1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
Arlington National Cemetery
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The United States Department of the Army, a component of the United States Department of Defense, controls the cemetery. The national cemetery was established during the Civil War on the grounds of Arlington House, like nearly all federal installations in Arlington County, it has a Washington, D. C. mailing address. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of Martha Washington, acquired the land now is Arlington National Cemetery in 1802. The estate passed to Custis daughter, Mary Anna, who had married United States Army officer Robert E. Lee. Custis will gave an inheritance to Mary Lee, allowing her to live at and run Arlington Estate for the rest of her life. Upon her death, the Arlington estate passed to her eldest son, on May 7, troops of the Virginia militia occupied Arlington and Arlington House. With Confederate forces occupying Arlingtons high ground, the capital of the Union was left in a military position. Although unwilling to leave Arlington House, Mary Lee believed her estate would soon be infested with federal soldiers, so she buried many of her family treasures on the grounds and left for her sisters estate at Ravensworth in Fairfax County, Virginia, on May 14. On May 3, General Winfield Scott ordered Brigadier General Irvin McDowell to clear Arlington, McDowell occupied Arlington without opposition on May 24. In May 1864, Union forces suffered large numbers of dead in the Battle of the Wilderness, Meigs ordered that an examination of eligible sites be made for the establishment for a large new national military cemetery. Within weeks, his staff reported that Arlington Estate was the most suitable property in the area, the property was high and free from floods, it had a view of the District of Columbia, and it was aesthetically pleasing. It was also the home of the leader of the forces of the Confederate States of America. The first military burial at Arlington, for William Henry Christman, was made on May 13,1864, however, Meigs did not formally authorize establishment of burials until June 15,1864. Arlington did not desegregate its burial practices until President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 on July 26,1948, the government acquired Arlington at a tax sale in 1864 for $26,800, equal to $410,000 today. Mrs. Lee had not appeared in person but rather had sent an agent, the government turned away her agent, refusing to accept the tendered payment. In 1874, Custis Lee, heir under his grandfathers will passing the estate in trust to his mother, sued the United States claiming ownership of Arlington. In December,1882, the U. S. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in Lees favor in United States v. Lee, deciding that Arlington had been confiscated without due process. After that decision, Congress returned the estate to him, and on March 3,1883, the land then became a military reservation
3.
Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial
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It overlooks the Potomac River and the National Mall in Washington, D. C. During the American Civil War, the grounds of the mansion were selected as the site of Arlington National Cemetery, however, the United States has since designated the mansion as a National Memorial to Lee. Arlington Woods, located behind Arlington House, contains the oldest and largest tract of eastern hardwood forest that still exists in Arlington County. The mansion was built on the orders of George Washington Parke Custis, Custis became a prominent resident of an area that was then known as Alexandria County, at the time a part of the District of Columbia. Arlington House was built at a point on an 5,100 ft acre estate that Custis father, John Parke Custis, had purchased in 1778. The younger Custis decided to build his home on the property in 1802 following the death of Martha Washington, after acquiring the property, Custis renamed it Arlington after the Custis familys homestead on the Eastern Shore of Virginia. Almost immediately, Custis began constructing Arlington House on his land, hiring George Hadfield as architect, he constructed a mansion exhibiting the first example of Greek Revival architecture in America. Custis intended the mansion to serve as a memorial to George Washington. Construction began eleven years after LEnfants Plan for the future Federal City had designated an area directly across the Potomac River to be the site of the Presidents House and the Congress House. Custis located the building on a prominent hill overlooking the Georgetown-Alexandria Turnpike, the Potomac River, using slave labor and materials on site, and interrupted by the War of 1812, Custis finally completed the mansions exterior in 1818. The north and south wings were completed in 1804, the large center section and the portico, presenting an imposing front 140 ft long, were finished 13 years later. The house has two kitchens, a summer and a winter, the most prominent features of the house are the 8 massive columns of the portico, each 5 feet in diameter. Guests at the house included such people as Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette. At Arlington, Custis experimented with new methods of animal husbandry and their only child to survive to adulthood was Mary Anna Randolph Custis. Robert E. Lee, whose mother was a cousin of Mrs. Custis, frequently visited Arlington, two years after graduating from West Point, Lieutenant Lee married Mary Anna Custis at Arlington on June 30,1831. For 30 years Arlington House was home to the Lees and they spent much of their married life traveling between United States Army duty stations and Arlington, where six of their seven children were born. They shared this home with Marys parents, after their deaths, Marys parents were buried not far from the house on land that is now part of Arlington National Cemetery. The Custises extensively developed the Arlington estate, much of the steep slope to the east of the house became a cultivated English landscape park, while a large flower garden with an arbor was constructed and planted south of the house
4.
Potomac River
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The Potomac River /pəˈtoʊmək/ is located along the mid-Atlantic Ocean coast of the United States and flows into the Chesapeake Bay. The river is approximately 405 miles long, with an area of about 14,700 square miles. In terms of area, this makes the Potomac River the fourth largest river along the Atlantic coast of the United States, over 5 million people live within the Potomac watershed. The river forms part of the borders between Maryland and Washington, D. C. on the left descending bank and West Virginia and Virginia on the right descending bank. The majority of the lower Potomac River is part of the State of Maryland, exceptions include a small tidal portion within the District of Columbia, and the border with Virginia being delineated from point to point. Except for a portion of its headwaters in West Virginia. The South Branch Potomac River lies completely within the state of West Virginia except for its headwaters, the Potomac River runs 405 miles from the Fairfax Stone in West Virginia on the Allegheny Plateau to Point Lookout, Maryland, and drains 14,679 square miles. The length of the river from the junction of its North and South Branches to Point Lookout is 302 miles, the average flow is 10,800 ft³/s. The largest flow recorded on the Potomac at Washington, D. C. was in March 1936 when it reached 425,000 ft³/s. The lowest flow recorded at the same location was 600 ft³/s in September,1966. The source of the North Branch is at the Fairfax Stone located at the junction of Grant, Tucker, the source of the South Branch is located near Hightown in northern Highland County, Virginia. The rivers two branches converge just east of Green Spring in Hampshire County, West Virginia, to form the Potomac. Once the Potomac drops from the Piedmont to the Coastal Plain at Little Falls, tides further influence the river as it passes through Washington, D. C. salinity in the Potomac River Estuary increases thereafter with distance downstream. The estuary also widens, reaching 11 statute miles wide at its mouth, Potomac is a European spelling of Patowmeck, the Algonquian name of a Native American village, perhaps meaning something brought. Native Americans had different names for different parts of the river, calling the river above Great Falls Cohongarooton, meaning honking geese and Patawomke below the fall, meaning river of swans. The spelling of the name has many forms over the years from Patawomeke to Patawomeck, Patowmack. The rivers name was decided upon as Potomac by the Board on Geographic Names in 1931. The river itself is at least two years old, likely extending back ten to twenty million years before present when the Atlantic Ocean lowered and exposed coastal sediments along the fall line
5.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
McKim, Mead & White
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McKim, Mead & White was a prominent American architectural firm that thrived at the turn of the twentieth century. The firms founding partners were Charles Follen McKim, William Rutherford Mead and they hired many other architects, partners, associates, designers and draftsmen, who came to prominence during or after their time at the firm. The firms New York City buildings include Manhattans former Pennsylvania Station, the Brooklyn Museum, elsewhere in New York State and New England, the firm designed college, library, school and other buildings such as the Boston Public Library and Rhode Island State House. In Washington, D. C. the firm renovated the West and East Wings of the White House, and designed Roosevelt Hall on Fort Lesley J. McNair and the National Museum of American History. Across the United States, the firm designed buildings in Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, other examples are in Canada, Cuba and Italy. McKim and Mead joined forces in 1872 and they were joined in 1879 by White, who, like McKim, had worked for architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Its vision was to clean up the confusion of American cities and imbue them with a sense of order. The firm retained its name long after the deaths of founding partners White, McKim, among the firms final works under the name McKim, Mead & White was the National Museum of American History in Washington, D. C. Designed primarily by partner James Kellum Smith, it opened in 1964, Smith died in 1961, and the firm was soon renamed Steinmann, Cain and White. In 1971, it became Walker O. Cain and Associates, lewis Colt Albro – who formed a partnership with Harrie T. Lindeberg from 1906 to 1914. Henry Bacon – worked at the firm from about 1886 through 1897, boring – worked at the firm in 1890 before forming a separate partnership with Edward Lippincott Tilton. Page Brown - worked with the beginning in the 1880s, went to California. Walker O. Cain – worked at the firm, he took it over in 1961, john Merven Carrère – worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885, then joined Thomas Hastings to form the firm Carrère and Hastings. Arthur Loomis Harmon – later of Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, Thomas Hastings – of Carrère and Hastings, worked with McKim, Mead & White from 1883 through 1885. William Mitchell Kendall, worked with the firm from 1882 until his death, Harrie T. Lindeberg – started at the firm in 1895 as an assistant to Stanford White and remained with the firm until Whites death in 1906. Austin W. James Kellum Smith – a member of the firm from 1924 to 1961, full partner in 1929, and he primarily designed academic buildings, but his last major work was the National Museum of American History. Egerton Swartwout of Tracy and Swartwout – both Tracy and Swartwout worked together for the firm on multiple projects prior to starting their own practice, robert von Ezdorf – took over much of the firms business after Whites death. William M. Wells – worked as firms first Chief Draftsman from 1879–90, often considered to be the fourth partner
8.
