1.
Victor Emanuel III of Italy
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Victor Emmanuel III was the King of Italy from 29 July 1900 until his abdication on 9 May 1946. In addition, he claimed the thrones of Ethiopia and Albania as Emperor of Ethiopia and King of the Albanians, during his long reign, which began after the assassination of his father Umberto I, the Kingdom of Italy became involved in two World Wars. His reign also encompassed the birth, rise, and fall of Italian Fascism, Victor Emmanuel abdicated his throne in 1946 in favour of his son Umberto II, hoping to strengthen support for the monarchy against an ultimately successful referendum to abolish it. He then went in exile to Alexandria, Egypt, where he died and was buried the following year. He was called by the Italians Il Re soldato for having led his country during both the wars, and, after Italys victory in the First World War Il Re vittorioso. He was also nicknamed Sciaboletta due to his height of 1.53 m, Victor Emmanuel was born in Naples, Italy. He was the child of Umberto I, King of Italy. Margherita was the daughter of the Duke of Genoa, from birth until his accession, Victor Emmanuel was known by the title of the Prince of Naples. On 24 October 1896, Prince Victor Emmanuel married Princess Elena of Montenegro, on 29 July 1900, at the age of 30, Victor Emmanuel acceded to the throne upon his fathers assassination. The only advice that his father Umberto ever gave his heir was Remember, to be a king, all you need to know is how to sign your name, read a newspaper, and mount a horse. His early years showed evidence that, by the standards of the Savoy monarchy, indeed, even though his father was killed by an anarchist, the new King showed a commitment to constitutional freedoms. Though parliamentary rule had been established in Italy, the Statuto Albertino, or constitution. For instance, he had the right to appoint the Prime Minister even if the individual in question did not command majority support in the Chamber of Deputies, when World War I began, Italy at first remained neutral, despite being part of the Triple Alliance. However, in 1915, Italy signed several secret treaties committing her to enter the war on the side of the Triple Entente, most of the politicians opposed war, however, and the Italian Chamber of Deputies forced Prime Minister Antonio Salandra to resign. At this juncture, Victor Emmanuel declined Salandras resignation and personally made the decision for Italy to enter the war and he was well within his rights to do so under the Statuto. Popular demonstrations in favor of the war were staged in Rome, with 200,000 gathering on 16 May 1915 and it was at this time, the period of World War I, that the King enjoyed the genuine affection of the majority of his people. Still, during the war he received about 400 threatening letters from people of social background. The economic depression which followed World War I gave rise to much extremism among Italys sorely tried working classes and this caused the country as a whole to become politically unstable
Victor Emanuel III of Italy
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Portrait in 1919
Victor Emanuel III of Italy
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Young Victor Emmanuel with his mother,
Margherita of Savoy, 1876.
Victor Emanuel III of Italy
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Victor Emmanuel as a teenager, 1886.
Victor Emanuel III of Italy
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Victor Emmanuel in 1895.
2.
Italian Campaign (World War II)
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The Italian Campaign of World War II was the name of Allied operations in and around Italy, from 1943 to the end of the war in Europe. It is estimated that between September 1943 and April 1945, some 60, 000–70,000 Allied and 60, overall Allied casualties during the campaign totaled about 320,000 and the corresponding German figure was well over 600,000. Fascist Italy, prior to its collapse, suffered about 200,000 casualties, mostly POWs taken in the Allied invasion of Sicily, including more than 40,000 killed or missing. Besides them, over 150,000 Italian civilians died, as did 15,197 anti-Fascist partisans and 13,021 troops of the Italian Social Republic. The campaign ended when Army Group C surrendered unconditionally to the Allies on May 2,1945, the independent states of San Marino and the Vatican, both surrounded by Italian territory, also suffered damage during the campaign. Even prior to victory in the North African Campaign in May 1943, the British, especially the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, advocated their traditional naval-based peripheral strategy. The United States, with a larger army, favoured a more direct method of fighting the main force of the German Army in Northern Europe. The ability to such a campaign depended on first winning the Battle of the Atlantic. There was even pressure from some Latin American countries to stage an invasion of Spain, the British argued that the presence of large numbers of troops trained for amphibious landings in the Mediterranean made a limited-scale invasion possible and useful. A contributing factor was Franklin D. Roosevelts desire to keep US troops active in the European theatre during 1943 and it was hoped that an invasion might knock Italy out of the conflict, or at least increase the pressure on them and weaken them further. A combined Allied invasion of Sicily began on 10 July 1943 with both amphibious and airborne landings at the Gulf of Gela, the land forces involved were the U. S. Seventh Army, under Lieutenant General George S. Patton, the original plan contemplated a strong advance by