1.
Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
2.
Fungus
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A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants, a characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria and some protists, is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophs, they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, growth is their means of mobility, except for spores, which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems and this fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes and oomycetes. The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology, in the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the size of their structures. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and they may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform a role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, the fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans, losses of crops due to fungal diseases or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses a diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies. However, little is known of the biodiversity of Kingdom Fungi. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, phylogenetic studies published in the last decade have helped reshape the classification within Kingdom Fungi, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus, used in the writings of Horace, a group of all the fungi present in a particular area or geographic region is known as mycobiota, e. g. the mycobiota of Ireland. Like plants, fungi grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies. The fungi are now considered a kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes and they have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
3.
Basidiomycota
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Basidiomycota is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya within the kingdom Fungi. Basidiomycota are filamentous fungi composed of hyphae and reproduce sexually via the formation of specialized club-shaped end cells called basidia that normally bear external meiospores and these specialized spores are called basidiospores. However, some Basidiomycota reproduce asexually in addition or exclusively, the most recent classification adopted by a coalition of 67 mycologists recognizes three subphyla and two other class level taxa outside of these, among the Basidiomycota. As now classified, the join and also cut across various obsolete taxonomic groups previously commonly used to describe Basidiomycota. According to a 2008 estimate, Basidiomycota comprise three subphyla 16 classes,52 orders,177 families,1,589 genera, and 31,515 species, the terms basidiomycetes and ascomycetes are frequently used loosely to refer to Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. They are often abbreviated to basidios and ascos as mycological slang, the Agaricomycotina include what had previously been called the Hymenomycetes, the Gasteromycetes, as well as most of the jelly fungi. The three classes in the Agaricomycotina are the Agaricomycetes, the Dacrymycetes, and the Tremellomycetes, the class Wallemiomycetes is not yet placed in a subdivision, but recent genomic evidence suggests that it is a sister group of Agaricomycotina. The Ustilaginomycotina are most of the former smut fungi and the Exobasidiales, the classes of the Ustilaginomycotina are the Exobasidiomycetes, the Entorrhizomycetes, and the Ustilaginomycetes. Typically haploid Basidiomycota mycelia fuse via plasmogamy and then the compatible nuclei migrate into each others mycelia, karyogamy is delayed, so that the compatible nuclei remain in pairs, called a dikaryon. The hyphae are said to be dikaryotic. Conversely, the mycelia are called monokaryons. Often, the mycelium is more vigorous than the individual monokaryotic mycelia. The dikaryons can be long-lived, lasting years, decades, or centuries, the monokaryons are neither male nor female. They have either a bipolar or a mating system. However, there are variations of these genes in the population. It is as if there were multiple sexes, meiosis follows shortly with the production of 4 haploid nuclei that migrate into 4 external, usually apical basidiospores. Typically the basidiospores are ballistic, hence they are also called ballistospores. In most species, the basidiospores disperse and each can start a new haploid mycelium, basidia are microscopic but they are often produced on or in multicelled large fructifications called basidiocarps or basidiomes, or fruitbodies), variously called mushrooms, puffballs, etc
4.
Agaricomycetes
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The Agaricomycetes are a class of fungi in the division Basidiomycota. The taxon is roughly identical to that defined for the Homobasidiomycetes by Hibbett & Thorn and it includes not only mushroom-forming fungi, but also most species placed in the deprecated taxa Gasteromycetes and Homobasidiomycetes. However, a few former jelly fungi, such as Auricularia, are classified in the Agaricomycetes, according to a 2008 estimate, Agaricomycetes include 17 orders,100 families,1147 genera, and about 21000 species. Modern molecular phylogenetic analyses have been used to help define several new orders in the Agaricomycetes, Amylocorticiales, Jaapiales, Stereopsidales. Although morphology of the mushroom or fruit body was the basis of classification of the Agaricomycetes. Similarly, modern classifications divide the gasteroid order Lycoperdales between Agaricales and Phallales, all members of the class produce basidiocarps and these range in size from tiny cups a few millimeters across to a giant polypore greater than several meters across and weighing up to 500 kilograms. Nearly all species are terrestrial, occurring in a range of environments where most function as decayers. However, some species are pathogenic or parasitic, and yet others are symbiotic, general discussions on the forms and life cycles of these fungi are developed in the article on mushrooms, in the treatments of the various orders, and in individual species accounts. The fruit bodies of Agaricomycetes are extremely rare in the record. The oldest Agaricomycetes fossil, dating from the lower Cretaceous is Quatsinoporites and it is a fragment of a poroid fruit body with features that suggest it could be a member of the family Hymenochaetaceae. Based on molecular analysis, the Agaricomycetes are estimated to be about 290 million years old. There are many genera in the Agaricomycetes that have not been classified in any order or family
5.
Agaricales
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The fungal order Agaricales, also known as gilled mushrooms or euagarics, contains some of the most familiar types of mushrooms. The order has 33 extant families,413 genera, and over 13000 described species and they range from the ubiquitous common mushroom to the deadly destroying angel and the hallucinogenic fly agaric to the bioluminescent jack-o-lantern mushroom. In his three volumes of Systema Mycologicum published between 1821 and 1832, Elias Fries put almost all of the fleshy, gill-forming mushrooms in the genus Agaricus and he organized the large genus into tribes, the names of many of which still exist as common genera of today. Fries later elevated several of these tribes to generic level, but later authors—including Gillet, Karsten, Kummer, Quélet, Fries based his classification on macroscopic characters of the fruit bodies and color of the spore print. His system had been used as it had the advantage that many genera could be readily identified based on characters observable in the field. Friess classification was later challenged when microscopic studies of basidiocarp structure, initiated by Fayod and Patouillard, singer treated three major groups within the Agaricales sensu lato, the Agaricales sensu stricto, Boletineae, and Russulales. These groups are still accepted by modern treatments based on DNA analysis, as the clade, bolete clade. Molecular phylogenetics research has demonstrated that the clade is roughly equivalent to Singers Agaricales sensu stricto. The analysis showed that most of the species tested could be grouped into six clades that were named the Agaricoid, Tricholomatoid, Marasmioid, Pluteoid, Hygrophoroid and Plicaturopsidoid clades. Some notable fungi with gill-like structures, such as chanterelles, have long recognized as being substantially different from usual Agaricales. Also, some quite distinctive fungi, the puffballs, and some clavaroid fungi, e. g. Typhula. The term agaric had traditionally referred to Agaricales, which were defined as exactly those fungi with gills, given the discoveries described above, those two categories are not synonymous. Agarics are ubiquitous, being found across all continents, most are terrestrial, their habitats including all types of woodland and grassland, varying largely from one genus to another. Agarics were long thought to be terrestrial, until the 2005 discovery of Psathyrella aquatica. Agaricals are known from five monotypic genera found fossilized in amber, the oldest records are from two Cretaceous age genera, the Albian age Palaeoagaracites antiquus from Burmese amber and the slightly younger Turonian New Jersey Amber species Archaeomarasmius leggeti. The three other species, Aureofungus yaniguaensis, Coprinites dominicana and Protomycena electra are known from specimens found in the Dominican amber mines of Hispaniola. Basidiocarps of the agarics are typically fleshy, with a stipe, often called a stem or stalk, a pileus and lamellae and this is the stereotypical structure of a mushroom. The fungus fruit body is the stage of the life cycle
6.
Physalacriaceae
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The Physalacriaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Species in the family have a distribution, ranging from the Arctic, to the tropics, e. g. Gloiocephala. Most species in the Physalacriaceae form fruit bodies with caps and stipes and they have a monomitic hyphal system, and clamp connections are present in the hyphae. Basidia are club-shaped with two to four sterigmata, the basidiospores generally have ellipsoidal, spindle-like, cylindrical, or tear-drop shapes, they are thin-walled, hyaline, and do not react with Melzers reagent. The family also contains corticioid fungi and a secotioid species, the family was originally defined by English mycologist E. J. H. Corner in 1970 and revised in 1985 by Jacques Berthier but neither author anticipated the application to a defined group of agarics first identified by Moncalvo. Molecular studies placed Physalacria, formerly the genus in this family, together with the agaric genera Flammulina and Xerula
7.
