reported 3,100 fuel assemblies were stored on the service ship Lotta, the main operating facility of the company is at Atomflot, to the north of the city on the Murmansk Fjord. The base contains liquid and solid waste processing systems, warehouses for shipping supplies, the ships are maintained at the dry docks in Murmansk, and the Zvezdochka shipyard in Severodvinsk also makes repairs to the reactors of the nuclear-powered icebreakers. The Murmansk Shipping Company Museum on Volodarskogo Street in Murmansk, established in 1977, has a collection of artifacts related to its history. Among its displays are photographs of polar captains, ship bells, micro model replicas, marine equipment, with one dedicated entirely to icebreakers. As of 2014 the company has 303 vessels, with a deadweight of about 1.2 million tons
12.
Arctic Ocean
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The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the worlds five major oceans. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean, located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America. It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter, the summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%. The US National Snow and Ice Data Center uses satellite data to provide a record of Arctic sea ice cover. The Arctic may become ice free for the first time in human history within a few years or by 2040, for much of European history, the north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as growlers or bergy bits, his Thule was probably Norway, early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land or water. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank and this lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an Open Polar Sea was persistent, john Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted exploration of the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this. In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha Kane, even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook The Physical Geography of the Sea. Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick. Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a crossing of the Arctic Ocean. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard, with air support. The first nautical transit of the pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS Nautilus. Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean, scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometres by ice floes. In World War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested, the Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,056,000 km2, almost the size of Antarctica. The coastline is 45,390 km long and it is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and by several islands. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea, countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are, Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Canada and the United States. There are several ports and harbours around the Arctic Ocean In Alaska, in Canada, ships may anchor at Churchill in Manitoba, Nanisivik in Nunavut, Tuktoyaktuk or Inuvik in the Northwest territories
13.
Siberia
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Siberia is an extensive geographical region, and by the broadest definition is also known as North Asia. Siberia has historically been a part of Russia since the 17th century, the territory of Siberia extends eastwards from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins. It stretches southwards from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and to the borders of Mongolia. With an area of 13.1 million square kilometres, Siberia accounts for 77% of Russias land area and this is equivalent to an average population density of about 3 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Siberia one of the most sparsely populated regions on Earth. If it were a country by itself, it would still be the largest country in area, the origin of the name is unknown. Some sources say that Siberia originates from the Siberian Tatar word for sleeping land, another account sees the name as the ancient tribal ethnonym of the Sirtya, a folk, which spoke a language that later evolved into the Ugric languages. This ethnic group was assimilated to the Siberian Tatar people. The modern usage of the name was recorded in the Russian language after the Empires conquest of the Siberian Khanate, a further variant claims that the region was named after the Xibe people. The Polish historian Chycliczkowski has proposed that the name derives from the word for north. He said that the neighbouring Chinese, Arabs and Mongolians would not have known Russian and he suggests that the name is a combination of two words, su and bir. The region is of significance, as it contains bodies of prehistoric animals from the Pleistocene Epoch. Specimens of Goldfuss cave lion cubs, Yuka and another woolly mammoth from Oymyakon, a rhinoceros from the Kolyma River. The Siberian Traps were formed by one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earths geological history. They continued for a million years and are considered a cause of the Great Dying about 250 million years ago. At least three species of human lived in Southern Siberia around 40,000 years ago, H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis, the last was determined in 2010, by DNA evidence, to be a new species. Siberia was inhabited by different groups of such as the Enets, the Nenets, the Huns, the Scythians. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan of Old Great Bulgaria in 630, the Mongols conquered a large part of this area early in the 13th century. With the breakup of the Golden Horde, the autonomous Khanate of Sibir was established in the late 15th century, turkic-speaking Yakut migrated north from the Lake Baikal region under pressure from the Mongol tribes during the 13th to 15th century
14.
Arctic
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The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear
15.
Arktika (1972 icebreaker)
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NS Arktika is a retired nuclear-powered icebreaker of the Soviet Arktika class. In service from 1975 to 2008, she was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole, Arktika required refuelling every three and a half years. Construction of the began in the Baltic Shipyard in Leningrad on July 3,1971. Sea trials completed successfully on December 17,1975, for further information on the ships design, construction and propulsion system, see Arktika class icebreaker. In 1986 the name reverted to Arktika, according to some accounts because the crew disliked the new name. Within a week of the strike, the name was changed back, Arktika was retired for several years, but was repaired in the late 1990s. The life extension was accomplished by means of replacing critical equipment to allow the safe, on May 17,2000, a conference of Russian engineers, scientists, and government officials took place on board Arktika after her first service extension. The extension cost only $4 million, compared to the $30–50 million cost of a new nuclear icebreaker, the conference concluded thus that the lifetimes of Russian nuclear icebreakers could be successfully extended to 175,000 hours, and possibly more. On April 9,2007 a fire out on Arktika. The fire caused damage to three cabins and knocked out an electricity-distribution panel. The nuclear reactor was not damaged, the icebreaker was in the Kara Sea when the blaze erupted, and was sent to Murmansk. She is docked at Atomflot, the base and dock in Murmansk,1 ½ km away from the main docks. In the meantime, she is a subject of important research, there have been calls for the ship to be converted to a museum, either in Murmansk or St. Petersburg. An earlier Soviet nuclear icebreaker, Lenin, is already a ship in Murmansk
16.