Neoclassical architecture
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Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary buildings. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is referred to as Classicism. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée, the many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullées ideas and Edmund Burkes conception of the sublime, the baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. The most popular was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell, the book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book featured the work of Inigo Jones. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain, at the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic architect earl, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladios Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and this severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of Englands finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk, the main block of this house followed Palladios dictates quite closely, but Palladios low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicising vein was also detectable, to a degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S, by the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s, in France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire, in France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg, indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved an audience in the 1760s
9.
Arch bridge
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An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch. Arch bridges work by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the abutments at either side, a viaduct may be made from a series of arches, although other more economical structures are typically used today. Possibly the oldest existing bridge is the Mycenaean Arkadiko bridge in Greece from about 1300 BC. The stone corbel arch bridge is used by the local populace. The well-preserved Hellenistic Eleutherna Bridge has a corbel arch. The 4th century BC Rhodes Footbridge rests on an early voussoir arch, a more complete survey by the Italian scholar Vittorio Galliazzo found 931 Roman bridges, mostly of stone, in as many as 26 different countries. Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although a number were segmental arch bridges, generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped primary arch stones of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers, e. g. in the Pons Fabricius in Rome, Roman engineers were the first and until the industrial revolution the only ones to construct bridges with concrete, which they called Opus caementicium. The outside was covered with brick or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge. The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction, trajans bridge over the Danube featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood. This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mérida. The late Roman Karamagara Bridge in Cappadocia may represent the earliest surviving bridge featuring a pointed arch, in medieval Europe, bridge builders improved on the Roman structures by using narrower piers, thinner arch barrels and lower span-rise ratios on bridges. Gothic pointed arches were introduced, reducing lateral thrust. The 14th century in particular saw bridge building reaching new heights, the bridge at Trezzo sullAdda, destroyed in the 15th century, even featured a span length of 72 m, not matched until 1796. Constructions such as the acclaimed Florentine segmental arch bridge Ponte Vecchio combined sound engineering with aesthetical appeal, the three elegant arches of the Renaissance Ponte Santa Trinita constitute the oldest elliptic arch bridge worldwide. In China, the oldest existing bridge is the Zhaozhou Bridge of 605 AD. The Zhaozhou Bridge, with a length of 167 feet and span of 123 feet, is the worlds first wholly stone open-spandrel segmental arch bridge, Bridges with perforated spandrels can be found worldwide, such as in China
10.
Masonry
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Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block. Masonry is generally a durable form of construction. However, the used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer, Masonry is commonly used for walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations, Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement offers much greater tensile, the use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Extreme weather, under circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a foundation, such as reinforced concrete. Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend well to mechanization. Masonry consists of components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood. Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength unless reinforced, the tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added, a masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural, the brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties. There is typically an air gap between the veneer and the structural wall. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion
11.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
12.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
13.
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Arlington)
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The Tomb of the Unknowns is a monument dedicated to American service members who have died without their remains being identified. It is also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and it is located in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, United States of America. The World War I Unknown is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, Unknowns who were interred are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by U. S. Presidents who presided over their funerals. On March 4,1921, the United States Congress approved the burial of an unidentified American serviceman from World War I in the plaza of the new Memorial Amphitheater, on November 11,1921, the unknown soldier brought back from France was interred below a three-level marble tomb. A stone, rather than marble, slab covers the rectangular opening. Since 1921 the intent was to place a superstructure on top of the Tomb, but it was not until July 3,1926, that Congress authorized the completion of the Tomb, a design competition was held and won by architect Lorimer Rich and sculptor Thomas Hudson Jones. An appropriation from Congress for the work was secured and on December 21,1929, the Tomb would consist of seven pieces of marble in four levels of which the die is the largest block with the sculpting on all four sides. Quarrying the Yule marble was a process beginning in 1930. The cap was quarried on the first attempt but the required three tries. The large middle block also required three tries, in late January 1931, the 56 ton middle block was lifted out of the quarry. When the block was separated from the mountain inside the quarry it weighed 124 tons, a wire saw was then brought into the quarry to cut the block down to 56 tons. On February 3, the reached the marble mill site after a four-day trip from the quarry. Here it was crated, then shipped to Vermont on February 8, the block was sawn to final size in West Rutland, Vermont and fabricated by craftsmen in Proctor, Vermont before it was shipped by train to Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia. By September, all 7 blocks were on the grounds of the Tomb site, an imperfection was found in the base requiring three more quarryings. By the end of December 1931, the assembly was completed, finishing work followed with the carvings on the die block by the Piccirilli Brothers under the direction of the sculptor Thomas Jones. The Tomb was completed without formal ceremony on April 9,1932, the Tomb was placed at the head of the grave of the World War I Unknown. West of this grave are the crypts of Unknowns from World War II, between the two lies a crypt that once contained an Unknown from Vietnam. His remains were identified in 1998 through DNA testing as First Lieutenant Michael Blassie
14.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
15.
Leo Friedlander
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Leo Friedlander was an American sculptor, who has made several prominent works. Friedlander studied at the Art Students League in New York City, the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Brussels and Paris, and the American Academy in Rome. He was an assistant to the sculptor Paul Manship and taught at the American Academy in Rome and at New York University and he was also president of the National Sculpture Society. In 1936, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, Friedlander was married to Rhoda Lichter and had two children. Crowell Co, NY, NY1968 Goode, James M, the Outdoor Sculpture of Washington, DC, Smithsonian Press, Washington, DC,1974 Short biography of Leo Friedlander Historical background from the Houston Municipal Arts Office
16.
Ferdinando Marinelli Artistic Foundry
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The Ferdinando Marinelli Artistic Foundry is one of the last remaining Florentine foundries, producing works in bronze utilizing the Renaissance technique of lost-wax. A large number of bronze sculptures produced in Florence over the last century come from this artistic foundry, one of the most famous and popular works in Florence, the La Fontana del Porcellino, was cast by the Marinelli Foundry in 1988 and replaced the antique in 1998. As early as 1929, Marinelli Foundry was present internationally and it produced the monumental sculpture ‘La Carretta dei Pioneri’ carved by the Uruguayan artist José Belloni. It may still be today in Montevideo. In 1932, the panels of the staircase at the entrance of the Vatican Museums by Antonio Maraini were cast. A more recent achievement is the ‘Warrior on horseback’ in Skopje, the capital of Macedonia, inaugurated in 2011, the history of the Fonderia Artistica Ferdinando Marinelli begins in 1905 with the opening of a small shop on Florence’s Via de’ Giudei by Ferdinando Marinelli. In 1915, he was employed by the Fonderia of Alessandro Biagiotti, after World War I, Ferdinando took over the Gabellini foundry on Via del Romito. In 1925, the Foundry executed the monument to the painter Giovanni Fattori donated to the city of Livorno by Valmore Gemignani, Marinelli Foundry received important commissions thanks to the esteem with which Ferdinando was held by the sculptor Antonio Maraini. Maraini choose him as his caster when he received the commission from Pope Pius XI to execute the panels that decorate the newly built large staircase at the entrance to the Vatican Museums. In 1945, Ferdinando Marinelli leaves the Foundry to his sons Aldo, upon Marino’s death, the company passes on to his son Ferdinando Jr. who maintains the ancient tradition of lost-wax casting. Marinelli Foundry remains to this day one of the last artistic workshops practicing this technique, the antique work was moved to the Museo Bardini in 2004. In addition, again for Florence, it executed replicas of Giambolognas Bacchus in Borgo San Jacopo, the new workshops were equipped with up to date furnaces and kilns however leaving all of the traditional production phases unaltered. As already mentioned, the esteem of Antonio Maraini permitted the Marinelli Foundry to establish a relationship with the Vatican State. Peter’s Basilica carved by Maestro Vico Consorti, such collaborations subsequently permitted Marinelli to receive additional commissions from churches in Rome. These include the doors of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, after the drawings of Ludovico Pogliaghi, and in 1951. The collaboration has continued recently, it has produced the bronze handrail of the new flight of stairs at the Vatican Museums inaugurated in 2000 by Pope John Paul II. C. The monument is the work of the American sculptor, Leo Friedlander and this project, conceived in the late twenties and delayed due to the Great Depression, was resumed in 1938 and only completed at the end of World War II. The monument was a gift of Ambassador Alberto Tarchiani on behalf of Italy and its inauguration took place on December 26,1951
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Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
18.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
19.
National Mall
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The National Mall is a national park in downtown Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States. The National Park Service administers the National Mall, which is part of its National Mall, a smaller designation, sometimes referred to as the Mall proper, excludes both the Capitol grounds and the Washington Monument grounds, applying only to an area between them. The National Mall contains a number of museums and memorials and receives approximately 24 million visitors each year, in his 1791 plan for the future city of Washington, D. C. The National Mall occupies the site of this grand avenue. The Washington Monument stands near the site of its namesakes equestrian statue. Mathew Careys 1802 map is reported to be the first to name the area west of the United States Capitol as the Mall, during the early 1850s, architect and horticulturist Andrew Jackson Downing designed a landscape plan for the Mall. Over the next century, federal agencies developed several naturalistic parks within the Mall in accordance with Downings plan. Two such areas were Henry Park and Seaton Park, in addition, railroad tracks crossed the Mall on 6th Street, west of the Capitol. Near the tracks, a market and a railroad station rose on the north side of the Mall. Greenhouses belonging to the U. S. Botanic Garden appeared near the east end of the Mall, the plan differed from LEnfants by replacing the 400 feet wide grand avenue with a 300 feet wide vista containing a long and broad expanse of grass. Four rows of American elm trees planted fifty feet apart between two paths or streets would line each side of the vista. Buildings housing cultural and educational institutions constructed in the Beaux-Arts style would line each outer path or street, on the opposite side of the path or street from the elms. In subsequent years, the vision of the McMillan plan was followed with the planting of American elms. In accordance with a plan that it completed in 1976, the NPS converted the two innermost boulevards into gravel walking paths, the two outermost boulevards remain paved and open to vehicular traffic. Although the Navy intended the buildings to provide quarters for the United States military during World War I. Much of the area then became Constitution Gardens, which was dedicated in 1976. From the 1970s to 1994, a model of a triceratops named Uncle Beazley stood on the Mall in front of the National Museum of Natural History. The life-size statue, which is now located at the National Zoological Park in Northwest Washington, in 2003, the 108th United States Congress enacted the Commemorative Works Clarification and Revision Act
20.