Armillaria
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Honey fungus, or Armillaria is a genus of parasitic fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs. It includes about 10 species formerly lumped together as A. mellea, armillarias are long lived and form some of the largest living organisms in the world. The largest organism covers more than 3.4 square miles in Malheur National Forest and is more than 2,400 years old, some species of Armillaria display bioluminescence, resulting in foxfire. Armillaria can be a destructive forest pathogen and it causes white rot root disease of forests, which distinguishes it from Tricholoma, a mycorrhizal genus. Because Armillaria is a saprophyte, it also feeds on dead plant material, allowing it to kill its host. In the Canadian Prairies, Armillaria is not referred to as “honey fungus” but instead often as pidpenky, the basidiocarp of the fungus is a mushroom that grows on wood, typically in small dense clumps or tufts. Their caps are typically yellow-brown, somewhat sticky to touch when moist, the stipe may or may not have a ring. All Armillaria species have a spore print and none have a volva. Similar species include Pholiota spp. which also grow in clusters on wood. Pholiota spp. are separated from Armillaria by its yellowish to greenish-yellow tone, mushroom hunters need to be wary of Galerina spp. which can grow side-by-side with Armillaria spp. on wood. Galerina have a brown spore print and are deadly poisonous – see. Honey fungus is a white rot fungus, which is an organism that affects trees, shrubs, woody climbers and, rarely. Honey fungus can grow on living, decaying, and dead plant material, rhizomorphs grow close to the soil surface and invade new roots, or the root collar of plants. An infected tree will die once the fungus has girdled it and this can happen rapidly, or may take several years. Infected plants will deteriorate, although may exhibit prolific flower or fruit production shortly before death, initial symptoms of honey fungus infection include dieback or shortage of leaves in spring. Rhizomorphs appear under the bark and around the tree, and mushrooms grow in clusters from the plant in autumn. However these symptoms and signs do not necessarily mean that the strains of honey fungus are the cause. Thin sheets of cream colored mycelium, beneath the bark at the base of the trunk or stem indicated that honey fungus is likely the pathogen and it will give off a strong mushroom scent and the mushrooms sometimes extend upward
8.
Binomial nomenclature
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Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name
9.
Martin Vahl
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Martin Henrichsen Vahl was a Danish-Norwegian botanist, herbalist and zoologist. Martin Vahl was born in Bergen, Norway and attended Bergen Cathedral School and he studied botany at the University of Copenhagen and at Uppsala University under Carolus Linnaeus. XVI-XXI, Symbolæ Botanicæ I-III, Eclogæ Americanæ I-IV and Enumeratio Plantarum I-II and he lectured at the University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden from 1779 to 1782. Vahl made several trips in Europe and North Africa between 1783 and 1788. He became professor at the Society for Natural History at the University of Copenhagen in 1786 and was a professor of botany from 1801 to his death. In 1792, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He died in Copenhagen, Denmark at age 55 and his son Jens Vahl also became a botanist. This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation Vahl when citing a botanical name, christensen, Carl Martin Vahl, pp. 85–88 in, Meisen, V. Prominent Danish Scientists through the Ages, University Library of Copenhagen 450th Anniversary. Facsimile of Enumeratio plantarum, Hauniae, 1805-1806
10.
Paul Kummer
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Paul Kummer was a minister, teacher, and scientist in Zerbst, Germany, known chiefly for his contribution to mycological nomenclature. Earlier classification of agarics by pioneering fungal taxonomist Elias Magnus Fries designated only a small number of genera. These few genera were divided into a number of tribi. From 1857 to 1863, he worked as a private lecturer, from 1877 onward, he was a minister in Hann Munden. Anleitung zum methodischen, leichten und sichern Bestimmen der in Deutschland vorkommenden Pilze, anleitung zum leichten und sicheren Bestimmen der deutschen Moose. Der Führer in die Lebermoose und die Fefäßkryptogamen, anleitung zum leichten und sicheren Bestimmen der deutschen Moose,2. Die Moosflora der Umgebung von Hann. -Münden, anleitung zum leichten und sicheren Bestimmen der deutschen Moose. Der Führer in die Lebermoose und die Gefäßkryptogamen, paul Kummer, Historical Index of Mycologists, Illinois Mycological Society
11.
Synonym (taxonomy)
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For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a species is moved to a different genus. To the general user of scientific names, in such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science. A synonym is a name that was used as the correct scientific name but which has been displaced by another scientific name. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as a name which has the same application as another. In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have mentioned as such after the current scientific name. Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the synonym in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names. Changes of scientific name have two causes, they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural, a name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight. A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature, the earliest such name is called the senior synonym, while the later name is the junior synonym. One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published name, synonyms are important because if the earliest name cannot be used, then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the type and same rank. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn, however, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ords name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being a subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the level of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the type species, these are objective synonyms
12.
Claude Casimir Gillet
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Claude Casimir Gillet, was a French botanist and mycologist. He initially trained as a doctor and veterinarian. As a veterinarian, he worked for four years in Africa, around 1853 he developed a passion for mycology, subsequently publishing a number of works on the subject. In 1867 he became a member of the Société Linnéenne de Normandie. Gillet was the authority of the genera Tubaria and Microglossum. Claude-Casimir Gillet, Agaricinées Claude-Casimir Gillet, Les discomycètes,230 pp Gillet CG Les Hyménomycètes 828pp, Claude-Casimir Gillet, Jean-Henri Magne, Nouvelle flore française 704pp
13.
Jean-Baptiste Barla
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Jean-Baptiste Barla was a French botanist. Barla was a man of independent means and dedicated himself to investigate the fungi, cette végétation exceptionelle, doit évidemment sa richesse et sa variété à la configuration topographique, toute particulière, du bassin des Alpes-Maritimes. Dans ce pays favorisé par la nature, croissent la plupart des orchidées de France, dItalie, dAllemange, in 1846 with Jean Baptiste Vérany he founded the Muséum dhistoire naturelle de Nice where wax casts of thousands of mushrooms he made or had made were exhibited. Partial list,1855 Tableau comparatif des champignons comestibles et vénéneux de Nice Nice Impr,1859 Les Champignons De La Province De Nice Nice Impr. 1885 Liste des champignons nouvellement observés dans le département des Alpes-Maritimes,1886 Liste des champignons nouvellement observés dans le département des Alpes-Maritimes. 1868 Flore illustrée de Nice et des Alpes-Maritimes, dedicated to the Italian botanist Filippo Parlatore, reprinted 1996
14.
Elias Magnus Fries
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Elias Magnus Fries FRS FRSE FLS RAS was a Swedish mycologist and botanist. Fries was born at Femsjö, Småland, the son of the pastor there and he acquired an extensive knowledge of flowering plants from his father. In 1811 Fries entered Lund University where he obtained a doctorate in 1814, in the same year he was appointed an associate professorship in botany. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, in 1834 he became Borgström professor in applied economics at Uppsala University. The position was changed to professor of botany and applied economics in 1851 and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849. That year he was appointed director of the Uppsala University Botanical Garden. In 1853, he became rector of the University, Fries most important works were the three-volume Systema mycologicum, Elenchus fungorum, the two-volume Monographia hymenomycetum Sueciae and Hymenomycetes Europaei. Fries is considered to be, after Christian Hendrik Persoon, a father of the modern taxonomy of mushrooms. His taxonomy of mushrooms was influenced by Goethe and the German romantics and he utilized spore color and arrangement of the hymenophore as major taxonomic characteristics. He died in Uppsala on 8 February 1878, when he died, The Times commented, His very numerous works, especially on fungi and lichens, give him a position as regards those groups of plants only comparable to that of Linnaeus. Fries was succeeded in the Borgström professorship by Johan Erhard Areschoug, after whom Theodor Magnus Fries, Monographia Pyrenomycetum Sueciae Systema Mycologicum Systema Orbis Vegetabilis Elenchus Fungorem Lichenographia Europaea Reformata His son was Theodor Magnus Fries. Elias Magnus Fries, Authors of fungal names, Mushroom, the Journal of Wild Mushrooming, web site of the Descendants of Elias Fries Association Fries, Elias Magnus
15.
Petter Adolf Karsten
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Petter Adolf Karsten was a Finnish mycologist, the foremost expert on the fungi of Finland in his day, and known in consequence as the father of Finnish mycology. He amassed a vast collection, both by his own efforts and those of his correspondents, and named about 200 new genera and 2,000 new species, in his mycological studies he extensively used the microscope and can be considered as the pioneer of fungal microscopy. Karstenia, the journal of mycology published by the Finnish Mycological Society, is dedicated to Karsten
16.