50 Let Pobedy
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NS50 Let Pobedy, translated as 50 Years of Victory or Fiftieth Anniversary of Victory, is a Russian Arktika-class nuclear-powered icebreaker. She was the worlds largest nuclear-powered icebreaker until surpassed by the LK-60Ya-class Arktika, construction on project no.10521 started on October 4,1989 at the Baltic Works in Leningrad, USSR. Originally the ship was named NS Ural, work was halted in 1994 for lack of funds, so that the actual fiftieth anniversary of Victory Day, in 1995, found the ship in an abandoned state. On 30 November 2004, a fire out on the ship. All workers aboard the vessel had to be evacuated while the fire crews battled the fire for some 20 hours before getting it under control and she was finally completed in the beginning of 2007, after the 60th Anniversary. The icebreaker sailed into the Gulf of Finland for two weeks of sea trials on February 1,2007, upon completing sea trials, the icebreaker returned to St. Petersburg Baltic shipyard and started preparations for her maiden voyage to Murmansk. The new ship showed superior characteristics for an icebreaker, such as exceptional maneuverability and she arrived at her homeport Murmansk on April 11,2007. The icebreaker is an upgrade of the Arktika class, the 159.60 m long and 30.0 m wide vessel, with a displacement of 25,840 metric tons, is designed to break through ice up to 5 metres thick. Fiftieth Anniversary of Victory is also a project, for the first time in the history of Russian icebreakers the design incorporated a spoon-shaped bow. As predicted by the designers, such a shape increases the efficiency of the ships efforts in breaking the ice. The icebreaker is equipped with an all-new digital automated control system, the biological shielding complex was heavily modernized and re-certified by the State Commission. A new ecological compartment was created, the ship has an athletic/exercise facility, a swimming pool, a library, a restaurant, a massage facility, and a music salon at the crews disposal. A group of eclipse chasers have used the vessel to observe the eclipse of August 1,2008 and they departed from Murmansk on July 21,2008 and reached the North Pole on July 25,2008, which set a speed record for the ship. Since 1989 the nuclear-powered icebreakers have also used for tourist purposes carrying passengers to the North Pole. Each participant pays up to US $25,000 for a cruise lasting three weeks, the Fiftieth Anniversary of Victory contains an accommodation deck customised for tourists. Quark Expeditions chartered the ship for expeditions to the North Pole in 2008, the vessels maiden voyage to the North Pole embarked in Murmansk, on June 24,2008. The ship carried 128 guests in 64 cabins in five categories,50 Years of Victory completed a total of three expeditions to the North Pole in 2008 for the polar adventure company. As of February 2013, Quark Expeditions was listing 50 Years of Victory in the company fleet, on July 30,201350 Years of Victory reached the North Pole for the 100th time in the history of icebreaker navigation during one of Poseidon Expeditions cruises
17.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
18.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
19.
North Pole
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The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earths axis of rotation meets its surface. The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole and it defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south, all lines of longitude converge there, along tight latitude circles, counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west. The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere, while the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole, however, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. Since 2002, the Russians have also established a base, Barneo. This operates for a few weeks during early spring, studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage, with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later. The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4,261 m by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m by USS Nautilus in 1958. The nearest land is said to be Kaffeklubben Island, off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km away. The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region, Nunavut, Canada, around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent variation of latitude, as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earths surface, the wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the eight-month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer and it is desirable to tie the system of Earth coordinates to fixed landforms. Of course, given plate tectonics and isostasy, there is no system in all geographic features are fixed. Yet the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service and the International Astronomical Union have defined a framework called the International Terrestrial Reference System. As early as the 16th century, many eminent people correctly believed that the North Pole was in a sea and it was therefore hoped that passage could be found through ice floes at favorable times of the year. Several expeditions set out to find the way, generally with whaling ships, one of the earliest expeditions to set out with the explicit intention of reaching the North Pole was that of British naval officer William Edward Parry, who in 1827 reached latitude 82°45′ North. In 1871 the Polaris expedition, a US attempt on the Pole led by Charles Francis Hall, another British Royal Navy attempt on the pole, part of the British Arctic Expedition, by Commander Albert H. Markham reached a then-record 83°2026 North in May 1876 before turning back. An 1879–1881 expedition commanded by US naval officer George W. DeLong ended tragically when their ship, over half the crew, including DeLong, were lost
20.
Yamal (icebreaker)
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The NS Yamal is a Russian Arktika class nuclear-powered icebreaker operated by Atomflot. It is named after the Yamal Peninsula in Northwest Siberia, the name means End of the Land in Nenets, in July of 1994 Yamal took an excursion to the North Pole, with the NSF, to celebrate the official maiden voyage. While at the north pole the crew and passengers celebrated with a barbeque – the ambient temperature was −23 degrees C. The Yamal is equipped with a double hull, the outer hull is 48 mm thick where ice is met and 25 mm elsewhere and has a polymer coating to reduce friction. There is water ballast between the inner and outer hulls which can be shifted in order to aid icebreaking, icebreaking is also assisted by an air bubbling system which can deliver 24 m³/s of air from jets 9 m below the surface. The Yamal can break ice while making way either forwards or backwards, Yamal is one of the Russian Arktika family of icebreakers, the most powerful icebreakers in the world. These ships must cruise in cold water to cool their reactors, Yamal carries one helicopter and several Zodiac boats. Radio and satellite systems are installed which can provide navigation, telephone, fax. Amenities include a dining room, a library, passenger lounge, auditorium, volleyball court, gymnasium, heated indoor swimming pool, a sauna. She is equipped with 50 passenger cabins and suites, all with toilets, exterior windows, a television, and a desk. Yamal also played a significant role in creation of annual expeditions to the North Pole, being one of the few vessels capable of getting there. Since 1993 the icebreaker was operated by Murmansk Shipping Company and in 2001–2008 the operation was made by Murmansk Shipping Company, Yamal has made a total of 47 voyages to the North Pole. Fire On 23 December 1996, a member was killed when a fire broke out on board the icebreaker. The nuclear reactor powering the ship was not affected by the fire, the crew extinguished the blaze within 30 minutes. Collision On March 16th,2009 Yamal collided with the product tanker MT Indiga in Yenisei Gulf in the Kara Sea, while the tanker suffered a 9. 5-metre crack on the main deck, no damage was reported for Yamal. North Pole-36 and North Pole-37 From August to September 2009 the ice breaker took part in the evacuation of drifting ice stations. Each station houses 18 polar explorers, dogs, and more than 150 tons of cargo, the evacuation of station personnel and cargo from a drifting ice floe requires three days of continuous, round-the-clock work. This high-latitude Arctic work was supervised by expedition leader Vladimir Sokolov
21.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
22.