Paul J. Pelz
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Paul Johannes Pelz was a German-American architect, best known as the main architect of the Library of Congress in Washington DC. Paul J. Pelz was born November 18,1841 in Seitendorf, Waldenburg, Silesia and his father, Eduard Pelz, was elected as a representative of Silesia to the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848. Subsequent political repression led him to emigrate to the U. S. in 1851 while the rest of the family stayed in Breslau. In 1858, Paul Pelz joined his father in New York City, in 1864, he was employed as chief draftsman by Jewish architect Henry Fernbach, best known for his later design of New Yorks Central Synagogue. In 1866, Pelz became a member of the American Institute of Architects, in 1867 he moved to Washington DC and was engaged as a civil engineer for the United States Lighthouse Board, where from 1872 to 1877 he served as chief draftsman. His work won a prize for the Lighthouse Board at the 1873 Universal Exhibition in Vienna, in 1873, Pelz and John L. Smithmeyer, another Washington-based architect, together won the competition for the architectural plans for the Library of Congress. Their winning design proposal was based on notes Pelz had taken on prominent public libraries when he traveled to Europe to collect the prize in Vienna. In the ensuing years Pelz also partnered with Smithmeyer on other projects, however, the difficulties experienced on the Library of Congress project, with many delays from congressional dithering, eventually strained their collaboration. In 1888 Pelz became the architect for the Library of Congress as Smithmeyer was dismissed, Pelz in turn was dismissed in 1892. Pelzs offices were in the Corcoran Building on 15th and F Street NW and he designed churches, public buildings, private houses and commercial buildings, and also participated in key debates of the time on Washingtons urban design. In 1898, at the request of socialite Mary Foote Henderson, pelzs first wife, Louise Dorothea Kipp, died in 1894. In 1895, he remarried with Mary Eastbourne Meem, on 30 March 1918, he died in Washington, D. C. He is buried together with his wife in Oak Hill Cemetery. Like other architects of his time, Pelz mastered a range of styles and was willing to switch across them depending on program. St. Augustine Lighthouse, St. Smithmeyer, Washington D. C,1873, 1886-92 Beautification of the Wisconsin Avenue Reservoir built in 1859 by Montgomery C. Meigs, Washington D. C.1875 Healy Hall and Riggs Memorial Library, Georgetown University, with John L. Smithmeyer, elkins,1626 K Street NW, Washington D. C. 1894–96 House on 3440 34th Place, Washington D. C. with Frederick W. C.1896 Mansion for Senator Joseph B. C, 1900–01 Townhouse on 2238 Q Street NW, Washington DC,1901 Grace Reformed Church, Washington DC, with A. A. 1907-08 Grace Reformed Church Sunday School, Washington D. C, 1911-1912 Works by or about Paul J. Pelz at Internet Archive Paul J. Pelz at Find a Grave
21.
United States Department of War
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The Secretary of War, a civilian with such responsibilities as finance and purchases and a minor role in directing military affairs, headed the War Department throughout its existence. Retired senior General Henry Knox, then in civilian life, served as the first United States Secretary of War, forming and organizing the department and the army fell to Secretary Knox. On November 8,1800 the War Department building with its records, foundation of the new military academy at West Point along the Hudson River upstream from New York City in 1802 was important to the future growth of the American army. The multiple failures and fiascos of the War of 1812 convinced Washington that thorough reform of the War Department was necessary, winfield Scott became the senior general until the start of the American Civil War in 1861. The bureau chiefs acted as advisers to the Secretary of War while commanding their own troops, the bureaus frequently conflicted among themselves, but in disputes with the commanding general, the Secretary of War generally supported the bureaus. Congress regulated the affairs of the bureaus in detail, and their chiefs looked to that body for support, during the American Civil War, the War Department responsibilities expanded. It handled the recruiting, training, supply, medical care, transportation, a separate command structure took charge of military operations. In the late stages of the war, the Department took charge of refugees and freedmen in the American South through the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, during Reconstruction, this bureau played a major role in supporting the new Republican governments in the southern states. When military Reconstruction ended in 1877, the U. S. Army removed the last troops from military occupation of the American South, and the last Republican state governments in the region ended. The Army comprised hundreds of small detachments in forts around the West, dealing with Indians, the United States Army, with 39,000 men in 1890 was the smallest and least powerful army of any major power in the late 19th century. By contrast, France had an army of 542,000, temporary volunteers and state militia units mostly fought the Spanish–American War of 1898. This conflict demonstrated the need for effective control over the department. Elihu Root enlarged the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and established the United States Army War College and he changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line, indeed, Secretary Taft exercised little power, President Theodore Roosevelt made the major decisions. In 1911, Secretary Henry L. Stimson and Major General Leonard Wood, his chief of staff, the general staff assisted them in their efforts to rationalize the organization of the army along modern lines and in supervising the bureaus. Assisted by industrial advisers, they reorganized the system of the army. General March reorganized the general staff along similar lines and gave it authority over departmental operations. After the war, the Congress again granted the bureaus their former independence, in the 1920s, General John J. Pershing realigned the general staff on the pattern of his American Expeditionary Force field headquarters, which he commanded
22.
Suspension bridge
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A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders. The first modern examples of type of bridge were built in the early 19th century. Simple suspension bridges, which lack vertical suspenders, have a history in many mountainous parts of the world. This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender cables carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance, like other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, the main cables continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers, in the latter case there will be very little arc in the outboard main cables. The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape. The Tibetan saint and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan, the last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpos was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpos iron chain bridges did not include a deck bridge which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the layer of Gyalpos bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains, before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth, the first American iron chain suspension bridge was the Jacobs Creek Bridge in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finleys bridge was the first to all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge and 137 m Union Bridge, with rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge. The first chain bridge on the European continent was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg, the Clifton Suspension Bridge is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type
23.
Truss bridge
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A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss, a structure of connected elements usually forming triangular units. The connected elements may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads, Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges. The basic types of truss bridges shown in this article have simple designs which could be analyzed by 19th-. A truss bridge is economical to construct because it uses materials efficiently, the nature of a truss allows the analysis of the structure using a few assumptions and the application of Newtons laws of motion according to the branch of physics known as statics. For purposes of analysis, trusses are assumed to be pin jointed where the components meet. This assumption means that members of the truss will act only in tension or compression, a more complex analysis is required where rigid joints impose significant bending loads upon the elements, as in a Vierendeel truss. The central vertical member stabilizes the upper member, preventing it from buckling. If the top member is sufficiently stiff then this element may be eliminated. If the lower chord is sufficiently resistant to bending and shear, the vertical elements may be eliminated. The ability to distribute the forces in various ways has led to a variety of truss bridge types. In other cases the appearance of the structure may take on greater importance, a pure truss can be represented as a pin-jointed structure, one where the only forces on the truss members are tension or compression, not bending. This is used in the teaching of statics, by the building of bridges from spaghetti. Spaghetti is brittle and although it can carry a modest tension force, a model spaghetti bridge thus demonstrates the use of a truss structure to produce a usefully strong complete structure from individually weak elements. In 1820 a simple form of truss, Towns lattice truss, was patented, few iron truss bridges were built in the United States before 1850. Truss bridges became a type of bridge built from the 1870s through the 1930s. Examples of these still remain across the US, but their numbers are dropping rapidly. As metal slowly started to replace timber, wrought iron bridges in the US started being built on a scale in the 1870s. Bowstring truss bridges were a common truss design during this time, companies like the Massillon Bridge Company of Massillon, Ohio and the King Bridge Company of Cleveland, Ohio became well-known, as they marketed their designs to cities and townships
24.