Mycology
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A biologist specializing in mycology is called a mycologist. From mycology arose the field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, historically, mycology was a branch of botany because, although fungi are evolutionarily more closely related to animals than to plants, this was not recognized until a few decades ago. Pioneer mycologists included Elias Magnus Fries, Christian Hendrik Persoon, Anton de Bary, many fungi produce toxins, antibiotics, and other secondary metabolites. For example, the cosmopolitan genus Fusarium and their toxins associated with outbreaks of alimentary toxic aleukia in humans were extensively studied by Abraham Joffe. Fungi are fundamental for life on earth in their roles as symbionts, e. g. in the form of mycorrhizae, insect symbionts, and lichens. Many fungi are able to break down complex organic biomolecules such as lignin, the more durable component of wood, and pollutants such as xenobiotics, petroleum, by decomposing these molecules, fungi play a critical role in the global carbon cycle. Fungi and other organisms traditionally recognized as fungi, such as oomycetes and myxomycetes, often are economically and socially important, apart from pathogenic fungi, many fungal species are very important in controlling the plant diseases caused by different pathogens. Field meetings to find interesting species of fungi are known as forays, after the first such meeting organized by the Woolhope Naturalists Field Club in 1868, some fungi can cause disease in humans or other organisms. The study of fungi is referred to as medical mycology. It is presumed that humans started collecting mushrooms as food in prehistoric times, mushrooms were first written about in the works of Euripides. The Greek philosopher Theophrastos of Eressos was perhaps the first to try to classify plants. It was later Pliny the Elder, who wrote about truffles in his encyclopedia Naturalis historia, the word mycology comes from the Greek, μύκης, meaning fungus and the suffix -λογία, meaning study. The Middle Ages saw little advancement in the body of knowledge about fungi, rather, the invention of the printing press allowed some authors to disseminate superstitions and misconceptions about the fungi that had been perpetuated by the classical authors. The start of the age of mycology begins with Pier Antonio Michelis 1737 publication of Nova plantarum genera. Published in Florence, this work laid the foundations for the systematic classification of grasses, mosses. The term mycology and the complementary mycologist were first used in 1836 by M. J. Berkeley, for centuries, certain mushrooms have been documented as a folk medicine in China, Japan, and Russia. Certain mushrooms, especially polypores like reishi were thought to be able to benefit a variety of health ailments. Medicinal mushroom research in the United States is currently active, with studies taking place at City of Hope National Medical Center, current research focuses on mushrooms that may have hypoglycemic activity, anti-cancer activity, anti-pathogenic activity, and immune system-enhancing activity
17.
Hymenium
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The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, cystidia are often important for microscopic identification. The subhymenium consists of the hyphae from which the cells of the hymenium grow, beneath which is the hymenophoral trama. The position of the hymenium is traditionally the first characteristic used in the classification and identification of mushrooms, below are some examples of the diverse types which exist among the macroscopic Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. In agarics the hymenium is on the faces of the gills. In boletes it is in a mass of downward-pointing tubes. In stinkhorns it develops internally and then is exposed in the form of a foul-smelling gel, in cup fungi, it is on the concave surface of the cup. In teeth fungi, it grows on the outside of tooth-like spines, régis Courtecuisse, Bernard Duhem, Guide des champignons de France et dEurope
18.
Pileus (mycology)
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The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, a pileus is characteristic of agarics, boletes, some polypores, tooth fungi, and some ascomycetes. Pilei can be formed in various shapes, and the shapes can change over the course of the cycle of a fungus. The most familiar pileus shape is hemispherical or convex, convex pilei often continue to expand as they mature until they become flat. Many well-known species have a convex pileus, including the button mushroom, some, such as the parasol mushroom, have distinct bosses or umbos and are described as umbonate. An umbo is a protrusion at the center of the cap. Some fungi, such as chanterelles have a funnel- or trumpet-shaped appearance, in these cases the pileus is termed infundibuliform. Lamella Pileus area index Stipe Arora, D, Mushrooms Demystified, Ten Speed Press,1986
19.
Stipe (mycology)
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In mycology, a stipe is the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal tissue. In many instances, however, the fertile hymenium extends down the stipe some distance, fungi that have stipes are said to be stipitate. The evolutionary benefit of a stipe is generally considered to be in mediating spore dispersal, an elevated mushroom will more easily release its spores into wind currents or onto passing animals. Nevertheless, many mushrooms do not have stipes, including cup fungi, puffballs, earthstars, some polypores, jelly fungi, ergots and it is often the case that features of the stipe are required to make a positive identification of a mushroom
20.
Spore print
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The spore print is the powdery deposit obtained by allowing spores of a fungal fruit body to fall onto a surface underneath. It is an important diagnostic character in most handbooks for identifying mushrooms and it shows the color of the mushroom spores if viewed en masse. The mushroom is left for several hours, often overnight, in this manner, some guides advise using a moisture-resistant enclosure, like a glass or jar, to contain the mushroom during printing. If the mushroom is to be preserved, a hole can be made in the spore print paper rather than cutting the stipe. When the mushroom is removed, the color of the spores should be visible, mycologists often use glass slides, which allow for quick examination of spores under a microscope. A mushroom cannot be identified from its spore print alone, the print is only one characteristic used in making a taxonomic determination. Spore prints are usually white to cream, black, or shaded of red, purple, the poisonous false parasol has a green spore deposit. Although the spore print is used to help identify the genus of a specimen. For example, the lookalikes Russula crustosa and Russula virescens have yellowish and white spore deposits, in the field, spore print color can sometimes be quickly determined by examining the top of stipes for spore dust on the nearby forest floor. The spore print is not always successful, as some mushrooms are too young or old to produce spores, mushrooms collected at high elevations will typically not produce a spore print at lower elevations. Sometimes, the color can vary depending on the thickness of the spore print, in the genus Lactarius, thin deposits are usually white, while thick deposits are cream to yellow. In some instances, the color of the spore print matches that of the mature gills, historically the classification of many families of fungi were based on spore color, a feature first systematically emphasized by Swedish mycologist Elias Fries. An example is the Tricholomataceae, a family containing many fungi whose common factor was having white spores. However recent molecular research has shown some interesting relationships, with fungi of disparate spore colors showing close relations
21.
Parasitism
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In biology/ecology, parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite referred primarily to organisms visible to the naked eye, Parasites can be microparasites, which are typically smaller, such as protozoa, viruses, and bacteria. Examples of parasites include the plants mistletoe and cuscuta, and animals such as hookworms, unlike predators, parasites typically do not kill their host, are generally much smaller than their host, and will often live in or on their host for an extended period. Both are special cases of consumer-resource interactions, Parasites show a high degree of specialization, and reproduce at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples of parasitism include interactions between vertebrate hosts and tapeworms, flukes, the Plasmodium species, and fleas, parasitism differs from the parasitoid relationship in that parasitoids generally kill their hosts. Parasites reduce host biological fitness by general or specialized pathology, such as parasitic castration and impairment of secondary sex characteristics, Parasites increase their own fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, e. g. food, water, heat, habitat, and transmission. Although parasitism applies unambiguously to many cases, it is part of a continuum of types of interactions between species, rather than an exclusive category, in many cases, it is difficult to demonstrate harm to the host. In others, there may be no apparent specialization on the part of the parasite, coined in English in 1611, the word parasitism comes from the Greek παρά + σιτισμός feeding, fattening. Parasites are classified based on their interactions with their hosts and on their life cycles, an obligate parasite is totally dependent on the host to complete its life cycle, while a facultative parasite is not. A direct parasite has one host while an indirect parasite has multiple hosts. For indirect parasites, there always be a definitive host. Parasites that live on the outside of the host, either on the skin or the outgrowths of the skin, are called ectoparasites and those that live inside the host are called endoparasites. Endoparasites can exist in one of two forms, intercellular parasites or intracellular parasites, intracellular parasites, such as protozoa, bacteria or viruses, tend to rely on a third organism, which is generally known as the carrier or vector. The vector does the job of transmitting them to the host, an example of this interaction is the transmission of malaria, caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium, to humans by the bite of an anopheline mosquito. Those parasites living in a position, being half-ectoparasites and half-endoparasites, are called mesoparasites. An epiparasite is one that feeds on another parasite and this relationship is also sometimes referred to as hyperparasitism, exemplified by a protozoan living in the digestive tract of a flea living on a dog. Social parasites take advantage of interactions between members of social organisms such as ants, termites, and bumblebees, an extreme example of social parasitism is the ant species of Tetramorium inquilinum of the Alps, which spend their whole lives on the back of Tetramorium host ants. With tiny and deprecated bodies they have evolved for one single task, if they fall off, they most likely would not have the strength to climb back on top of another ant, and eventually they will die
22.