Drift ice
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Drift ice is any sea ice other than fast ice, the latter being attached to the shoreline or other fixed objects. Drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents, hence its name, when drift ice is driven together into a large single mass, it is called pack ice. Wind and currents can pile up that ice to form ridges up to several metres in height and these represent a challenge for icebreakers and offshore structures operating in cold oceans and seas. Drift ice consists of floes, individual pieces of sea ice 20 metres or more across. Seasonal ice drift in the Sea of Okhotsk by the northern coast of Hokkaidō, Japan has become a tourist attraction of this area with harsh climate, the Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost area in the Northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed. Drift ice affects, Security of navigation Climatic impact Geological impact Biosphere influence The two major ice packs are the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice pack, polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year. Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and atmosphere, the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in climate
23.
Lenin (1957 icebreaker)
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Lenin is a decommissioned Soviet nuclear-powered icebreaker. Launched in 1957, it was both the worlds first nuclear-powered surface ship and the first nuclear-powered civilian vessel, Lenin entered operation in 1959 and worked clearing sea routes for cargo ships along Russias northern coast. From 1960 to 1965 the ship covered over 85,000 miles during the Arctic navigation season, on April 10th 1974 the vessel was awarded the Order of Lenin. She was officially decommissioned in 1989 and she was subsequently converted to a museum ship and is now permanently based at Murmansk. When launched in 1957, Lenin was powered by three OK-150 reactors, in its late-1960s configuration, at full capacity the ship used five to six pounds of uranium-235 per 100 days. In the later configuration, the reactors provided steam for four steam turbines and these were connected to generators, which powered three sets of electric motors to drive the ships three propellers. In February 1965, there was a loss-of-coolant accident, after being shut down for refueling, the coolant was removed from the number two reactor before the spent fuel had been removed. As a result, some of the fuel elements melted and deformed inside the reactor and this was discovered when the spent elements were being unloaded for storage and disposal. 124 fuel assemblies were stuck in the reactor core. It was decided to remove the fuel, control grid, and control rods as a unit for disposal, they were placed in a special cask, the second accident was a cooling system leak which occurred in 1967, shortly after refueling. Finding the leak required breaking through the concrete and metal biological shield with sledgehammers, once the leak was found, it became apparent that the sledgehammer damage could not be repaired, subsequently, all three reactors were removed, and replaced by two OK-900 reactors. This was completed in early 1970, details of these accidents were not widely available until after the fall of the Soviet Union. Lenin was decommissioned in 1989, because its hull had worn thin from ice friction and she was laid up at Atomflot, a base for nuclear icebreakers in Murmansk, and according to Pravda. ru, repair and conversion into a museum ship was completed in 2005. NKS Evaluation of Russian Marine Nuclear Reactors Bellona Foundation Article on Icebreaker Lenin Barbara Jancar-Webster, red Atom, Russias Nuclear Power Program from Stalin to Today by Paul R. Josephson
24.
Severodvinsk
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Severodvinsk is a city in the north of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, located in the delta of the Northern Dvina River,35 kilometers west of Arkhangelsk, the administrative center of the oblast. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 192,353, due to the presence of important military shipyards, Severodvinsk is an access restricted town for foreign citizens. Vikings explored the territories around the North Dvina River - part of Bjarmaland - at the start of the first millennium. British and Norman ships came to these places for mining, fur and fishing before the 13th century, tradition states that Saint Euphemius, an Orthodox missionary in Karelia, founded this monastery. The abbey stood in ruins until 1471, when two sons of Marfa Boretskaya died in a storm, their bodies were recovered on the beach near the monastery twelve days later. At the urging of Boretskaya, the monastery was restored and her sons were buried there, on August 24,1553, a ship of Richard Chancellor reached the salt-mining settlement of Nyonoksa, which is still famous for its traditional wooden architecture. The British sailors visited the Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery, where they were surprised to find a community of sailors in soutanes, in late 1613, during the Time of Troubles in Russia, Polish-Lithuanian vagabonds, the Lisowczycy, captured and looted Severodvinsk with the monastery. The Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery flourished after the establishment of the Muscovy Company, in August 1618 the harbour was visited by John Tradescant the elder, who conducted a survey of an island situated opposite the monastery. This island became known to the British as Rose Island, because it was there that Tradescant found a rare plant which he named Rosa moscovita. The surviving buildings of the monastery were constructed at the close of the Muscovite period, the five-domed cathedral of St. Nicholas was built between 1670 and 1674, preceded by the Assumption church, to which it is joined by a gallery. Several decades later, the walls and towers were built of timber, the Soviets transported the best-preserved of these towers to Kolomenskoye, Moscow, Severodvinsk is the second-largest city in Arkhangelsk Oblast. Its main industry remains defense-related — the construction and repair of submarines at the huge Northern Machine-building Enterprise SEVMASH, the Soviet Unions first nuclear submarine Leninsky Komsomol was built here in 1957. At the beginning of the 1980s the worlds largest submarine, a Typhoon class, was built here. The modern city of Severodvinsk developed in the Soviet period, as it began to be built it was called Sudostroy. It received town status in 1938 and until 1957 was named Molotovsk, on September 12,1957 it was renamed Severodvinsk. During World War II a significant portion of the materials delivered by the Arctic Convoys to Murmansk and Arkhangelsk for the Soviet Union were unloaded in Severodvinsk. For example, the Empire Elgar, a British heavy lift ship that arrived in Arkhangelsk with convoy PQ16, a Russian naval-base supports the sea trials of nuclear submarines from the major submarine construction- and repair-facilities located in the area. In Soviet times the 17th-century buildings of the Nikolo-Korelsky monastery, located on the territory of the shipyard, were adapted and used for shipbuilding purposes, in recent years the monastery buildings, specifically the main church, have been restored and re-consecrated
25.