Romanesque Revival architecture
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Romanesque Revival is a style of building employed beginning in the mid-19th century inspired by the 11th- and 12th-century Romanesque architecture. Unlike the historic Romanesque style, however, Romanesque Revival buildings tended to feature more simplified arches, an early variety of Romanesque Revival style known as Rundbogenstil was popular in German lands and in the German diaspora beginning in the 1830s. By far the most prominent and influential American architect working in a free Romanesque manner was Henry Hobson Richardson, in the United States, the style derived from examples set by him are termed Richardsonian Romanesque, of which not all are Romanesque Revival. In Scotland the style started to emerge with the Duke of Argyl’s castle at Inverary, started in 1744, and castles by Robert Adam at Culzean, Oxenfoord, Dalquharran and it was at this point that the Norman Revival became a recognisable architectural style. In 1817 Thomas Rickman published his An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest To the Reformation and it was now realised that ‘round-arch architecture’ was largely Romanesque in the British Isles and came to be described as Norman rather than Saxon. The start of an archaeologically correct Norman Revival can be recognised in the architecture of Thomas Hopper and his first attempt at this style was at Gosford Castle in Armagh in Ireland, but far more successful was his Penrhyn Castle near Bangor in North Wales. This was built for the Pennant family, between 1820 and 1837, however, the Norman Revival did catch on for church architecture. It was Thomas Penson, a Welsh architect, who would have been familiar with Hopper’s work at Penrhyn, Penson was influenced by French and Belgian Romanesque architecture, and particularly the earlier Romanesque phase of German Brick Gothic. At St David’s Newtown, 1843–47 and St Agatha’s Llanymynech,1845, he copies the tower of St. Salvators Cathedral, other examples of Romanesque revival by Penson are Christ Church, Welshpool, 1839–1844, and the porch to Langedwyn Church. He was an innovator in his use of Terracotta to produce decorative Romanesque mouldings, during the 19th century the architecture selected for Anglican churches depended on the churchmanship of particular congregations. Some of the examples of this Romanesque architecture is seen in Non-conformist or Dissenting churches. A good example of this is by the Lincoln architects Drury and Mortimer, after about 1870 this style of Church architecture in Britain disappears, but in the early 20th century, the style is succeeded by Byzantine Revival architecture. Two of Canadas provincial legislatures, the Ontario Legislative Building in Toronto, University College, one of seven colleges at the University of Toronto, is a chief example of the Romanesque Revival style. The building, designed by Frederic Cumberland and William G. Storm, was intended to be Gothic in style but was rejected by the governor general. Construction of the design began on 4 October 1856. The facade of University College has thick walls, incorporating layers of both stone and brick. The building possesses a number of round arches characteristic of the Roman Revival style, the arches are configured in arcades, most notably on the south side of the building. There is a deal of ornamentation on both the interior and exterior of University College
25.
John W. Daniel
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John Warwick Daniel was an American lawyer, author, and Democratic politician from Lynchburg, Virginia who promoted the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. Daniel served in both houses of the Virginia General Assembly, then represented Virginia in both the U. S. House and then multiple terms in the U. S. Senate. Daniel was sometimes called the Lame Lion of Lynchburg, alluding to his permanent disability incurred during the Battle of the Wilderness, while serving as a major in the Confederate Army. John W. Daniel was born in Lynchburg, Virginia, the son of Judge William Daniel and his wife Sarah Ann Warwick Daniel and his mother died after the birth of his sister Sarah, when John was three years old. Judge Daniel soon announced the sale of all or part of the former estate, young John was raised by his maternal grandparents and attended private schools, including Dr. Gessner Harrison’s University School. In 1869, John W. Daniel married Julia Elizabeth Murrell and their youngest son died in a riding accident in 1894, but John Warwick Daniel and Edward Murrell Daniel survived their parents. He was wounded during the First Battle of Bull Run, while convalescing, Daniel was transferred to the 11th Virginia Infantry, and earned promotions to first lieutenant and later adjutant. Daniel served in the Confederate Army until 1864, eventually attaining the rank of major, on March 24,1863, he became a staff officer for fellow Lynchburger and Major General Jubal A. Early, under whom he served in the Gettysburg Campaign, among others. In May 1864, during the Battle of the Wilderness, a ball shattered Daniels femur. He thereafter had to use a crutch to walk, and resigned his commission, Daniel studied law at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville and was admitted to the bar in 1866. He joined his fathers practice at Lynchburg, despite being crippled from his war injury, he enjoyed oratory, particularly memorializing the Confederate war effort and excoriating Congressional Reconstruction and Republicans. He entered politics and Campbell County voters elected him as a member of the Conservative Partyto represent them alongside Rufus Murrell, burkholder in the House of Delegates from 1869–72. The Funding Act which the legislature had passed in 1871 proved a major issue in Virginia for the next decade. Daniel became one of its main supporters, others, known as Readjusters advocated reducing payments on the bonds issued in 1871 which reaffirmed the debts Virginia had acquired before the Civil War to construct railroads, bridges, etc. Although the bonds traded at far below face value, they could be used at face value to pay state taxes, also, the interest rate was kept at the prewar level, which was much higher than postwar interest rates. In 1876, Daniel published his A Treatise on the Law of Negotiable Instruments and that year he also campaigned for Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic presidential candidate. However, Campbell county voters had elected Daniel to the senate the previous year. In 1877, Daniel became one of the leading Conservative orators against the leading Readjuster candidate, Mahone ultimately withdrew his gubernatorial candidacy in favor of relatively unknown Frederick W. M. Holliday of Winchester, who was elected
26.
United States Army Corps of Engineers
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The United States Army Corps of Engineers, also sometimes shortened to CoE is a U. S. Although generally associated with dams, canals and flood protection in the United States, the Corps of Engineers provides outdoor recreation opportunities to the public, and provides 24% of U. S. hydropower capacity. The corps mission is to Deliver vital public and military engineering services, partnering in peace and war to strengthen our Nations security, energize the economy and their most visible missions include, Planning, designing, building, and operating locks and dams. Other civil engineering projects include flood control, beach nourishment, design and construction of flood protection systems through various federal mandates. Design and construction management of military facilities for the Army, Air Force, Army Reserve and Air Force Reserve and other Defense and Federal agencies. The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to 16 June 1775, colonel Richard Gridley became General George Washingtons first chief engineer, however, it was not until 1779 that Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers. One of its first tasks was to build fortifications near Boston at Bunker Hill, the first Corps of Engineers was mostly composed of French subjects who had been hired by General Washington from the service of Louis XVI. that the said Corps. Shall be stationed at West Point in the State of New York, until 1866, the superintendent of the United States Military Academy was always an officer of engineer. During the first half of the 19th century, West Point was the major and, for a while, the General Survey Act of 1824 authorized the use of Army engineers to survey road and canal routes. Separately authorized on 4 July 1838, the U. S and it was merged with the Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, at which point the Corps of Engineers also assumed the Lakes Survey District mission for the Great Lakes. In 1841, Congress created the Lake Survey, the survey, based in Detroit, Mich. was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern Lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852, in the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers officers ran Lighthouse Districts in tandem with U. S. Naval officers. The Army Corps of Engineers played a significant role in the American Civil War, many of the men who would serve in the top leadership in this institution were West Point graduates who rose to military fame and power during the Civil War. Some of these men were Union Generals George McClellan, Henry Halleck, George Meade, and Confederate generals Robert E. Lee, Joseph Johnston, the versatility of officers in the Army Corps of Engineers contributed to the success of numerous missions throughout the Civil War. They were responsible for building pontoon and railroad bridges, forts and batteries, the destruction of supply lines. The Army Corps of Engineers served as a function in making the war effort logistically feasible. This method of building trenches was known as the zigzag pattern, from the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps of Engineers to contribute to both military construction and works of a civil nature. During World War II the mission grew to more than 27,000 military, included were aircraft, tank assembly, and ammunition plants, camps for 5.3 million soldiers, depots, ports, and hospitals, as well as the Manhattan Project, and the Pentagon
27.
United States Secretary of War
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The Secretary of War was a member of the United States Presidents Cabinet, beginning with George Washingtons administration. A similar position, called either Secretary at War or Secretary of War, had appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation between 1781 and 1789. Benjamin Lincoln and later Henry Knox held the position, when Washington was inaugurated as the first president under the Constitution, he appointed Knox to continue serving. The Secretary of War was the head of the War Department, at first, he was responsible for all military affairs, including naval affairs. In 1798, the Secretary of the Navy was created by statute, from 1886 onward, the Secretary of War was third in the line of succession to the presidency, after the Vice President of the United States and the Secretary of State. The office of Secretary at War was modelled upon Great Britains Secretary at War, the office of Secretary at War was meant replaced both the Commander-in-Chief and the Board of War, and like the President of the Board, the Secretary wore no special insignia. The Inspector General, Quartermaster General, Commissary General, and Adjutant General served on the Secretarys staff, however, the Army itself under Secretary Henry Knox only consisted of 700 men. Parties No party Federalist Democratic-Republican Democratic Whig Republican Confederate States Secretary of War Bell, commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff 1775-2005, Portraits and Biographical Sketches. United States Army Center of Military History, encyclopedia of the United States Cabinet 1789-2010. Charlottesville, Virginia, The Judge Advocate Generals School, U. S. Army
28.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
29.
Edward Pearce Casey
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Edward Pearce Casey was an American designer and architect, noted for his work in Washington, D. C. and New York City. Edward Pearce Casey was born June 18,1864, in Portland, Maine, where his father, Brigadier-General Thomas Lincoln Casey, served during the Civil War. Edward was educated at the Emerson Institute of Washington, D. C. and graduated from the School of Mines of Columbia University, he received the degree of C. E. in 1886 and he studied also at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, France. Prior to completion of his schooling, Casey served in the 7th Regiment of the New York National Guard, in 1892, Casey replaced Paul J. Pelz as architect of the Library of Congress, whose construction his father directed until his death in 1896. In 1893, he was one of the six equal prize winners in the New York City Hall competition, in 1901, he won another design competition, for a design for the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D. C. Soon after completion of the Grant Memorial, Casey moved to New York City, in 1905 and 1906, Casey designed a new façade for a rebuild of the rectory at the Episcopal Church of the Incarnation in Manhattan. Casey died on January 2,1940, and is buried in the plot at the Casey Farm in Rhode Island
30.