Edible mushroom
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Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruit bodies of several species of macrofungi. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand, edibility may be defined by criteria that include absence of poisonous effects on humans and desirable taste and aroma. Edible mushrooms are consumed for their value and they are occasionally consumed for their supposed medicinal value. Mushrooms consumed by those practicing folk medicine are known as medicinal mushrooms, edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated. Easily cultivatable and common wild mushrooms are available in markets. Some preparations may render certain poisonous mushrooms fit for consumption, before assuming that any wild mushroom is edible, it should be identified. Accurate determination and proper identification of a species is the safe way to ensure edibility. Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause reactions in some individuals. Great care should therefore be taken when eating any fungus for the first time and it is therefore better to eat only a few, easily recognizable species, than to experiment indiscriminately. Moreover, even species of mushrooms that normally are edible, may be dangerous, mycophagy /maɪˈkɒfədʒi/, the act of consuming mushrooms, dates back to ancient times. The Chinese value mushrooms for medicinal properties as well as for food, ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat, mushrooms are also easily preserved, and historically have provided additional nutrition over winter. Mushroom cultivation has a history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries with China, the United States, Netherlands, France, a fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Some species are difficult to cultivate, others have not yet been successfully cultivated, some of these species are harvested from the wild, and can be found in markets. When in season they can be purchased fresh, and many species are sold dried as well and it also known as the king bolete, and is renowned for its delicious flavor. It is sought after worldwide, and can be found in a variety of culinary dishes, cantharellus cibarius, The yellow chanterelle is one of the best and most easily recognizable mushrooms, and can be found in Asia, Europe, North America and Australia. There are poisonous mushrooms which resemble it, though these can be distinguished if one is familiar with the chanterelles identifying features
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Mushroom hunting
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Mushroom hunting, Houby hunting, mushrooming, mushroom picking, mushroom foraging, and similar terms describe the activity of gathering mushrooms in the wild, typically for eating. A large number of species are favored for eating by mushroom hunters. The king bolete is a popular delicacy, sulphur shelf is often gathered because it occurs in bulk, recurs year after year, is easily identified, and has a wide variety of culinary uses. Many field guides on mushrooms are available, but the ability to identify and prepare edible mushrooms is often passed down through generations, identification is not the only element of mushroom hunting that takes practice, knowing where and when to search does as well. Most mushroom species require specific conditions. Some only grow at the base of a type of tree. Finding a desired species that is known to grow in a region can be a challenge. A Czech adage warns that všechny houby jsou jedlé, ale některé jenom jednou, translated, that every mushroom is edible, but some only once. Some mushrooms are deadly or extremely hazardous when consumed, some that are not deadly can nevertheless cause permanent organ damage. Not gathering mushrooms that are difficult to identify and this applies especially to the mushrooms of the genus Amanita and Cortinarius and little brown mushrooms. Consuming only an amount the first time a new species is tried. People react differently to different mushrooms, and all species can cause an adverse reaction in a few individuals. Little brown mushrooms refers to any of a number of small, dull-coloured agaric species. As a result, LBMs typically range from difficult to impossible for mushroom hunters to identify, for mycologists, LBMs are the equivalent of LBJs and DYCs that are the bane of ornithologists and botanists, respectively. Big white mushroom is sometimes used to describe groups of difficult to identify larger and paler agarics. The Amanita muscarias psychotropic properties have been used by shamans in Siberia in their rituals. However, its use for such purposes today is very rare, instead, the Psilocybe semilanceata is sought after for its hallucinogenic properties, the latter being more desirable with fewer side effects than those of A. muscaria. The use of P. semilanceata is however significantly hindered by its size, requiring larger quantities
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Genus
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A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
25.
Plant pathology
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Plant pathology is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by pathogens and environmental conditions. Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes, not included are ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by consumption of plant tissues. Control of plant diseases is crucial to the production of food. Plants in both natural and cultivated populations carry inherent disease resistance, but there are examples of devastating plant disease impacts. However, disease control is reasonably successful for most crops, plant diseases cause major economic losses for farmers worldwide. The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates indeed that pests and diseases are responsible for about 25% of crop loss, most phytopathogenic fungi belong to the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomycetes. The fungi reproduce sexually and asexually via the production of spores and other structures. Spores may be spread long distances by air or water, or they may be soilborne, Many soil inhabiting fungi are capable of living saprotrophically, carrying out the part of their life cycle in the soil. These are known as facultative saprotrophs, fungal diseases may be controlled through the use of fungicides and other agriculture practices. However, new races of fungi often evolve that are resistant to various fungicides, biotrophic fungal pathogens colonize living plant tissue and obtain nutrients from living host cells. Necrotrophic fungal pathogens infect and kill host tissue and extract nutrients from the dead host cells, see the powdery mildew and rice blast images, below. Significant fungal plant pathogens include, Fusarium spp, magnaporthe grisea Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Ustilago spp. The oomycetes are not true fungi but are fungus-like organisms and they include some of the most destructive plant pathogens including the genus Phytophthora, which includes the causal agents of potato late blight and sudden oak death. Particular species of oomycetes are responsible for root rot, despite not being closely related to the fungi, the oomycetes have developed very similar infection strategies. Oomycetes are capable of using effector proteins to turn off a plants defenses in its infection process, plant pathologists commonly group them with fungal pathogens. Significant oomycete plant pathogens Pythium spp and these are caused by species of Plasmodiophora and Spongospora, respectively. Most bacteria that are associated with plants are actually saprotrophic and do no harm to the plant itself, however, a small number, around 100 known species, are able to cause disease. Bacterial diseases are more prevalent in subtropical and tropical regions of the world
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Species complex
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In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related species that are very similar in appearance to the point that the boundaries between them are often unclear. As informal taxonomic ranks, species group, species aggregate, two or more taxa once considered conspecific may later be subdivided into infraspecific taxa, but this is not a species complex. A species complex is in most cases a monophyletic group with a common ancestor and it may represent an early stage after speciation, but may also have been separated for a long time period without evolving morphological differences. Hybrid speciation can be a component in the evolution of a species complex, species complexes exist in all groups of organisms. The existence of similar species may cause local and global species diversity to be underestimated. Recognizing similar but distinct species is important for disease and pest control, a species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species. Obviously, the concept is tied to the definition of a species. Modern biology understands a species as separately evolving metapopulation lineage but acknowledges that the criteria to delimit species may depend on the group studied, a more restricted use applies the term to close species between which hybridisation occurred or is occurring, leading to intermediate forms and blurred species boundaries. Some authors apply the term also to a species with intraspecific variability, examples are ring species or species with subspecies, where it is often unclear if these should be considered separate species. Several terms are used synonymously for a complex, but some of them may also have slightly different. In the nomenclature codes of zoology and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenera and species, while the botanical code defines four ranks below genera, different informal taxonomic solutions have been used to indicate a species complex. This describes distinct species that are classified under one species name. More generally, the term is applied when species, even if known to be distinct. The usage physiologic race is not to be confused with physiological race and this term, introduced by Ernst Mayr in 1942, was initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species, but later authors emphasized the common phylogenetic origin. A recent article defines sibling species as sister species, meaning two species that are the closest relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another taxonomically. This refers to a group of closely related species all living in the same ecosystem. Conversely, the term has also been applied very broadly to a group of related species than can be variable. Superspecies Sometimes used as a rank for a species complex around one representative species
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Morphology (biology)
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Morphology is a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features. This includes aspects of the appearance, i. e. external morphology, as well as the form and structure of the internal parts like bones and organs. This is in contrast to physiology, which deals primarily with function, Morphology is a branch of life science dealing with the study of gross structure of an organism or taxon and its component parts. The word morphology is from the Ancient Greek don, morphé, meaning form, among other important theorists of morphology are Lorenz Oken, Georges Cuvier, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Richard Owen, Karl Gegenbaur and Ernst Haeckel. In English-speaking countries, the term molecular morphology has been used for time for describing the structure of compound molecules, such as polymers. Comparative Morphology is analysis of the patterns of the locus of structures within the plan of an organism. Functional Morphology is the study of the relationship between the structure and function of morphological features, experimental Morphology is the study of the effects of external factors upon the morphology of organisms under experimental conditions, such as the effect of genetic mutation. Anatomy is a branch of morphology that deals with the structure of organisms, most taxa differ morphologically from other taxa. Typically, closely related taxa differ much less than more distantly related ones, cryptic species are species which look very similar, or perhaps even outwardly identical, but are reproductively isolated. Conversely, sometimes unrelated taxa acquire a similar appearance as a result of convergent evolution or even mimicry, in addition, there can be morphological differences within a species, such as in Apoica flavissima where queens are significantly smaller than workers. A further problem with relying on morphological data is that what may appear, morphologically speaking, the significance of these differences can be examined through the use of allometric engineering in which one or both species are manipulated to phenocopy the other species. Invention and development of microscopy enable the observation of 3-D cell morphology with both spatial and temporal resolution. The dynamic processes of cell morphology which are controlled by a complex system play an important role in varied important biological process, such as immune. Comparative anatomy Insect morphology Morphometrics Neuromorphology Phenetics Phenotype Phenotypic plasticity Plant morphology