Uranium
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Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons, Uranium is weakly radioactive because all its isotopes are unstable. The most common isotopes in natural uranium are uranium-238 and uranium-235, Uranium has the highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead, and it occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite. In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238, uranium-235, Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle. The half-life of uranium-238 is about 4.47 billion years, many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. Uranium-235 is the naturally occurring fissile isotope, which makes it widely used in nuclear power plants. However, because of the amounts found in nature, uranium needs to undergo enrichment so that enough uranium-235 is present. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons, and is fertile, meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium-239 in a nuclear reactor, another fissile isotope, uranium-233, can be produced from natural thorium and is also important in nuclear technology. In sufficient concentration, these maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat in nuclear reactors, and produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating, Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass, producing lemon yellow to green colors. Uranium glass fluoresces green in ultraviolet light and it was also used for tinting and shading in early photography. The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of weapons that used uranium metal. The security of those weapons and their fissile material following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is a concern for public health. When refined, uranium is a white, weakly radioactive metal
26.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
27.
Radioactive waste
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Radioactive waste is waste that contains radioactive material. Radioactive waste is usually a by-product of nuclear generation and other applications of nuclear fission or nuclear technology, such as research. Radioactive waste is hazardous to most forms of life and the environment, and is regulated by government agencies in order to protect human health and the environment. Radioactivity naturally decays over time, so radioactive waste has to be isolated and confined in appropriate facilities for a sufficient period until it no longer poses a threat. The time radioactive waste must be stored for depends on the type of waste, Radioactive waste typically comprises a number of radionuclides, unstable configurations of elements that decay, emitting ionizing radiation which can be harmful to humans and the environment. These isotopes emit different types and levels of radiation, which last for different periods of time, the radioactivity of all radioactive waste diminishes with time. Certain radioactive elements will remain hazardous to humans and other creatures for hundreds or thousands of years, other radionuclides remain radioactive for millions of years. Thus, these wastes must be shielded for centuries and isolated from the environment for millennia. Since radioactive decay follows the rule, the rate of decay is inversely proportional to the duration of decay. In other words, the radiation from a long-lived isotope like iodine-129 will be less intense than that of a short-lived isotope like iodine-131. The two tables show some of the radioisotopes, their half-lives, and their radiation yield as a proportion of the yield of fission of uranium-235. The energy and the type of the radiation emitted by a radioactive substance are also important factors in determining its threat to humans. The chemical properties of the element will determine how mobile the substance is and how likely it is to spread into the environment. Exposure to radioactive waste may cause harm or death. In humans, a dose of 1 sievert carries a 5. 5% risk of developing cancer, ionizing radiation causes deletions in chromosomes. If a developing organism such as a child is irradiated, it is possible a birth defect may be induced. The incidence of radiation-induced mutations in humans is small, as in most mammals, because of natural cellular-repair mechanisms, Radioactive waste comes from a number of sources. Waste from the front end of the fuel cycle is usually alpha-emitting waste from the extraction of uranium
28.
Pressurized water reactor
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In a PWR, the primary coolant is pumped under high pressure to the reactor core where it is heated by the energy released by the fission of atoms. The heated water flows to a steam generator where it transfers its thermal energy to a secondary system where steam is generated and flows to turbines which, in turn. In contrast to a boiling water reactor, pressure in the coolant loop prevents the water from boiling within the reactor. All LWRs use ordinary water as coolant and neutron moderator. PWRs currently operating in the United States are considered Generation II reactors, russias VVER reactors are similar to U. S. PWRs. France operates many PWRs to generate the bulk of its electricity, several hundred PWRs are used for marine propulsion in aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines and ice breakers. In the US, they were designed at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory for use as a nuclear submarine power plant. Follow-on work was conducted by Westinghouse Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory, the United States Army Nuclear Power Program operated pressurized water reactors from 1954 to 1974. Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station initially operated two pressurized water reactor plants, TMI-1 and TMI-2, the partial meltdown of TMI-2 in 1979 essentially ended the growth in new construction of nuclear power plants in the United States for two decades. The hot primary coolant is pumped into a heat exchanger called the steam generator, heat is transferred through the walls of these tubes to the lower pressure secondary coolant located on the sheet side of the exchanger where the coolant evaporates to pressurized steam. The transfer of heat is accomplished without mixing the two fluids to prevent the secondary coolant from becoming radioactive, some common steam generator arrangements are u-tubes or single pass heat exchangers. In a nuclear power station, the steam is fed through a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator connected to the electric grid for transmission. After passing through the turbine the secondary coolant is cooled down, before being fed into the steam generator, the condensed steam is sometimes preheated in order to minimize thermal shock. The steam generated has other uses besides power generation, in nuclear ships and submarines, the steam is fed through a steam turbine connected to a set of speed reduction gears to a shaft used for propulsion. Direct mechanical action by expansion of the steam can be used for a aircraft catapult or similar applications. District heating by the steam is used in countries and direct heating is applied to internal plant applications. Two things are characteristic for the water reactor when compared with other reactor types, coolant loop separation from the steam system. In a PWR, there are two separate coolant loops, which are filled with demineralized/deionized water
29.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
30.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
31.