Taft Bridge
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The Taft Bridge, also known as the Connecticut Avenue Bridge or William Howard Taft Bridge, is a historic bridge located in the Northwest quadrant of Washington, D. C. It carries Connecticut Avenue over the Rock Creek gorge, including Rock Creek and it is situated to the southwest of the Duke Ellington Bridge. On July 3,2003, the Taft Bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places, the Classical Revival bridge was built between 1897–1907. It was designed by engineer George S. Morison and architect Edward Pearce Casey and it is an arch bridge with unreinforced concrete arches and a reinforced concrete deck. The total length of the bridge is 274.5 meters and it has been called an engineering tour de force and the largest unreinforced concrete structure in the world. In 1931, the bridge was renamed in honor of U. S. President William Howard Taft, during early planning for the Washington Metro in the 1960s, the Red Line was slated to run across the bridge to connect Dupont Circle and Woodley Park. Instead, the metro was built underground, the bridge is guarded by four large male lions, two on each end of the bridge. Two of the lions rest on all fours with their heads tilted upwards and mouths slightly open while the pair lie with their eyes closed. They were originally designed and sculpted by Roland Hinton Perry in 1906 out of cast concrete and were installed in 1907, in 1964 the lions were restored and weatherproofed by Washington based sculptor Renato Luccetti, although this restoration proved to be less than entirely successful. When a major rehabilitation of the began in 1993, the lions. They may have stored in the Air Rights Tunnel on southbound I-395. The sculptures were found to be beyond restoring. The same molds were used to cast bronze lions installed at the pedestrian entrance to the National Zoo farther north on Connecticut Avenue in 2002. Twenty-four lampposts are equally spaced along both sides of the Taft Bridge, created by sculptor Ernest Bairstow in 1906 the lampposts are composed of concrete bases with painted iron lampposts set in them. The pedestals are decorated with garland and a column featuring acanthus leaves at the top. Above the leaves is a bracket with two globes hanging from each side of the column. Each lamppost is topped with a painted iron eagle with its wings spread, a replica of the Bairstow eagles is seen in a World War I monument in Middletown, Delaware. List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Washington, list of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D. C
31.
Victoria (mythology)
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Victoria, in ancient Roman religion, was the personified goddess of victory. She is the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Nike, and was associated with Bellona and she was adapted from the Sabine agricultural goddess Vacuna and had a temple on the Palatine Hill. The goddess Vica Pota was also identified with Victoria. Victoria is often described as a daughter of Pallas and Styx, and as a sister of Zelus, Kratos, unlike the Greek Nike, the goddess Victoria was a major part of Roman society. Multiple temples were erected in her honor, when her statue was removed in 382 CE by Emperor Gratianus there was much anger in Rome. She was normally worshiped by triumphant generals returning from war, also unlike the Greek Nike, who was known for success in athletic games such as chariot races, Victoria was a symbol of victory over death and determined who would be successful during war. Victoria appears widely on Roman coins, jewelry, architecture, and she is often seen with or in a chariot, as in the late 18th-century sculpture representing Victory in a quadriga on the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany, Il Vittoriano in Rome has two. Nike or Victoria was the charioteer for Zeus in his battle to over take Mount Olympus and these represent the spirit of victory rather than the goddess herself. They continued to appear after Christianization of the Empire, and slowly mutated into Christian angels,12 Victoria Media related to Victoria at Wikimedia Commons
32.
George Frisbie Hoar
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George Frisbie Hoar was a prominent American politician and United States Senator from Massachusetts. Hoar was born in Concord, Massachusetts and he was a member of an extended family that was politically prominent in 18th and 19th century New England. Hoar graduated from Harvard University in 1846, then studied at Harvard Law School and settled in Worcester, Massachusetts where he practiced law before entering politics. Initially a member of the Free Soil Party, he joined the Republican Party shortly after its founding, and was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives, and the Massachusetts Senate. In 1865, Hoar was one of the founders of the Worcester County Free Institute of Industrial Science and he represented Massachusetts as a member of the U. S. House of Representatives from 1869 through 1877, then served in the U. S. Senate until his death. He was a Republican, who generally avoided party partisanship and did not hesitate to criticize members of his party whose actions or policies he believed were in error. Hoar was long noted as a fighter against political corruption, and campaigned for the rights of African Americans and he argued in the Senate in favor of Womens suffrage as early as 1886. He opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, describing it as nothing less than the legalization of racial discrimination, however, he also believed that Portuguese and Italian immigrants were unfit for U. S. citizenship. As a member of the Congressional Electoral Commission, he was involved with settling the highly disputed U. S. presidential election,1876 and he authored the Presidential Succession Act of 1886, and in 1888 he was chairman of the 1888 Republican National Convention. Unlike many of his Senate colleagues, Hoar was not an advocate for an American intervention into Cuba in the late 1890s. After this, the islands were annexed by means of joint resolution, after the Spanish–American War, Hoar became one of the Senates most outspoken opponents of the imperialism of the McKinley administration. He also denounced the U. S. intervention in Panama, in addition to his political career, Hoar was active in the American Historical Association and the American Antiquarian Society, serving terms as president of both organizations. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1853, and served as vice-president from 1878 to 1884 and he was a regent of the Smithsonian Institution in 1880, and a trustee of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Hoar was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and his autobiography, Autobiography of Seventy Years, was published in 1903, it first appeared in serial form in Scribners magazine. Hoar enjoyed good health until June 1904 and he died in Worcester, and was buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery, Concord. After his death, a statue of him was erected in front of Worcesters city hall, through his mother, Sarah Sherman, G. F. Hoar was a grandson of prominent political figure, Roger Sherman and Shermans second wife, Roger Sherman signed the Articles of Confederation, United States Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. Hoars father, Samuel Hoar, was a prominent lawyer who served on the Massachusetts state senate and the United States House of Representatives
33.
Connecticut
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Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront
34.
George Keller (architect)
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George Keller, was an American architect and engineer. He enjoyed a diverse and successful career, and was sought for his designs of bridges, houses, monuments, Kellers most famous projects, however, are the Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Arch in Hartford, Connecticut, and the James A. Garfield Memorial in Cleveland, Ohio. He was born on December 15,1842 in Cork in Ireland to Thomas Keller, Keller emigrated with his family to New York City as a child. Irish immigrants were at the time considered inferior, and during his early years Keller endured a considerable measure of hardship and discrimination. Lacking connections and unable to obtain schooling in Europe like many of his peers, an ambitious nature. As a young man, he accepted employment with an Irish architect in Washington, D. C. and this was the beginning of a lifelong friendship between the two. Keller’s association with Wight introduced him to the philosophy of John Ruskin and to serious architectural study. Though Keller planned to join the Union Army, a dry inkwell prevented him from signing the enlistment papers, choosing to see this as an ill omen, he gladly accepted an engineering position with the Brooklyn Navy Yard instead. Moving to Hartford at the end, he took a job designing monuments. In 1903 Keller became the 3rd architect to work on the Christ Church Cathedral in Hartford and he based his contribution to the design on the York Cathedral, from which Ithiel Town, the original architect, had drawn inspiration. The postwar building boom brought Keller to national prominence, monuments of this type typically consisted of a cylindrical column, or shaft, surmounted by an allegorical female figure, usually Victory, with four sculpted figures surrounding the base. In contrast, Kellers Hartford monument, an eclectic Romanesque construction dedicated in 1886, was “perhaps the first permanent triumphal arch in the United States. ”One of the arch’s most striking elements is a frieze featuring life-size figures carved by Bohemian-born sculptor Caspar Buberl. The north side of the frieze was carved by English-born sculptor Samuel James Kitson, the Memorial Arch was built as a gateway to the pre-existing Park River Bridge, which was renamed the Soldiers and Sailors Memorial Bridge. The bridge has since demolished, the river arched over and buried. Kellers involvement with the James A. Garfield Memorial in Cleveland began after he submitted a design to the trustees of the Garfield National Memorial Committee. To this end during the autumn of 1883 the committee sponsored a competition in which Keller took part. The competition promised a prize of $1,000 to the design, thus attracting not only American. To judge the submissions, the committee obtained the assistance of Boston architect Henry van Brunt, both van Brunt and Vaux ultimately chose Kellers design, and he was awarded the commission on June 24,1884
35.
American Institute of Architects
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The American Institute of Architects is a professional organization for architects in the United States. The AIA also works with members of the design and construction team to help coordinate the building industry. The AIA is currently headed by Robert Ivy, FAIA as EVP/Chief Executive Officer and Thomas V. Vonier, wells, with Richard Upjohn serving as the first president. They met on February 23,1857 and decided to invite 16 other prominent architects to join them, including Alexander Jackson Davis, Thomas U. Prior to their establishment of the AIA, anyone could claim to be an architect and they drafted a constitution and bylaws by March 10,1857, under the name New York Society of Architects. Walter, of Philadelphia, later suggested the name be changed to American Institute of Architects, the members signed the new constitution on April 15,1857, having filed a certificate of incorporation two days earlier. As of 2008, AIA has more than 300 chapters, the AIA is headquartered at 1735 New York Avenue, NW in Washington, D. C. A design competition was held in the mid-1960s to select an architect for a new AIA headquarters in Washington, mitchell/Giurgola won the design competition but failed to get approval of the design concept from the United States Commission of Fine Arts. The firm resigned the commission and helped select The Architects Collaborative to redesign the building, the design, led by TAC principals Norman Fletcher and Howard Elkus, was ultimately approved in 1970 and completed in 1973. More than 90,000 licensed architects and associated professionals are members, AIA members adhere to a code of ethics and professional conduct intended to assure clients, the public, and colleagues of an architects dedication to the highest standards in professional practice. There are five levels of membership in the AIA, Architect members are licensed to practice architecture in the United States, international associate members hold an architecture license or the equivalent from a licensing authority outside the United States. Emeritus members have been AIA members for 15 successive years and are at least 65 years of age or are incapacitated, allied membership is a partnership with the AIA and the American Architectural Foundation. The AIA’s most prestigious honor is the designation of a member as a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects and this membership is awarded to members who have made contributions of national significance to the profession. Slightly more than 2,600, or 2% of all members, have elevated to the AIA College of Fellows. Foreign architects of prominence may be elected to the College as Honorary Fellows of the AIA, the AIA is governed by a Board of Directors and has a staff of over 200 full-time employees. Although the AIA functions as an organization, at its heart are some 300 local. The components are spread throughout the United States, United Kingdom, Europe, Japan, by speaking with a united voice, AIA architects influence government practices that affect the practice of the profession and the quality of American life. The AIA monitors legislative and regulatory actions and uses the power of its membership to participate in decisionmaking by federal, state
36.