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Armillaria root rot
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Armillaria root rot is a fungal root rot caused by several different members of the genus Armillaria. The symptoms are variable depending on the host infected, ranging from stunted leaves to chlorotic needles and dieback of twigs, however, all infected hosts display symptoms characteristic of being infected by a white rotting fungus. The most effective ways of management focus on limiting the spread of the fungus, planting resistant species and this disease poses a threat to the lumber industry as well as affecting recreational areas. Because this disease is caused by species within the genus Armillaria. Hundreds of trees and shrubs are susceptible to root rot to varying degrees, in fact, the only two genera of tree known to be resistant to Armillaria root rot are larch and birch. Further investigation is being conducted for additional species, but at this time there is no further evidence leading to the belief that more exist, as a result of the multitude of possible hosts, symptoms also range a great deal from one infection to another. All infected hosts do however display symptoms common to white rotting fungi and these include light or bleached wood as a result of the degradation of essential cell wall compounds such as lignin and hemicellulose. In addition to these, the host will show above-ground symptoms due to infection of the vasculature. These include chlorosis in the needles as well as dieback of twigs, the extent of these symptoms varies with the degree of infection as well as the susceptibility of the host. Deciduous trees occasionally develop sunken cankers but most often fail to exhibit these symptoms on the trunk, in addition to these symptoms, signs of the infectious organism are very evident in the host. Upon removal of the bark, white mycelial mats are visible along with rhizomorphs, clusters of mushrooms will also form at the base of the infected tree, indicating an infection. Also, zone lines of melanized fungal cells may be visible within infected wood, for the most part, this fungus exhibits a life cycle characteristic of basidiomycetes. It reproduces sexually with the mating of hyphae and produces a basidiocarp at the base of the infected host and this basidiocarp produces basidiospores that will further infect new hosts. However, Armillaria rarely spreads using this method in nature, possibly as a result of the spores being ineffective, in contrast, it will spread either through rhizomorphs or direct mycelial contact. In the case of contact, the roots of an infected host grow near enough to a new host that mycelia simply grow onto the new host. Rhizomorphs are string-like masses of hyphae utilized if no new hosts are nearby, Armillaria infects trees in temperate and tropical regions. Armillaria commonly infects stressed trees that have been weakened by insects and it can also kill healthy trees especially in dry areas, like coniferous forests in the western United States. This fungus is found worldwide, but prefers cool soils and climates, plant varieties that are resistant to Armillaria or species are resistant to other environmental or biological stressors
29.
Forest dieback
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Forest dieback is a condition in trees or woody plants in which peripheral parts are killed, either by pathogens, parasites or due to conditions like acid rain and drought. Two of the nine tipping points for major changes, forecast for the next century, are directly related to forest diebacks. Phomopsis azadirachtae is a fungus of the Phomopsis genus that has identified as the fungus responsible for dieback of Azadirachta indica in India. Forest dieback refers to the phenomena of a stand of trees losing health and this condition is also known as forest decline, forest damage, canopy level dieback, and stand level dieback. This usually affects individual species of trees, but can affect multiple species. Trees and woody plants are killed by a group of factors that include parasites, such as fungus and beetles, pollution, such as acid rain and organic compounds. Diseases and pests can kill large groups of very easily. Dieback takes on many locations and shapes and it can be along the perimeter, at specific elevations, or dispersed throughout the forest ecosystem. Forest dieback has many dynamic forms, a stand of trees can exhibit mild symptoms, extreme systems, or death at the same time. Forest decline can be viewed as the result of continued, widespread, current forest decline is described by rapid development on individual trees, occurrence in different forest types, a long duration, and occurrence throughout the natural range of affected species. Much research was done in the 1980s when a severe dieback happened in Germany, previous diebacks were regionally limited, but starting at the end of the 1970s a decline took over the forests of Central Europe and parts of North America. The forest damage in Germany was different because the decline was severe, up to 50% of the trees, prolonged, over 5 years, affected trees went from 8% in 1982 to 50% in 1984 and stayed at 50% through 1987. Many hypotheses have proposed for this dieback, see below. Drought and temperature have been factors in many diebacks. This condition is common in regions and the trees are already stressed by dehydration. There have been reported diebacks in the 50% mortality range across multiple species in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South and Central America, notable drought related diebacks have occurred globally from the 1970s through the 2000s. A few drought related diebacks have occurred before this, for instance, a 23% mortality rate was reported between 1945 and 1993 in Senegal Africa. Trees stressed by drought and temperature are more susceptible to parasites, in North America there were five notable hardwood diebacks in the XX century
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Bioluminescence
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Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism. It is a form of chemiluminescence, Bioluminescence occurs widely in marine vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as in some fungi, microorganisms including some bioluminescent bacteria and terrestrial invertebrates such as fireflies. In some animals, the light is produced by organisms such as Vibrio bacteria. The principal chemical reaction in bioluminescence involves the light-emitting pigment luciferin, the enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of luciferin. In some species, the type of luciferin requires cofactors such as calcium or magnesium ions, in evolution, luciferins vary little, one in particular, coelenterazine, is found in nine different animal, though in some of these, the animals obtain it through their diet. Conversely, luciferases vary widely in different species, Bioluminescence has arisen over forty times in evolutionary history. It was not until the nineteenth century that bioluminescence was properly investigated. The phenomenon is widely distributed among animal groups, especially in environments where dinoflagellates cause phosphorescence in the surface layers of water. On land it occurs in fungi, bacteria and some groups of invertebrates, in the laboratory, luciferase-based systems are used in genetic engineering and for biomedical research. Other researchers are investigating the possibility of using bioluminescent systems for street and decorative lighting, before the development of the safety lamp for use in coal mines, dried fish skins were used in Britain and Europe as a weak source of light. This experimental form of illumination avoided the necessity of using candles which risked sparking explosions of firedamp, another safe source of illumination in mines was bottles containing fireflies. In 1920, the American zoologist E. Newton Harvey published a monograph, The Nature of Animal Light, Harvey notes that Aristotle mentions light produced by dead fish and flesh, and that both Aristotle and Pliny the Elder mention light from damp wood. He also records that Robert Boyle experimented on these light sources, tuckey, in his posthumous 1818 Narrative of the Expedition to the Zaire, described catching the animals responsible for luminescence. He mentions pellucids, crustaceans, and cancers, under the microscope he described the luminous property to be in the brain, resembling a most brilliant amethyst about the size of a large pins head. Charles Darwin noticed bioluminescence in the sea, describing it in his Journal, While sailing in these latitudes on one very dark night, the sea presented a wonderful and most beautiful spectacle. There was a breeze, and every part of the surface. The vessel drove before her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her wake she was followed by a milky train. Darwin also observed a luminous jelly-fish of the genus Dianaea and noted that When the waves scintillate with bright green sparks, but there can be no doubt that very many other pelagic animals, when alive, are phosphorescent
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Mycelium
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Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus or fungus-like bacterial colony, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi, fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A mycelium may be minute, forming a colony that is too small to see, or it may be extensive and this 2, 400-acre site in eastern Oregon had a contiguous growth of mycelium before logging roads cut through it. Mushroom-forming forest fungi are unique in that their mycelial mats can achieve such massive proportions, through the mycelium, a fungus absorbs nutrients from its environment. It does this in a two-stage process, first, the hyphae secrete enzymes onto or into the food source, which break down biological polymers into smaller units such as monomers. These monomers are then absorbed into the mycelium by facilitated diffusion, mycelium is vital in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems for their role in the decomposition of plant material. They contribute to the fraction of soil, and their growth releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Mycelium is an important food source for many soil invertebrates, mycelium, like fungus, can be considered a mass noun, a word that can be either singular or plural. The term mycelia, though, like fungi, is used as the preferred plural form. Sclerotia are compact or hard masses of mycelium, one of the primary roles of fungi in an ecosystem is to decompose organic compounds. Petroleum products and some pesticides are organic molecules, and thereby present a potential source for fungi. Hence, fungi have the potential to eradicate such pollutants from their environment unless the chemicals prove toxic to the fungus and this biological degradation is a process known as bioremediation. Mycelial mats have been suggested as having potential as biological filters, removing chemicals and microorganisms from soil, the use of fungal mycelium to accomplish this has been termed mycofiltration. Knowledge of the relationship between fungi and plants suggests new ways to improve crop yields. When spread on logging roads, mycelium can act as a binder, holding new soil in place, since 2007, a company called Ecovative Design has been developing alternatives to polystyrene and plastic packaging by growing mycelium in agricultural waste. The two ingredients are mixed together and placed into a mold for 3–5 days to grow into a durable material, depending on the strain of mycelium used, they make many different varieties of the material including water absorbent, flame retardant, and dielectric. Fungi are essential for converting biomass into compost, as they decompose feedstock components such as lignin, turning a backyard compost pile will commonly expose visible networks of mycelia that have formed on the decaying organic material within. Compost is a soil amendment and fertilizer for organic farming and gardening
32.