Dynamo
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A dynamo is an electrical generator that produces direct current with the use of a commutator. Today, the simpler alternator dominates large scale power generation, for efficiency, reliability, a dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical commutator. Also, converting alternating to direct current using power rectification devices is effective, the word dynamo was originally another name for an electrical generator, and still has some regional usage as a replacement for the word generator. The word dynamo was coined by Werner von Siemens in 1882, the original dynamo principle of W. Siemens meant only the direct current generators which use exclusively the self-excitation principle to generate DC power. The earlier DC generators which used permanent magnets were not considered dynamo electric machines, the invention of the Dynamo principle was a huge technological leap over the old traditional permanent magnet based DC generators. The discovery of the dynamo principle made the industrial scale electric power generation technically and economically feasible, a small electrical generator built into the hub of a bicycle wheel to power lights is called a hub dynamo, although these are invariably AC devices, and are actually magnetos. The electric dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a direct electric current through Faradays law of induction. A dynamo machine consists of a structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field. Due to Faradays law of induction the motion of the wire within the field creates an electromotive force which pushes on the electrons in the metal. The commutator is needed to direct current. When a loop of wire rotates in a field, the magnetic flux through it. However, in the days of electric experimentation, alternating current generally had no known use. The few uses for electricity, such as electroplating, used direct current provided by messy liquid batteries, dynamos were invented as a replacement for batteries. The commutator is essentially a rotary switch and it consists of a set of contacts mounted on the machines shaft, combined with graphite-block stationary contacts, called brushes, because the earliest such fixed contacts were metal brushes. The commutator reverses the connection of the windings to the circuit when the potential reverses, so instead of alternating current. The earliest dynamos used permanent magnets to create the magnetic field and these were referred to as magneto-electric machines or magnetos. However, researchers found that magnetic fields, and so more power. These were called dynamo-electric machines or dynamos, the field coils of the stator were originally separately excited by a separate, smaller, dynamo or magneto
32.
Direct current
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Direct current is a flow of electrical charge carriers that always takes place in the same direction. The current need not always have the magnitude, but if it is to be defined as dc. This contrasts with alternating current which varies the direction of flow, sources of direct current include power supplies, electrochemical cells and batteries, and photovoltaic cells and panels. The intensity, or amplitude, of a direct current might fluctuate with time, in some such cases the dc has an ac component superimposed on it. An example of this is the output of a cell that receives a modulated light communications signal. A source of dc is sometimes called a dc generator, batteries and various other sources of dc produce a constant voltage. This is called pure dc and can be represented by a straight, the peak and effective values are the same. The peak to peak value is zero because the instantaneous amplitude never changes, in some instances the value of a dc voltage pulsates or oscillates rapidly with time, in a manner similar to the changes in an ac wave. The unfiltered output of a wave or a full wave rectifier. In 1820, Hans Christian Orsted discovered that electrical current creates a magnetic field and this discovery made scientists relate magnetism to the electric phenomena. In 1879, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. He improved a 50-year-old idea using lower current electricity, a vacuum inside the globe and a small carbonized filament. At that time, the idea of lightning was not new. Edison not only invented an incandescent electric light, but an electric lighting system contained all the necessary elements to make the incandescent light safe, economical. Prior to 1879, direct current electricity had been used in lighting for the outdoors and it was in the 1880s when the modern electric utility industry began. It was an evolution from street lighting systems and from gas and it was located in Lower Manhattan, on Pearl Street. This station provided light and electricity to customers in a one square mile range, the station was called Thomas Edisons Pearl Street Electricity Generating Station. This station introduced four elements of an electric utility system, Efficient distribution, competitive price, reliable central generation
33.
Propeller
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A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the blade, and a fluid is accelerated behind the blade. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost, the principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in parts of Europe. For example, propelling a canoe with a paddle using a pitch stroke or side slipping a canoe with a scull involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called lu, was used by the 3rd century AD. In sculling, a blade is moved through an arc. The innovation introduced with the propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats and it was probably an application of spiral movement in space to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, in 1784, J. P. Paucton proposed a gyrocopter-like aircraft using similar screws for both lift and propulsion. At about the time, James Watt proposed using screws to propel boats. This was not his own invention, though, Toogood and Hays had patented it a century earlier, by 1827, Czech-Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat and his ship Civetta with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots. This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw-type propeller, after a new steam engine had an accident his experiments were banned by the Austro-Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire, but before this he received an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the burned coal
34.