New York Avenue (Washington, D.C.)
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New York Avenue is diagonal avenue radiating northeast from the White House in Washington, D. C. to the border with Maryland. New York Avenue was planned as one of the streets in the LEnfant Plan for Washington. It was intended to begin at the Potomac River and extend northeast toward the White House, the portion of the street southwest of the White House was to give the President of the United States an uninterrupted view of the river. Construction of the State, War, and Navy Building from 1871 to 1888 blocked this view, and it remains blocked to this day. Originally, it extended to the grounds of the U. S. Naval Observatory and its consolidation with Triangle Park and three other parklets into a Little Mall in 1937 consumed another block between 20th and 21st Streets NW. Construction of the United States Department of War Building, and a park from 1940 to 1941 destroyed the lower three blocks of New York Avenue. Construction of the Theodore Roosevelt Building in 1963 eliminated another block between 19th and 20th Streets NW and this left a single block of New York Avenue NW, between 17th and 18th Streets NW, southeast of the White House. New York Avenue northeast of the White House retains its uninterrupted character and it originally terminated at Boundary Avenue (now Florida Avenue NE, as all city streets did in the LEnfant Plan. Extensive development occurred beyond Boundary Avenue from 1870 to 1900, extension of New York Avenue to Bladensburg Road was considered as early as 1899. The McMillan Plan, a plan for the capital published in 1901. But although many portions of the plan were acted on, no road construction occurred, plans were drawn up in 1903 to extend the street about 1-mile beyond the city limits to reach the Ivy City development, but these, too, fell through. In 1907, as construction of Union Station was under way, as part of this effort, the B&O was required to build a bridge to carry New York Avenue over its new track route. It did so, but the bridge remained unused for decades, extensions to Bladensburg Road were debated again in 1908, and failed. The right of way was purchased in 1914, and property owners along the street route assessed for construction, an extension was proposed to South Dakota Avenue NE in 1925, but these proposals were not acted on. Construction on New York Avenue Extended finally began in September 1930, the $231,000 project created a 50-foot roadway 2.125 miles long from Florida Avenue NE to Bladensburg Road NE. There were no intersections with side streets, and only 4th Street NE merged with it, New York Avenue Extended opened on November 2,1931. The final section of New York Avenue NE, from Bladensburg Road to the District-Maryland border, the construction of Route 50 was a joint effort of the state of Maryland and the federal government. The District of Columbia paid to have New York Avenue extended to the connection, a gateway to the city was proposed at this time, but no gateway was built
37.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
38.
James McMillan (politician)
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James McMillan was a businessman and a Republican U. S. McMillan was born in Hamilton, Ontario to William and Grace McMillan and he attended Hamilton public schools before moving to Detroit, Michigan in 1855 to embark on a career in business. McMillans first position was as a clerk for Buhl, Ducharme & Co. a wholesale hardware firm, at the age of 20, he left to become the purchasing agent for the Detroit & Milwaukee Railway. In 1863, he helped, along with John Stoughton Newberry and this business grew very rapidly, and in ten years it was one of the largest in the United States. Its success led to the formation of the Detroit Car Wheel Co. the Baugh Steam Forge Co. the Detroit Iron Furnace Co. McMillan later built and became president of the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway. He was largely interested in shipbuilding and lake transportation companies and he was one of the largest owners of the Detroit and Cleveland Steam Navigation Co. and the Detroit Transportation Co. and was a director of several banks in Detroit. For three years he was president of the Detroit Board of Park Commissioners and for four years a member of the Detroit Board of Estimates, in 1886 he joined with John S. Newberry in contributing $100,000 each for the establishment and maintenance of a hospital in Detroit. McMillan was the person to be elected Chairman of the Michigan Republican Party three non-consecutive times. He was an elector on the Republican ticket in 1884. He was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate in 1889 and was reelected in 1895 and 1901, serving from March 4,1889, until his death. He was a dominant figure in the party, leading the business interests especially in opposition to Progressive reformer Governor Hazen S. Pingree in 1897-1900, the McMillan Reservoir and the McMillan Sand Filtration Site in DC also bear his name. McMillan died in Manchester, Massachusetts and is interred in Elmwood Cemetery and he was survived by his wife Mary and their six children, William Charles, Grace Fisher, James Howard, Amy, Philip Hamilton and Francis Wetmore. Michigan Historical Review 28, 78-113 online Drutchas, Geoffrey G, the Man With a Capital Design. Senator James McMillan and the Flowering of the Spoils System, in Memory of Hon. James McMillan, Senator in the Congress of the United States from Michigan. Lansing, R. Smith Printing Co.1903, James M’Millan, United States Senator from Michigan. Memorial Addresses Delivered in the Senate and House of Representatives, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. The Political Graveyard Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, James McMillan late a senator from Michigan Memorial addresses delivered in the House of Representatives and Senate frontispiece 1903
39.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
40.
McMillan Plan
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The McMillan Plan is a comprehensive planning document for the development of the monumental core and the park system of Washington, D. C. the capital of the United States. It was written in 1902 by the Senate Park Commission, the commission is popularly known as the McMillan Commission after its chairman, Senator James McMillan of Michigan. The plan also proposed tearing down the railroad passenger station on the National Mall. Major new parkways would connect these parks as well as link the city to nearby attractions, never formally adopted by the United States government, the McMillan Plan was implemented piecemeal in the decades after its release. The location of the Lincoln Memorial, Ulysses S. Grant Memorial, Union Station, proposals to construct Arlington Memorial Bridge received a major boost from the plan as well. The plan presented at that meeting by Washington-based architect Paul J, McMillan Commission members included architect Daniel Burnham, landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and architect Charles F. McKim. Charles Moore, Senator McMillans chief aide, became secretary of the commission, sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens joined the commission as its last member in August 1901 at the suggestion of McKim. The commission members and Moore departed for Europe on June 13,1901, to tour the continents great manor homes, gardens, by the time the commission returned to the United States on August 1, Moore had become a de facto member of the commission. The commission sponsored an exhibit about their proposals at the Corcoran Gallery of Art on January 15,1902. President Theodore Roosevelt attended the exhibits opening, the exhibit was dominated by two vast models of the District of Columbia, one showing it as it existed in 1901 and the other showing the changes proposed by the Senate Park Commission. Seventy-one of the reports pages discussed proposals for the National Mall, while the remaining 100 pages discussed improvements for the system in. The proposals for the National Mall received the greatest attention from the commission, the proposals for the citys parks, beaches, and recreational facilities were treated in more general ways. The report proposed turning the National Mall into the core of the growing city, a cruciform design for the Mall was proposed. The United States Capitol building anchored the east end of the east–west axis, in the center was the Washington Monument. The recently completed West Potomac Park would be the anchor for the west end of the east–west axis. The recently created East Potomac Park would anchor the end of the north–south axis. The width of the Mall, determined after extensive on-site measurements, the north and south sides of the National Mall were to be lined with low public office buildings, museums, and cultural attractions. The plan also suggested constructing a low, Beaux-Arts bridge linking West Potomac Park with Arlington National Cemetery, around the base of the Washington Monument, new formal gardens and terraces would help to frame the base of the monument
41.