Temperate climate
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In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
33.
Taxon
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In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is known by a particular name and given a particular ranking, especially if. It is not uncommon, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon, if a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping. Many modern systematists, such as advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature, use cladistic methods that require taxa to be monophyletic and their basic unit, therefore, is the clade rather than the taxon. Similarly, among those contemporary taxonomists working with the traditional Linnean nomenclature, an example of a well-established taxon that is not also a clade is the class Reptilia, the reptiles, birds are descendants of reptiles but are not included in the Reptilia. The term taxon was first used in 1926 by Adolf Meyer-Abich for animal groups, for plants, it was proposed by Herman Johannes Lam in 1948, and it was adopted at the VII International Botanical Congress, held in 1950. The Glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines a taxon, a taxon encompasses all included taxa of lower rank and individual organisms. A taxon can be assigned a rank, usually when it is given a formal name. Phylum applies formally to any domain, but traditionally it was always used for animals, whereas Division was traditionally often used for plants, fungi. A prefix is used to indicate a ranking of lesser importance, the prefix super- indicates a rank above, the prefix sub- indicates a rank below. In zoology the prefix infra- indicates a rank below sub-, for instance, among the additional ranks of class are superclass, subclass and infraclass. Rank is relative, and restricted to a particular systematic schema, for example, liverworts have been grouped, in various systems of classification, as a family, order, class, or division. Many cladists do not see any need to depart from traditional nomenclature as governed by the ICZN, ICN, etc
34.
Paul Christoph Hennings
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Paul Christoph Hennings was a German mycologist and herbarium curator. He discovered the study of cryptogams and mushrooms as a volunteer at the botanical garden, although circumstances initially prevented him to study in that area, he later returned to natural sciences and eventually rose to a position at the largest herbarium in Germany. Originally interested in all plants, he specialised into mushrooms. After an interlude caused by the Second Schleswig War, and during which he worked in the postal services and this job, which he abhorred, forced to move a number of times until he could settle in 1867 in Hohenwestedt, where he remained until 1874. There he began lecturing at the Agricultural School and he also began issuing exsiccatae and seed collections until Noltes successor, August W. Eichler, appointed him as an assistant. When Eichler went to work at the University of Berlin herbarium, he soon invited the younger man to join him. He had two sons from his wife Mathilde, which he had married in 1876, but lost one to illness in 1907, edited and published by Oscar Klement after the authors death. Species described by P. Ch. Hennings, works by or about Paul Christoph Hennings at Internet Archive
35.
Charles Horton Peck
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Charles Horton Peck, born March 30,1833 in Sand Lake, New York, died July 11,1917 in Menands, New York, was an American mycologist of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He was the New York State Botanist from 1867 to 1915, Charles Horton Peck was born on March 30,1833 in the northeastern part of the town Sand Lake, New York, now called Averill Park. After suffering a stroke early in November 1912 and then a severe stroke in 1913, he died at his house in Menands, New York. In 1794, Eleazer Peck moved from Farmington, Conn. to Sand Lake, later on, Pamelia Horton Peck married Joel B. both from English descent, and became Charles Peck parents. Even though his family was rich and locally prominent, his education was provincial, Dr. Peck went for the first time with his father to collect large cranberries when he was eight or ten years old. Picking up cranberries was a family matter since his grandmother went with the Indians, Dr. Peck went for the first time to Albany in 1841 and went back ten years later to attend the State Normal School. Peck and that awakened his interest in that field, after that he volunteered to join Prof. J. H. Salisburys botany class, as an extra study. Then, for three years he gave classes in Schrams Collegiate Institute of Sand Lake, after graduating he went back to work at Sand Lake College Institute teaching classics, Mathematics, Botany, Greek, and Latin for three years. In 1862, Pecks continued his studies at Union where he received his masters degree of Arts, a graduate of this College, he has been for many years in public service as Botanist of the Empire State, Author, and Student of Nature and of Science. I request that the degree be conferred upon him, the President Alexander handed on the degree saying, Charles Horton Peck. Prior to the Civil War, on April 10 of 1861 Peck married Mary Catherine Sliter, daughter of Calvin and they had two sons, the oldest named Harry Siter that was born on 1863 and the youngest was Charles Albert, born on 1870. Dr. Pecks wife died on February 26 of 1912, because of this job he moved his family to Albany. While working at Albany, he interested in moss after noticing it on a stick of wood. Afterwards, he presented his collection to the State where it was seen by Judge Geo, W. Clinton, a descendant of one of New Yorks most powerful and leading families. Clinton was also a botanist that got very impressed and interested in Peck, thanks to Clinton, in 1866 Dr. Peck was a volunteer in the State herbarium. The herbarium contained the important collection of New York plants put together by John Torrey during the nineteenth century, Dr. Peck began his first mycological collection in the State Herbarium after Rev. Moses A. Curtis, of North Carolina, motivated him. This collection and study of it, is what gives Charles Peck a worldwide name for all time. In 1913, he presented his letter as State Botanist but it is not until January 26,1915
36.
James Bolton
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James Bolton was an English naturalist, botanist, mycologist, and illustrator. James Bolton was born near Warley in the West Riding of Yorkshire in 1735, the son of William Bolton, James initially followed in his fathers trade, but later became a self-taught art teacher and finally a publican in his home village of Warley. He married Sarah Blackburn in 1768 and the couple had four children and he and his family lived all their lives in the Halifax area. James and his brother, Thomas Bolton, were keen naturalists. Edward Donovan named the dragonfly Cordulegaster boltonii after a specimen collected by Thomas Bolton, the two brothers contributed to the natural history section in The History and Antiquities of the Parish of Halifax in Yorkshire, published in 1775 by John Watson. James Bolton subsequently developed his interest further by writing or illustrating a number of important natural history books, in 1785, Bolton provided the illustrations for Richard Relhans Flora Cantabrigiensis. In the same year, he published the first of his own works, part one of Filices Britannicae. James Bolton not only drew the illustrations, but etched them himself, moreover, he did not merely collate existing information on ferns, but undertook original research and field work. The book includes a description and illustration of a new fern species, at this time, Bolton was commissioned by the wealthy Margaret Bentinck, Duchess of Portland to illustrate plants in her museum collection. James Boltons additional illustrations of native and exotic flowering plants were never published, in 1788 the genus Boltonia was named in his honour by Charles Louis LHéritier de Brutelle. Boltons chief interest was in fungi, which he collected, carried home in his vasculum. He also corresponded with many of the notable mycologists of his day, including Jean Bulliard, James Dickson, John Lightfoot, and Carl Willdenow. The result was the publication of the first English-language work devoted to fungi, Boltons three-volume An History of Fungusses growing about Halifax, published 1788-1790, the work was dedicated to Henry Noel, 6th Earl of Gainsborough, who was one of Boltons patrons and helped fund the project. As with the book on ferns, Bolton not only undertook the illustrations, but also did the etchings for the work. The bracket Daedaleopsis confragosa J. Schröt, the agaric Lepiota cristata P. Kumm. and the Fairy-Ring Champignon Marasmius oreades Fr. The book was translated into German, as Geschichte der merkwürdigsten Pilze, a collection of 36 fungi illustrations is also held at the Natural History Museum and some additional sketches are in the library of the Earl of Derby at Knowsley Hall. Few of Boltons fungal collections survive, but some of his specimens are in the herbarium at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Boltons final published work was Harmonia ruralis, an essay towards a history of British songbirds
37.