Bollard pull
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Bollard pull is a conventional measure of the pulling power of a watercraft. Like the horsepower or mileage rating of a car, it is a convenient, Bollard pull values are stated in tons or kiloNewtons. Values for bollard pull can be determined in two ways and this method is useful for one-off ship designs and smaller shipyards. It is limited in precision - a number of boundary conditions need to be observed to obtain reliable results. Summarizing the below requirements, practical bollard pull trials need to be conducted in a deep seaport, ideally not at the mouth of a river. The ship needs to be in undisturbed water, currents or strong winds would falsify the measurement. The static force that intends to move the ship forward must only be generated by the friction between the discharge race and the surrounding water. If the ship were too close to a wall, the measurement would be falsified, the ship must be in deep water. If there were any ground effect, the measurement would be falsified, the same holds true for propeller walk. Water salinity must have a value, as it influences the specific weight of the water. The geometry of the line must have a well-defined value. Ideally, one would expect it to be horizontal and straight. One condition to watch out for is the formation of a circuit in propeller discharge race. If part of the race is sucked back into the propeller. This could occur due to a trial that is performed in too shallow water or too close to a wall, see Figure 2 for an illustration of error influences in a practical bollard pull trial. Note the difference in elevation of the ends of the line, furthermore, there is the partial short circuit in propeller discharge current, the uneven trim of the ship and the short length of the tow line. All of these contribute to measurement error. This method eliminates much of the uncertainties of the practical trial, however, any numerical simulation also has an error margin
35.
Murmansk
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The city is named for the Murman Coast, Murman is itself an older Russian term for Norwegians. Although Murmansks population is in decline—299,148,307, 257 ,336, 137 ,468, Murmansk was the last city founded in the Russian Empire. On June 29,1916, Russian Transport Minister Alexander Trepov petitioned to grant urban status to the railway settlement, on July 6,1916, the petition was approved and the town was named Romanov-on-Murman, after the imperial Russian dynasty of Romanovs. On September 21,1916, the ceremony was performed. After the February Revolution of 1917, on April 3,1917, in the winter of 1917 the British North Russia Squadron under Rear Admiral Thomas Kemp was established at Murmansk. From 1918 to 1920, during the Russian Civil War, the town was occupied by the Western powers, who had allied in World War I. On February 13,1926, local self-government was organized in Murmansk for the first time, during a session of the Murmansk City Soviet. Prior to this, the city was governed by the authorities of Alexandrovsky Uyezd, while this plan was not confirmed by the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee, in 1935–1937 several rural localities of Kolsky and Polyarny Districts were merged into Murmansk anyway. According to the Presidium of the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee resolution of February 26,1935, however, the provisions of the resolution were not fully implemented, and due to military construction in Polyarnoye, the administrative center was instead moved to Murmansk in the beginning of 1935. In addition to being the center of Murmansk Okrug, Murmansk also continued to serve as the administrative center of Polyarny District until September 11,1938. This status was retained when Murmansk Okrug was transformed into Murmansk Oblast on May 28,1938, the supplies were brought to the city in the Arctic convoys. For the rest of the war, Murmansk served as a point for weapons. This unyielding, stoic resistance was commemorated at the 40th anniversary of the victory over the Germans in the designation of Murmansk as a Hero City on May 6,1985. During the Cold War Murmansk was a center of Soviet submarine, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the nearby city and naval base of Severomorsk remains the headquarters of the Russian Northern Fleet. In 1974, a massive 35. 5-meter tall statue Alyosha, in 1984, the Hotel Arctic, now known as Azimut Hotel Murmansk, opened and became the tallest building above the Arctic Circle. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Murmansk—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Murmansk is incorporated as Murmansk Urban Okrug and they were abolished on June 2,1948. The same city districts were created for the time on June 23,1951
36.
Command ship
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Command ships serve as the flagships of the commander of a fleet. They provide communications, office space, and accommodations for a commander and his staff. An auxiliary command ship features the command and control components prevalent on landing ships and also feature the capability to land troops, currently, the United States Navy operates two command ships, USS Blue Ridge and USS Mount Whitney, both of the purpose-built Blue Ridge class. The USS La Salle was decommissioned in March 2005 and sunk as a target in support of a training exercise on 11 April 2007. The USS Coronado was decommissioned and sunk as part of live-fire exercise Valiant Shield 2012. S. S, Coronado U. S. Navy Factfile Entry on Coronado
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Taymyr (1987 icebreaker)
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Taymyr is a shallow-draft nuclear-powered icebreaker, and the first of two similar vessels. She was built in 1989 for the Soviet Union in Finland, at the Helsinki Shipyard by Wärtsilä Marine, at the maximum draught of 9 metres, Taymyr has a displacement of 21,100 tonnes. However, she can operate at a reduced draught of only 7.5 metres. Taymyr has an icebreaker hull with highly raked stem and sloping sides to reduce the ice loads in compressive ice fields. The special cold-resistant steel used in the hull was delivered by the Soviet Union, although designed for a crew of slightly over 100, the large superstructure of Taymyr contains accommodation and facilities for 138 personnel. In the aft, there is a helideck and a hangar for single Kamov Ka-32 helicopter, being an escort icebreaker, Taymyr is equipped with a standard towing winch and a stern notch for close towing in difficult conditions. When the Taymyr-class icebreakers were designed, considerable effort was put into improving the safety of these nuclear-powered ships, the scenarios used for structural dimensioning of the reactor compartment and shielding included a 25, 000-ton SA-15 class freighter striking the icebreaker amidships at 7 knots. Furthermore, all systems are duplicated to improve reliability and allow the ship to maintain most of its operational capability after a collision. Taymyr is powered by a single KLT-40M nuclear fission reactor located amidships with an output of 171 MW. In addition the ship has two auxiliary turbogenerators, manufactured in the Soviet Union, which produce 2,000 kW of electrical power for shipboard consumers, the ship has three shafts with 12,000 kW Strömberg AC motors controlled by cycloconverters. The propulsion motors are coupled directly to four-bladed fixed pitch propellers rotating at 180 rpm, the ship can maintain a speed of 18.5 knots in open water and 3 knots in 2. 2-metre level ice. If the nuclear power can not be utilized, electricity can also be produced by three 16-cylinder Wärtsilä 16V22 medium-speed diesel engines coupled to 3,200 kVA Strömberg alternators, in case of emergency Vaygach also has two 200 kW emergency diesel generators of Soviet origin. Taymyr and her sister ship are one of the last icebreakers equipped with Wärtsilä Air Bubbling System, in the spring of 2011 a minor release of radioactivity was detected in the ships reactor ventilation system – the second such leak on board the vessel in as many years. Taymyr returned to Murmansk under diesel power for repair, by then 6,000 litres of coolant had leaked from its nuclear reactor. Development of new nuclear icebreaker to start next year
38.