West Potomac Park
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West Potomac Park is a U. S. national park in Washington, D. C. adjacent to the National Mall. It includes the parkland that extends south of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, West Potomac Park is administered by the National Park Service. Almost none of the National Mall west of the Washington Monument grounds, after terrible flooding inundated much of downtown Washington, D. C. In the process, the nearby Babcock Lakes, a series of ponds, were filled in. This reclaimed land — which included West Potomac Park, East Potomac Park, the Tidal Basin — was largely complete by 1890, and designated Potomac Park by Congress in 1897. The famous sakura of Washington line the Tidal Basin and are the main attraction at the National Cherry Blossom Festival in early spring, when the cherry blossoms bloom. Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore, upon returning to Washington from a visit to Japan, initiated the idea of trees in Washington, approaching the Superintendent of Public Building. Her idea was rejected, over the next 24 years, Scidmore approached every new superintendent, Fairchild planted these trees on a hillside on his own property in Chevy Chase, Maryland, testing their hardiness in the Washington area. In 1907, pleased with the success of the trees, Fairchild, friends of family also became interested, and on September 26, arrangements were completed with the Chevy Chase Land Company to order 300 Oriental cherry trees for the Chevy Chase area. In 1908, Fairchild gave cherry saplings to boys from school in the District to plant in schoolyards on Arbor Day. In closing his Arbor Day speech, Fairchild expressed a vision that the Speedway be transformed into a Field of Cherries, in attendance was Eliza Scidmore, whom afterwards he referred to as a great authority on Japan. In 1909, Scidmore decided to try to raise the required to purchase the cherry trees. Two days later, the First Lady responded, The White House, of course, they could not reflect in the water, but the effect would be very lovely of the long avenue. Let me know what you think about this, when told Washington was to have Japanese cherry trees planted along the Speedway, he asked whether the First Lady would accept a donation of an additional 2,000 trees. Midzuno thought it was an idea and suggested the trees be given in the name of the capital city of Tokyo. Takamine and Midzuno met with the Helen Taft, who accepted the offer, the trees were planted along the Potomac River from the present site of the Lincoln Memorial south toward East Potomac Park. After planting, it was discovered that the trees were not correctly named, and were not of the Fugnezo variety, but instead of the Shirofugen cultivar. Some months later, on August 30, the Japanese embassy informed the U. S. Department of State that Tokyo intended to donate 2,000 cherry trees to the United States to be planted along the Potomac River
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Washington Monument
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It is the tallest monumental column in the world if all are measured above their pedestrian entrances. Although the stone structure was completed in 1884, internal ironwork, the knoll, a difference in shading of the marble, visible approximately 150 feet or 27% up, shows where construction was halted and later resumed with marble from a different source. The original design was by Robert Mills, but he did not include his proposed colonnade due to a lack of funds, despite many proposals to embellish the obelisk, only its original flat top was altered to a pointed marble pyramidion, in 1884. Upon completion, it became the worlds tallest structure, a previously held by the Cologne Cathedral. The monument held this designation until 1889, when the Eiffel Tower was completed in Paris, the monument was damaged during the 2011 Virginia earthquake and Hurricane Irene in the same year and remained closed to the public while the structure was assessed and repaired. After 32 months of repairs, the National Park Service and the Trust for the National Mall reopened the Washington Monument to visitors on May 12,2014, as of September 2016, the monument has been closed indefinitely due to reliability issues with the current elevator system. On December 2,2016, the National Park Service announced that the monument would be closed until 2019 in order to modernize the elevator. The $2 to 3 million project will correct the elevators ongoing mechanical, electrical and computer issues, the National Park Service has also requested funding in its FY2017 Presidents Budget Request to construct a permanent screening facility for the Washington Monument. The Washington Monument is expected to re-open to visitors in 2019, even his erstwhile enemy King George III called him the greatest character of the age. At his death in 1799 he left a legacy, he exemplified the core ideals of the American Revolution. Washington was the unchallenged public icon of American military and civic patriotism, starting with victory in the Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a memorial in the national capital. The Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party and they also blocked his image on coins or the celebration of his birthday. Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, by that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial. As early as 1783, the Continental Congress had resolved That an equestrian statue of George Washington be erected at the place where the residence of Congress shall be established, currently, there are two equestrian statues of President Washington in Washington, D. C. Ten days after Washingtons death, a Congressional committee recommended a different type of monument, John Marshall, a Representative from Virginia proposed that a tomb be erected within the Capitol. Progress toward a memorial began in 1832. That year, which marked the 100th anniversary of Washingtons birth, in 1836, after they had raised $28,000 in donations, they announced a competition for the design of the memorial
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Constitution Avenue
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Constitution Avenue is a major east-west street in the northwest and northeast quadrants of the city of Washington, D. C. in the United States. It was originally known as B Street, and its section was greatly lengthened and widened between 1925 and 1933. It received its current name on February 26,1931, Constitution Avenues western half defines the northern border of the National Mall and extends from the United States Capitol to the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge. Its eastern half runs through the neighborhoods of Capitol Hill and Kingman Park before it terminates at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, a large number of federal departmental headquarters, memorials, and museums line Constitution Avenues western segment. In Pierre Charles LEnfants original plan for the city in 1791, B Street NW began at 6th Street NW and its eastern segment, which was unimpeded by any water obstacles, ran straight to the Eastern Branch river. Along its entire length, B Street was 60 feet wide, LEnfant proposed turning Tiber Creek into a canal. His plan included cutting a new canal south across the side of the United States Capitol grounds. The Washington Canal Company was incorporated in 1802, and after several false starts substantial work began in 1810, the Washington City Canal began operation in 1815. The canal suffered from problems and economic competition almost immediately. Traffic on the canal was adversely affected by forces, which the builders had not accounted for. At low tide, portions of the canal were almost dry, after the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad built Washington Branch into the city in 1835, competition from railroads left the canal economically unviable. Although the Washington City Canal remained in use after the coming of the railroad, by 1855 it had filled with silt and it remained in this condition throughout the 1860s. In 1871, Congress abolished the elected mayor and bicameral legislature of the District of Columbia, territorial government only lasted until 1874, but during this period the D. C. Board of Public Works enclosed the canal and turned it into a sewer, B Street NW from 15th Street to Virginia Avenue NW was constructed on top of it. Work began in October 1871 and was complete in December 1873 and this reclaimed land — which today includes West Potomac Park, East Potomac Park, the Tidal Basin — was largely complete by 1890, and designated Potomac Park by Congress in 1897. B Street NW extended through the newly created West Potomac Park between Virginia Avenue NW and 23rd Street NW, however, since this area was considered parkland, the street narrowed to just 40-foot in width. But Congress appropriated no money for the design or construction due to the onset of World War I, but after President Warren G. Congress approved funding for design work on June 12,1922, and authorized construction of the Arlington Memorial Bridge on February 24,1925. The 1925 legislation specified that B Street NW be treated as an approach to Arlington Memorial Bridge
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East Potomac Park
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East Potomac Park is a park located on a man-made island in the Potomac River in Washington, D. C. in the United States. The park lies southwest of the Jefferson Memorial and the 14th Street Bridge, amenities in East Potomac Park include the East Potomac Park Golf Course, a miniature golf course, a public swimming pool, tennis courts, and several athletic fields. The park is a spot for fishermen, and cyclists, walkers, inline skaters. A portion of Ohio Drive SW runs along the perimeter of the park, East Potomac Park is accessible primarily by road via Ohio Drive SW. The DC Circulators National Mall Route, which began service in June 2015, the closest Circulator stop is at East Basin Drive SW south of the Jefferson Memorial, which is within easy walking distance of Ohio Drive SW and the north end of the park. Metrobus does not serve the park, and there is no Washington Metro stop close to the park, the nearest Metro stop is the Smithsonian station at Independence Avenue SW and 12th Street SW, about six blocks away. Although the shoreline of the Potomac River in the District of Columbia was likely to have been littered with shoals, sandbars, at that time, the United States Armys Corps of Topographical Engineers identified extensive tidal flats below Long Bridge. These varied in size, but the largest was 100 acres in size at low tide, by 1881, these extended from about the Old Naval Observatory down to Buzzard Point. Near the modern intersection of 17th Street NW and Constitution Avenue NW, exposed to the air about half the time, the sewage began decomposing, creating a powerful, rank smell. The southern part of the Pennsylvania Avenue district was flooded many times in the last three decades of the 19th century, major floods occurred in October 1870, February 1881, November 1887, and June 1889. Floodwaters were high enough that rowboats were used on the avenue, much of the dredged material was used to build up the existing tidal flats in the Potomac River as well as sandbars which had been created by silting around Long Bridge. Reclamation occurred in three phases, Section 1, section 2, and section 3, Congress formally designated these areas Potomac Park on March 3,1897. To ensure that the island was not eroded by the river, poplars, over the next two decades, most of East Potomac Park lay untouched, and dense thickets of trees and brush grew up on the island. Dredging of the Potomac River continued even after East Potomac Park was considered finished, and additional dredged material was placed on the island in late 1900,1901,1902,1903,1904 and this was completed in June 1908. More dredge material was deposited on the island in 1909,1911, in 1900, the United States Senate established the Senate Park Commission to reconcile competing visions for the development of Washington, D. C. and the parks within it. Better known as the McMillan Commission because of its chairman, Senator James McMillan. The McMillan Plan called for turning the land into a formal park with extensive recreation facilities. Infilling of the East Potomac Park island continued long after the island was considered complete, in 1906, a large elliptical depression covering about 14 acres existed in the center of the island
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Tidal Basin