Scop.
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Giovanni Antonio Scopoli was an Italian physician and naturalist. His biographer Otto Guglia named him the first anational European and the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire, Scopoli was born at Cavalese in the Val di Fiemme, belonging to the Bishopric of Trent, the son of a lawyer. He obtained a degree in medicine at University of Innsbruck, and practiced as a doctor in Cavalese, much of his time was spent in the Alps, collecting plants and insects, of which he made outstanding collections. In 1761, he published De Hydroargyro Idriensi Tentamina on the symptoms of mercury poisoning among mercury miners, Scopoli spent time studying the local natural history, publishing Flora Carniolica as well as a major work on the insects of Carniola, Entomologia Carniolica. He also published a series of Anni Historico-Naturales, which included first descriptions of birds from various collections, in 1769, Scopoli was appointed a professor of chemistry and metallurgy at Mining Academy at Schemnitz, and in 1777 transferred to the University of Pavia. He became a rival of Lazzaro Spallanzani, who was accused of stealing specimens from the Pavia museum. Spallanzani was tried and the trial resulted in acquittal. Shortly thereafter, Scopoli died of a stroke and his last work was Deliciae Flora et Fauna Insubricae, which included scientific names for birds and mammals in northwestern Italy described by Pierre Sonnerat in the accounts of his voyages. The plant alkaloid and drug scopolamine were first found in the genus Scopolia which is named after him, Scopoli corresponded with Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist who laid the foundations of modern taxonomy. Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions, Linnaeus greatly respected him and showed great interest in his work. He named a genus, Scopolia, the source of scopolamine. Because of a distance, they never met. Scopoli is frequently mentioned by Gilbert White in his Natural History, Flora Carniolica — a flora of Carniola, part of modern day Slovenia Scopoli, Giovanni Antonio. Flora Carniolica exhibens plantas Carnioliae indigenas et distributas in classes, genera, species, varietates, — A revised second edition of the first elaborate description of the flora of Carniola, undertaken when Scopoli lived in Idrija. It has 66 plates engraved by J. F. Rein after original drawings by Scopoli, De Hydroargyro Idriensi Tentamina — a medical work on the symptoms of mercury poisoning among miners. — a major work on entomology containing many descriptions of new species, einleitung zur Kenntniß und Gebrauch der Foßilien, Hartknoch4031 Göttingen, Niedersächsische Staats- und UniversitätsbibliothekRiga. Anni Historico-Naturales — This work included descriptions of new birds, introductio ad historiam naturalem, sistens genera lapidum, plantarum et animalium hactenus detecta, caracteribus essentialibus donata, in tribus divisa, subinde ad leges naturae. – masterwork of natural history describing world genera and species, papiae, S. Salvatoris - A botanical classic with ten engraved plates each depicting ten to sixteen exact drawings
38.
John Ramsbottom (mycologist)
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John Ramsbottom OBE FLS was a British mycologist. He graduated from Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and joined the staff of the British Museum of Natural History in 1910, from 1917 to 1919, he served in Salonika, first as a civilian protozoologist, then as captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps. From 1929 to 1950, he was Keeper of Botany at the British Museum and he served as general secretary and twice as president of the British Mycological Society, and was long editor of its Transactions. He was president of the Quekett Microscopical Club from 1928 to 1931 and was elected an Honorary Member in 1937 and he was president of the Linnean Society from 1937 to 1940 and was awarded their Linnean Medal in 1965. Ramsbottom was President of the Society for the History of Natural History from 1943-1972 and he was made an Honorary Member in 1972. Ramsbottom had a style both in his lectures and in his writing, which spanned both popular and technical publications. He could write, In reading the old accounts one finds a mixture of fact. Some are so fantastic that if they had not been accepted by other authors they would not find a place in even a most detailed historical summary, then there comes an observation of such merit that all seems set for real progress. But these facts, even when accepted, are often misinterpreted, almost as if in a superfluity of naughtiness, and again there is confusion
39.
William Withering
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William Withering FRS was an English botanist, geologist, chemist, physician and the discoverer of digitalis. Withering was born in Wellington, Shropshire, trained as a physician and he worked at Birmingham General Hospital from 1779. The active ingredient is now known as digitalis, after the scientific name. In 1785, Withering published An Account of the Foxglove and some of its Medical Uses, born in Wellington, Shropshire, England, he attended Edinburgh Medical School from 1762 to 1766. In 1767 he started as a consultant at Stafford Royal Infirmary and he married Helena Cookes in 1772, they had three children. On the way home from his trip there, the ship he was in was chased by pirates. In 1785 he was elected a Fellow of the prestigious Royal Society, the following year he leased Edgbaston Hall, in Birmingham, England. He was one of the members of the Lunar Society, during the Birmingham riots of 1791 he prepared to flee from Edgbaston Hall, but his staff kept the rioters at bay until the military arrived. After moving to The Larches on 28 September, he died on 6 October 1799, in 1776, he published The botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in Great Britain, an early and influential British Flora. It was the first in English based on the then new Linnaean taxonomy — a classification of all living things — devised by the eminent Swedish botanist and physician Carl Linnaeus. However he found plenty of support for his position, and botany was considered a subject unsuitable for women during the next century. Withering wrote two editions of this work in 1787 and 1792, in collaboration with fellow Lunar Society member Jonathan Stokes. It continued being published under various authors until 1877, Withering senior also carried out pioneering work into the identification of fungi and invented a folding pocket microscope for use on botanical field trips. He also introduced to the audience the screw down plant press. In 1787 he was elected a Fellow of the Linnaean Society in recognition of his contribution to botany, subsequently the plant Witheringia solanacea was named in his honour, and he became known on the continent of Europe as The English Linnaeus. The William Withering Chair in Medicine at the University of Birmingham Medical School is named after him, at least one of these cases was a patient for whom Erasmus Darwin had asked Withering for his second opinion. A postscript at the end of the volume of transactions containing Darwins paper states that Whilst the last pages of this volume were in the press. Published a numerous collection of cases in which foxglove has been given and this is a very early example of medical academic plagiarism
40.
Worthington George Smith
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Worthington George Smith was an English cartoonist and illustrator, archaeologist, plant pathologist, and mycologist. Worthington G. Smith was born in Shoreditch, London, the son of a civil servant and he received an elementary education at a local school and was then apprenticed as an architect. He married Henrietta White in 1856 and the couple had seven children, Smith worked for the architect Sir Horace Jones, becoming an expert draughtsman and a member of the Architectural Association. In 1861, however, he left the profession and embarked on a career as a freelance illustrator. He put his experience to use by producing illustrations for The Builder. Smith had an interest in history and gardening, and gradually developed a reputation as a botanical illustrator. His work appeared in the Gardeners Chronicle and in 1869 he became its chief illustrator and he also contributed illustrations to the Journal of Horticulture and other periodicals. In 1880, he co-authored Illustrations of the British Flora with the botanical illustrator Walter Hood Fitch. Worthington G. Smiths particular expertise was in fungi, which he collected, studied and he published extensively, writing over 200 articles and papers, as well as several books. His first major work in 1867 was to produce coloured illustrations of poisonous and edible fungi, for this he was awarded the Royal Horticultural Societys Knightian gold medal. He restored Sowerbys clay models of fungal fruitbodies displayed at the Natural History Museum, in 1908, he also wrote a descriptive catalogue of the specimens and drawings of the British Basidiomycetes held at the museum. Worthington G. Smith was the first mycologist to lead a fungus foray, in 1868 he was invited by the Woolhope Naturalists Field Club to be the expert leader of a field meeting dubbed a foray among the funguses. This was so successful that the club held annual forays for the next 24 years, Smith helped publicize the club and its forays with a series of cartoons in various journals, some of them caricaturing the leading mycologists of the day. He also designed illustrated menus in similar style for the clubs annual fungus dinners at the Green Dragon in Hereford. Smith became a member of the club and in 1874. In 1896 Worthington G. Smith became a member of the British Mycological Society and was elected its President in 1904. He was also a Fellow of the Linnean Society, Smiths reputation as a mycologist and plant pathologist has been overshadowed by the more lasting achievements of his contemporaries. His book on plant diseases was said to have out of touch when published
41.