Vaygach (1989 icebreaker)
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Vaygach is a shallow-draught nuclear-powered icebreaker. She was built in 1989 for the Soviet Union by Wärtsilä Marine Helsinki Shipyard in Finland by order of the Murmansk Shipping Company. On 15 December 2011, two crew died and a third one was seriously injured in a fire on board Vaygach while the icebreaker was escorting merchant ships from Dudinka to Murmansk. The fire, which started in one of the crew cabins presumably due to negligence and was extinguished by the crew by 04,00 Moscow time, at the maximum draught of 9 metres, Vaygach has a displacement of 21,100 tonnes. However, she can operate at a reduced draught of only 7.5 metres. Vaygach has an icebreaker hull with highly raked stem and sloping sides to reduce the ice loads in compressive ice fields. The special cold-resistant steel used in the hull was delivered by the Soviet Union, although designed for a crew of slightly over 100, the large superstructure of Vaygach contains accommodation and facilities for 138 personnel. In the aft, there is a helideck and a hangar for single Kamov Ka-32 helicopter, being an escort icebreaker, Vaygach is equipped with a standard towing winch and a stern notch for close towing in difficult conditions. When the Taymyr-class icebreakers were designed, considerable effort was put into improving the safety of these nuclear-powered ships, the scenarios used for structural dimensioning of the reactor compartment and shielding included a 25, 000-ton SA-15 class freighter striking the icebreaker amidships at 7 knots. Furthermore, all systems are duplicated to improve reliability and allow the ship to maintain most of its operational capability after a collision. Vaygach is powered by a single KLT-40M nuclear fission reactor located amidships with an output of 171 MW. In addition the ship has two auxiliary turbogenerators, manufactured in the Soviet Union, which produce 2,000 kW of electrical power for shipboard consumers, the ship has three shafts with 12,000 kW Strömberg AC motors controlled by cycloconverters. The propulsion motors are coupled directly to four-bladed fixed pitch propellers rotating at 180 rpm, the ship can maintain a speed of 18.5 knots in open water and 3 knots in 2. 2-metre level ice. If the nuclear power can not be utilized, electricity can also be produced by three 16-cylinder Wärtsilä 16V22 medium-speed diesel engines coupled to 3,200 kVA Strömberg alternators, in case of emergency Vaygach also has two 200 kW emergency diesel generators of Soviet origin. Vaygach and her sister ship are one of the last icebreakers equipped with Wärtsilä Air Bubbling System
39.
RIA Novosti
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RIA Novosti, sometimes shortly RIA was Russias international news agency until 2013 and continues to be the name of a state-operated domestic Russian-language news agency. Operating under the purview of the Russian Ministry of Communications and Mass Media, RIA Novosti is headquartered in Moscow, on 9 December 2013 President of Russia Vladimir Putin ordered RIA Novostis liquidation and the creation of a Russian international news agency Rossiya Segodnya. Dmitry Kiselev, an anchorman of the Russia-1 channel was appointed to be the first president of the new information agency, on 10 November 2014, Rossiya Segodnya launched the Sputnik multimedia platform as the international replacement of RIA Novosti and Voice of Russia. Within Russia itself, however, Rossiya Segodnya continues to operate its Russian language news service under the name RIA Novosti with its ria. ru website and it had a correspondent network in the Russian Federation, CIS and over 40 non-CIS countries. RIA Novosti was a news agency. The last editor-in-chief of RIA Novosti was Svetlana Mironyuk, the first woman appointed to the role in the agencys history, according to the organisations Charter, enterprises property was federally owned and was indivisible. According to the agency, it was partially government-subsidized, but maintained full editorial independence and its Russian name was Federal State Unitary Enterprise Russian Agency of International Information «RIA Novosti», shortly FGUP RAMI «RIA Novosti». Its formal English name was Russian News & Information Agency RIA Novosti, early in 1990s it had the name state enterprise RIA «Novosti». RIA means Russian Information Agency and Novosti means News in Russian, the common abbreviation in Russian is RIA. Its main task was to work to cover international, military events. The bureaus main task was to compile reports on the situation on the frontline of the war, work on the front. In 1944, a bureau on propaganda for foreign countries was set up as part of Sovinformburo. Shcherbakov, S. A. Lozovsky and Y. S, in 1961, the Novosti Press Agency succeeded Sovinformburo. It became the information and press body of Soviet public organizations. The constituent conference was held on February 21,1961, the conference of representatives of Soviet public organizations adopted a decision to create a press agency of public organizations named Novosti. The agencys guiding body was the Council of the Agency’s Founders, the APN founders were the USSR Journalists Union, USSR Writers Union, Union of Soviet Societies of Friendship and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, and the Znaniye Society. On April 3,1961, the Agency charter was adopted, aPNs motto was Information for Peace, for the Friendship of Nations. APN had bureaus in over 120 countries, the Agency published 60 illustrated newspapers and magazines in 45 languages with a one-time circulation of 4.3 million copies
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
41.