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The Tidal Basin is a partially man-made reservoir between the Potomac River and the Washington Channel in Washington, D. C. It is part of West Potomac Park and is a point of the National Cherry Blossom Festival held each spring. The Jefferson Memorial, the Martin Luther King, Jr, National Memorial, the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, and the George Mason Memorial are situated adjacent to the Tidal Basin. The basin covers an area of about 107 acres and is 10 feet deep, peter Conover Hains, an engineering officer in the U. S. Army, oversaw the design and construction. The basin was initially named Twining Lake, in honor of Major William Johnson Twining, a 1917 Army Corps of Engineers map of Washington already shows the basin with the name Twining Lake. The Tidal Basin which exists today was not laid out until after World War II and it was built in 1949 by the construction firm of Alexander and Repass, which was unusual at that time because Alexander was of African descent and Repass was of European descent. The basin is designed to release 250 million US gallons of water captured at high tide twice a day, the inlet gates, located on the Potomac side of the basin, allow water to enter the basin during high tide. During this time, the gates, on the Washington Channel side, close to store incoming water and block the flow of water. As the tide begins to ebb, the outflow of water from the basin forces the inlet gates to close. This same force is applied to the gates, which open into the channel. Silt build up is swept away by the force of water running from the Tidal Basin through the channel. The gates are maintained as navigable by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the bridge was designed by Paul Cret, begun in 1941, completed 1943 and altered with dedication in 1954. It is of concrete and steel on pilings, all granite faced, as part of the restoration and redesign of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, completed in 2012, water is pumped from the Tidal Basin to fill the pool. The Tidal Basin was the scene of a drunken incident involving the Chairman of the U. S. House of Representatives Committee on Ways and Means. Mills was intoxicated and his face was cut from a scuffle with Foxe, when police approached the car, Foxe leapt from the car and jumped into the nearby Tidal Basin. Despite the scandal, Mills was re-elected to Congress in November 1974 with 60% of the vote, soon after this second embarrassment Mills was forced to step down from his chairmanship of the Ways and Means Committee. Mills eventually acknowledged his alcoholism, sought treatment at the West Palm Beach Institute and he did not seek re-election in 1976. From mid-March until October, paddle-boats are available for rent, the activity is very popular during the Cherry Blossom Festival, which takes place in April
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United States Commission of Fine Arts
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Commission of Fine Arts is an independent agency of the federal government of the United States, and was established in 1910. The CFA has review authority over the design and aesthetics of all construction within Washington, in accordance with the Old Georgetown Act, the CFA appoints the Old Georgetown Board. The Old Georgetown Board has design authority over all semipublic. The CFA mandate does not apply to the United States Capitol, President George Washington granted the government of the District of Columbia the power to regulate architectural design and urban planning. These powers were suspended by President James Monroe in 1822, in 1900, the United States Congress created the Senate Park Commission to reconcile competing visions for the development of Washington, D. C. and especially the National Mall and nearby areas. It also proposed clearing large spaces north and south of the National Mall, realigning some streets, the commission also proposed significant expansion of the districts park system, the creation of a system of parkways, and extensive renovation and beautification of existing parks. Roosevelt wrote back the day, agreeing to the proposal. On January 19,1909, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 1010, the Council met only once, on February 9,1909, during which it approved the site for the Lincoln Memorial. William Howard Taft was inaugurated as President in March 1909, Taft revoked Executive Order 1010 on May 21,1909. There are differing explanations for Tafts actions, historians Sue Kohler and Christopher Thomas state that Taft supported the idea of a fine arts commission, but wanted it to have a basis in legislation. The newspaper said the legislation was intended to defund the Council of Fine Arts, later in 1909, Senator Elihu Root drafted legislation establishing an advisory commission of fine arts. Representative Samuel W. McCall introduced the bill, H. R.19962, the House passed the legislation on February 9,1910. The House bill made the members of the subject to approval by the Senate, gave their term of office as four years. In addition to having a capacity on all questions of art and design. Root managed the House bill through the Senate, Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon opposed the bill, and it was bottled up the Committee on the Library. But in mid-March, a group of renegade Republicans joined forces with Democrats to strip Speaker Cannon of much of his power, the fine arts commission bill quickly passed through the committee and was brought up for a vote on the Senate floor. The Senate amended the bill, and passed it on May 3,1910, one amendment, to bar statues of any person not dead 50 years, was turned down. The Senate changed the qualifications of the commissioners to seven well qualified judges of the fine arts and it struck the commissions authority to site monuments and statues, making the authority advisory only
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Public Buildings Act
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Congress had provided funding for no federal buildings between 1913 and 1926. The U. S. federal government had struggled with the need to build a number of large office buildings since the mid-1910s. In January 1924, the Public Buildings Commission recommended that a new series of office buildings be built near the White House. President Calvin Coolidge asked the United States Congress for legislation and funds in his message of December 9,1924, the House passed a $150 million construction bill in February 1925, but the bill died in the Senate a month later. The legislation was reintroduced on January 8,1926, the House passed the measure on February 15. The measure proved highly contentious in the Senate, the bill went into a House-Senate conference committee, so that the differences between the two bills could be reconciled. The conference committee report recommended inclusion of the Bruce amendment, the Senate accepted the conference committees bill on May 17,1926, and the House did so on May 19. President Coolidge signed the bill into law on May 25,1926, the legislation contained three major provisions, An appropriation of $15 million to carry out building construction authorized in 1913, but never funded. An appropriation of $50 million to be used to construct federal office buildings in Washington, an appropriation of $100 million to be used to construct federal office buildings and post offices throughout the country. The legislation required Congressional approval of any expenditure in the nations capital and it also restricted the executive branch from spending more than $10 million annually in the District of Columbia, and more than $5 million annually in any single state. Buildings constructed outside the District of Columbia under the Act include, The Frank M. Johnson, federal Building and United States Courthouse in Montgomery, Alabama The E. The Act was challenged in part in United States v
48.
Construction of Arlington Memorial Bridge
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The construction of Arlington Memorial Bridge was a seven-year construction project in Washington, D. C. in the United States to construct the Arlington Memorial Bridge across the Potomac River. The bridge was authorized by Congress in February 1925, and was completed in January 1932, as a memorial, its decorative features were extensive and intricate, and resolving the design issues over these details took many years. Tall columns and pylons topped by statuary, Greek Revival temple-like structures, carvings and inscriptions were planned for the sides of the bridge, and extensive statuary for the bridge piers. The bridge itself took far longer than the two years. Problems were encountered in building the foundations, accidents occurred, even though the bridge was finished by January 1932, construction of the termini and completion of the memorial details took another six years. Budget problems created in part by the Great Depression meant that portions of the project were never completed. The bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980, Congress first proposed a bridge at the site of the current Arlington Memorial Bridge on May 24,1886. Numerous designs were suggested from official and unofficial sources, but no design was acceptable, but Congress appropriated no money for the commissions operation due to the onset of World War I, and it remained inactive. In December 1922, the Arlington Memorial Bridge Commission held a joint meeting with the United States Commission of Fine Arts, the two agencies agreed to build a bridge from the west end of the National Mall to Arlington National Cemetery. The parties also agreed to seek to construct a low bridge with a bascule in the center to permit traffic to reach the Georgetown waterfront. The AMBC chose the firm of McKim, Mead & White to design the bridge. Architect William Mitchell Kendall was the lead designer, Congress enacted legislation in early 1925 authorizing the AMBC to construct the bridge. Legal issues regarding the commissions authority to issue contracts were resolved in early 1927. The goal was to construct a bridge from the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C. across the Potomac River to Virginia, the United States Commission of Fine Arts had legal authority to approve the design and architectural style of the bridge. However, the United States Army Corps of Engineers had legal authority over the construction of works in the District of Columbia. These two bodies agreed in late 1923 to construct a nine-span,2, 138-foot long drawbridge made of steel, the bridge required four abutments, one on each shoreline and one on either side of the draw span. The abutments had to be erected on bedrock, the bridge was relatively low to the water, which meant the roadway would be only 43 feet and the underside of each span just 10 feet above the low-water mark. The spans in the bridge sloped downward 12 feet, and all engines, gears, lookout stations, bridge tender houses, the spans varied in width from 166 feet near the shore to 184 feet at the draw span
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Warren G. Harding
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Warren Gamaliel Harding was the 29th President of the United States, serving from March 4,1921 until his death in 1923. In historical rankings of the U. S. presidents, Harding is often rated among the worst, Harding was born in Blooming Grove, Ohio. He lived in rural Ohio all his life, except when political service took him elsewhere and he settled in Marion when not yet 20 years old and bought The Marion Star, building it into a successful newspaper. In 1899, he was elected to the Ohio State Senate and, after four years there and he was defeated for governor in 1910, but was elected to the U. S. Senate in 1914. Harding ran for the Republican nomination for president in 1920, the leading candidates, such as General Leonard Wood, could not gain a majority to secure the nomination, and the convention deadlocked. Hardings support gradually grew until he was nominated on the tenth ballot and he conducted a front porch campaign, remaining for the most part in Marion and allowing the people to come to him. He won in a landslide over Democrat James M. Cox and Socialist Party candidate Eugene Debs, running on a theme of return to normalcy and becoming the first sitting senator to be elected president. Harding appointed a number of well-regarded figures, including Andrew Mellon at the Treasury, Herbert Hoover at Commerce, a major foreign policy achievement came with the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–1922, in which the worlds major naval powers agreed on a naval limitations program that lasted a decade. Two members of his cabinet were implicated in corruption, Interior Secretary Albert Fall, the resulting scandals did not fully emerge until after Hardings death, nor did word of his extramarital affairs, but both greatly damaged his reputation. Harding died of an attack in San Francisco while on a western speaking tour, he was succeeded by his vice president. Harding was born November 2,1865, in Blooming Grove, nicknamed Winnie as a small child, Harding was the eldest of eight children born to George Tryon Harding, Sr. and Phoebe Elizabeth Harding. Tryon farmed and taught school near Mount Gilead, Ohio, through apprenticeship, study, and a year of medical school, Tryon became a doctor, and started a small practice. Hardings mothers ancestors were Dutch, including the well known Van Kirk family, Harding also had ancestors from England, Wales, and Scotland. It was rumored in Blooming Grove that one of Hardings great-grandmothers was African American and his great-great grandfather Amos Harding claimed that a thief, who had been caught in the act by the family, started the rumor in an attempt at extortion or revenge. Nevertheless, even after Warren Hardings death in 1923, African Americans made claims of kinship, the Harding family, who were abolitionists, moved to Caledonia, Ohio, where Tryon acquired The Argus, a local weekly newspaper. At The Argus, Harding, from the age of 11, in late 1879, at the age of 14, Harding enrolled at Ohio Central College in Iberia, where he proved an adept student. He and a put out a small newspaper during their final year at Ohio Central. During his final year, the Harding family moved to Marion, Ohio, about 6 miles from Caledonia, in Hardings youth, the majority of the population still lived on farms and in small towns
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