James Sowerby
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James Sowerby was an English naturalist and illustrator. Contributions to published works, such as A Specimen of the Botany of New Holland or English Botany, include his detailed, the use of vivid colour and accessible texts were intended to reach a widening audience in works of natural history. James Sowerby was born in Lambeth, London, his parents were named John, having decided to become a painter of flowers his first venture was with William Curtis, whose Flora Londinensis he illustrated. Sowerby studied art at the Royal Academy and took an apprenticeship with Richard Wright and he married Anne Brettingham De Carle and they were to have three sons, James De Carle Sowerby, George Brettingham Sowerby I and Charles Edward Sowerby, the Sowerby family of naturalists. His sons and theirs were to contribute and continue the enormous volumes he was to begin and he also came to the notice of William Curtis, who was undertaking a new type of publication. Early volumes of the first British botany journal, The Botanical Magazine, an enormous number of plants were to receive their formal publication, but the authority for these came from the unattributed text written by James Edward Smith. Sowerby intended to reach an audience whose curosity for gardening and the world could be piqued by publishing the attractive. The appealing hand coloured engravings also became highly valued by researchers into the new fields of science, the finished worked contains 650 colored plates distributed over 7 volumes. He also developed a theory of colour and published two landmark illustrated works on mineralogy, the British Mineralogy and as a supplement to it the Exotic Mineralogy, Sowerby retained the specimens used in the expansive volumes he helped to produce. Many notable geologists, and other scientists of the day were to lend or donate specimens to his collection, all the natural production of Great Britain become the foundation of a museum. A much sought exhibit, one that was frequently chipped for samples, was the Yorkshire meteorite, this was sighted and collected in 1795, some of the works begun by the paterfamilias of the Sowerbys was to be completed only by the generations that followed. His illustrations, publication and publishing concerns embraced many of the emergent fields of science, besides the renowned botanical works, Sowerby produced extensive volumes on mycology, conchology, mineralogy and a seminal work on his colour system. He also wrote an instruction called A botanical drawing-book, or an introduction to drawing flowers according to nature. Florists luxurians or the florists delight, and, Sibthrops Flora Graeca,10 vols, Sowerby also supplied plates for Curtiss Flora Londinensis. This work was issued in 36 volumes with 2,592 hand-colored plates of British plants and he also published Exotic Botany in 1804. Smiths comprehensive work did not include Kingdom Fungi, Sowerby set out to supplement English Botany with his own text, Coloured figures of English fungi or mushrooms,4 vols. both appeared between 1789 and 1791. Sowerbys own hand coloured engravings, based upon original sketches and specimens brought to England, were descriptive and striking in depiction. Mineral Conchology of Great Britain Digital version British Mineralogy, Or Coloured figures intended to elucidate the mineralogy of Great Britain was published as parts between 1802 and 1817
42.
Basidiocarp
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In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes, rusts and smuts do not produce such structures, as with other sporocarps, epigeous basidiocarps that are visible to the naked eye are commonly referred to as mushrooms, while hypogeous basidiocarps are usually called false truffles. All basidiocarps serve as the structure on which the hymenium is produced, basidia are found on the surface of the hymenium, and the basidia ultimately produce spores. In its simplest form, a basidiocarp consists of an undifferentiated fruiting structure with a hymenium on the surface, such a structure is characteristic of many simple jelly, in more complex basidiocarps, there is differentiation into a stipe, a pileus, and/or various types of hymenophores. Basidiocarps are classified into types of growth forms based on the degree of differentiation into a stipe, pileus. Growth forms include, jelly fungus – fruiting body is jelly-like, club fungus and coral fungus – erect fruiting body without a distinct stalk and cap, either unbranched or profusely branched. Gasteromycete or gastroid fungus – fruiting body has a ball-like shape, false truffle – like a gasteromycete, however, but with a hypogeous fruiting body. Secotioid fungus – like a gasteromycete, but with a stalk, though to be an evolutionarily intermediate stage between a gasteromycete and an agaric. Agaric or gill fungi – fruiting body with caps, gills, bolete – fleshy fruiting body with a cap, a stalk, and tubes on the underside. Basic divisions of Agaricomycotina were formerly based entirely upon the form of the mushroom. Ascocarp Conidium Evolution & Morphology in the Homobasidiomycetes, The Clade/Morphology Chart by Gary Lincoff & Michael Wood, MykoWeb, mycomorphology Part 1, Why Do Mushrooms Look Like Mushrooms. By Peter Werner, Mycena News, December 2002, mycomorphology Part 2, Basidiocarp Keeps its Balance by Peter Werner, Mycena News, March 2003
43.
Lamella (mycology)
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A lamella, or gill, is a papery hymenophore rib under the cap of some mushroom species, most often but not always agarics. The gills are used by the mushrooms as a means of spore dispersal, additionally, gills can have distinctive microscopic or macroscopic features. For instance, Lactarius species typically seep latex from their gills and it was originally believed that all gilled fungi were Agaricales, but as fungi were studied in more detail, some gilled species were demonstrated not to be. It is now clear that this is a case of convergent evolution rather than being a feature that evolved only once. Other groups of fungi to bear gills include, The genera Russula, several genera in the Boletales, including Gomphidius and Chroogomphus as well as Tapinella atrotomentosa and other species in that genus, the False chanterelle. Such polypore-like fungi such as Daedalea quercina, Daedaleopsis confragosa, Lenzites betulina, members of the two related genera of chanterelles, Cantharellus and Craterellus, have rudimentary lamellar structures which are sometimes referred to as false gills. They are distinguished from true gills because the structure of the surface continues uninterrupted over the gill edge, so they are little more than folds. The genus Gomphus also has false gills and these primitive lamellae indicate how the evolution towards true gills probably happened. Morphologically, gills are classified according to their attachment to the stem, IMA Mycological Glossary, Gill
44.
Decurrent
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Decurrent is a term used in botany and mycology to describe plant or fungal parts that extend downward. In botany, the term is most often applied to leaf blades that partly wrap or have wings around the stem or petiole, a decurrent branching habit is a plant form common for shrubs and most angiosperm trees, contrasted with the excurrent or cone-shaped crown common among many gymnosperms. The decurrent habit is characterized by having weak apical dominance that eventually produces a rounded or spreading tree crown, examples of trees with decurrent habit are most hardwood trees, oak, hickory, maple, etc. In mycology, the term is most often applied to the hymenophore of a basidiocarp when it is attached to
45.
Annulus (mycology)
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An annulus is the ring-like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like, annuli come in various shapes, which can be important features for identification of the mushroom. Common shapes include, pendant - drooping or skirt-like flaring - spreading outward from the stipe sheathing - opening upwards around the stipe IMA Mycological Glossary, Annulus
46.
Partial veil
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In mycology, a partial veil is a temporary structure of tissue found on the fruiting bodies of some basidiomycete fungi, typically agarics. Its role is to isolate and protect the developing spore-producing surface, represented by gills or tubes, a partial veil, in contrast to a universal veil, extends from the stem surface to the cap edge. The partial veil later disintegrates, once the body has matured. It might then give rise to a ring, or fragments attached to the stem or cap edge. In some mushrooms, both a veil and a universal veil may be present. The presence, absence, or structure of the veil is an aid to identification of mushrooms. Some fruit bodies may have both a universal and partial veil, others may have one or the other, while many lack both types of veils. The partial veil may be membranous or cobwebby, and may have multiple layers, others may leave a persistent annulus. Occasionally, the partial veil adheres to the edge of the cap as shreds of tissue, the cobweb-like, fragile partial veil of some mushrooms, especially those in the genus Cortinarius, are known as cortinas. The fibrous threads of the cortina often catch the brown spores as they drop, some species of Agaricus, such as Agaricus arvensis, have a partial veil that resembles a cogwheel. Mycologists Alexander H. Smith and Harry D, species in the genus Agaricus have a partial veil that is made of two layers of tissue, although the two layers are not clearly distinct in all species. He determined that the partial veil originates from the tissue lying outside the cavity and is not clearly separated from the universal veil. It is connected to both the margin of the cap and the surface of the stem, the partial veil increases in size as tension is applied to it from the expansion of the cap and stem. The lower portion of the veil has a looser texture. The upper portion of the veil is connected directly with the margin of the cap. It originates partly from fundamental tissue and partly by growth from the margin of the cap, mushrooms Demystified, a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi
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