Arctic exploration
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Arctic exploration is the physical exploration of the Arctic region of the Earth. It refers to the period during which mankind has explored the region north of the Arctic Circle. Dangerous oceans and poor weather conditions often fetter explorers attempting to reach polar regions and journeying through these perils by sight, boat, sailing past the Pillars of Hercules, he reached Brittany and even Cornwall, eventually circumnavigating the British Isles. From the local population, he heard news of the land of Thule. After six days of sailing, he reached land at the edge of a sea, and described what is believed to be the aurora. While no one knows exactly how far Pytheas sailed, he may have crossed the Arctic Circle, nevertheless, his tales were regarded as fantasy by later Greek and Roman authorities, such as the geographer Strabo. It was impossible, according to their perception of the world, the first Viking to sight Iceland was Gardar Svavarsson, who went off course due to harsh conditions when sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands. This quickly led to a wave of colonization, not all the settlers were successful however in the attempts to reach the island. In the 10th century, Gunnbjörn Ulfsson got lost in a storm and his report spurred Erik the Red, an outlawed chieftain, to establish a settlement there in 985. While they flourished initially, these settlements eventually foundered due to changing climatic conditions and they are believed to have survived until around 1450. Greenlands early settlers sailed westward, in search of better pasturage, modern scholars debate the precise location of the new lands of Vinland, Markland, and Helluland that they discovered. The Scandinavian peoples also pushed north into their own peninsula by land. As early as 880, the Viking Ohthere of Hålogaland rounded the Scandinavian Peninsula and sailed to the Kola Peninsula and they also explored north by boat, discovering the Northern Sea Route, as well as penetrating to the trans-Ural areas of northern Siberia. They then founded the settlement of Mangazeya east of the Yamal Peninsula in the early 16th century, in 1648 the Cossack Semyon Dezhnyov opened the now famous Bering Strait between America and Asia. Russian settlers and traders on the coasts of the White Sea, by the 17th century they established a continuous sea route from Arkhangelsk as far east as the mouth of Yenisey. This route, known as Mangazeya seaway, after its eastern terminus, Exploration above the Arctic Circle in the Renaissance was driven by the rediscovery of Classical learning and the national quests for commercial expansion. This exploration was hampered by limits in maritime technology of the age, lack of food supplies. A seminal event in Arctic exploration occurred in 1409, when Ptolemys Geographia was translated into Latin, navigators were better able to chart their positions, and the European race to China, sparked by interest in the writings of Marco Polo, commenced
42.
Farthest North
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Farthest North describes the most northerly latitude reached by explorers before the conquest of the North Pole rendered the expression obsolete. The northern polar regions are more accessible than those of the south, as continental land masses extend to high latitudes. A Dutch expedition led by Willem Barentz reached 79°49’ N on 16 June 1596 to register the first recorded Farthest North, in 1607 Henry Hudson probably reached Hakluyts Headland, but could not proceed further as ice lay packed along Spitsbergens north coast. In 1612 an explorer from Hull, Thomas Marmaduke, claimed to have reached 82°N, none of these claims have any basis in fact, with the second claim, made by Joris Carolus, impossible knowing ice conditions that season, although Marmaduke did at least reach Gråhuken. English whalers reached Svalbards Nordkapp in or before 1622, as shown on the Muscovy Companys Map, the Seven Islands, north of Nordaustlandet, were first marked on a Dutch map of 1663, but were allegedly reached by a ship of Enkhuizen as early as 1618. In 1707 the Dutch whaler Cornelis Cornelisz Giles rounded the northernmost point of Nordaustlandet in Svalbard, in 1806 the Resolution of Whitby, under William Scoresby, Sr. was said to have sailed north of the Seven Islands and reached 81°50 N. One of the first expeditions with the purpose of reaching the North Pole was that of William Edward Parry in 1827, who reached 82°45′ N. Albert Hastings Markham, a member of the British Arctic Expedition of 1875-76 was the one to get closer to the pole 48 years later. Adolphus Greelys Lady Franklin Bay Expedition bested Markham by a few miles, in 1895, Norwegians Fridtjof Nansen and Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen reached latitude 86°14′ N. Two American explorers claimed to reach the North Pole in 1908 and 1909, cooks claim was soon judged to be fraudulent, and Peary was credited as the discoverer of the North Pole for much of the 20th century. In recent decades, however, Pearys claim has become the subject of controversy, with Pearys claim accepted at the time, overland expeditions to the North Pole came to an end. Roald Amundsen of Norway redirected his planned Arctic expedition and instead aimed for the South Pole, which he achieved in 1911. In 1931 an expedition, led by Hubert Wilkins and Lincoln Ellsworth and partly financed by William Randolph Hearst, the Nautilus was modified for under ice operations by submarine designer Simon Lake so it could detect openings in the ice pack and surface to recharge her batteries. While the expedition was a failure, the Nautilus did reach a latitude of 82 degrees north - the farthest north a vessel had ever been, in accordance with the lease agreement, the Nautilus was scuttled after the expedition to prevent her reuse as a warship. On 9 May 1926, Richard Evelyn Byrd attempted to fly over the North Pole in an airplane and he was widely credited with achieving this, but his claim subsequently became subject to doubt. The first man definitely to set foot on the Pole was the Russian Alexander Kuznetsov, on 3 August 1958 the United States submarine USS Nautilus was the first to sail under the ice pack to reach the North Pole. On 17 March 1959 the United States submarine Skate became the first submarine to surface at the North Pole, in 1968–69 the British explorer Wally Herbert became the first person to indubitably reach the Pole on foot, having sledged from Alaska. His expedition was supported by air drops, Arctic exploration List of Arctic expeditions Farthest South Fleming, Fergus