the British northwards along the east coast to Messina, with the Americans in a supporting role along their left flank. The defending German and Italian forces were unable to prevent the Allied capture of the island, but succeeded in evacuating most of their troops to the mainland, the Allied forces gained experience in opposed amphibious operations, coalition warfare and mass airborne drops. Forces of the British Eighth Army, still under Montgomery, landed in the toe of Italy on 3 September 1943 in Operation Baytown, the armistice was publicly announced on 8 September by two broadcasts, first by General Eisenhower and then by a proclamation by Marshal Badoglio. Although the German forces prepared to defend without Italian assistance, only two of their divisions opposite the Eighth Army and one at Salerno were not tied up disarming the Royal Italian Army, on 9 September, forces of the U. S. Fifth Army, under Lieutenant General Mark W, although none of the northern reserves were made available to the German 10th Army, it nevertheless came close to repelling the Salerno landing, due mainly to the cautious command of Clark. As the Allies advanced, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain, the Apennine Mountains form a spine along the Italian peninsula offset somewhat to the east, the rivers were subject to sudden and unexpected flooding, which constantly thwarted the Allied commanders plans. This would make the most of the natural geography of Central Italy, whilst denying the Allies the easy capture of a succession of airfields
Italian Campaign (World War II)
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Artillery being landed during the
invasion of mainland Italy at Salerno, September 1943.
Italian Campaign (World War II)
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American soldiers of the
U.S. 92nd Infantry Division fire a
bazooka at a German machine gun nest,
Lucca 1944
Italian Campaign (World War II)
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The situation south of Rome showing German prepared defensive lines
Italian Campaign (World War II)
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Canadian sniper at the
Battle of Ortona.
3.
Allied invasion of Sicily
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The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II, in which the Allies took the island of Sicily from the Axis powers. It was an amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign and was the beginning of the Italian Campaign. Husky began on the night of 9/10 July 1943, and ended on 17 August, the Italian leader, Benito Mussolini, was toppled from power in Italy and the way was opened for the Allied invasion of Italy. The German leader, Adolf Hitler, canceled a major offensive at Kursk after only a week, in part to divert forces to Italy, resulting in a reduction of German strength on the Eastern Front. The plan for Operation Husky called for the assault of Sicily by two Allied armies, one landing on the south-eastern and one on the central southern coast. The amphibious assaults were to be supported by gunfire, as well as tactical bombing, interdiction. As such, the operation required a complex structure, incorporating land, naval. The overall commander was American General Dwight D. Eisenhower, as Commander-in-Chief of all the Allied forces in North Africa, British General Sir Harold Alexander acted as his second-in-command and as the 15th Army Group commander. The American Major General Walter Bedell Smith was appointed as Eisenhowers Chief of Staff, the overall Naval Force Commander was the British Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham. The Allied land forces were from the American, British and Canadian armies, the Eastern Task Force was led by General Sir Bernard Montgomery and consisted of the British Eighth Army. The Western Task Force was commanded by Lieutenant General George S. Patton, the two task force commanders reported to Alexander as commander of the 15th Army Group. Seventh Army consisted initially of three divisions, organized under II Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley. Middleton, sailed from the United States via Oran in Algeria, the 2nd Armored Division, under Major General Hugh Joseph Gaffey, also sailing from Oran, was to be a floating reserve and be fed into combat as required. On 15 July, Patton reorganized his command into two corps by creating a new Provisional Corps headquarters, commanded by his deputy army commander, Major General Geoffrey Keyes. The two divisions of XIII Corps, the 5th and 50th Infantry Divisions, commanded by Major-Generals Horatio Berney-Ficklin and Sidney Kirkman and this request was granted by the British, displacing the veteran British 3rd Infantry Division. The Red Patch Division was added to Leeses XXX Corps to become part of the British Eighth Army, in addition to the amphibious landings, airborne troops were to be flown in to support both the Western and Eastern Task Forces. To the east, the British 1st Airborne Division, commanded by Major-General George F. Hopkinson, was to seize vital bridges and high ground in support of the British Eighth Army. The initial plan dictated that the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division, Allied naval forces were also grouped into two task forces to transport and support the invading armies
Allied invasion of Sicily
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The U.S.
Liberty ship Robert Rowan explodes after being hit by a German bomber off Gela, Sicily, 11 July 1943
Allied invasion of Sicily
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Allied leaders in the Sicilian campaign. General Eisenhower meets in North Africa with (foreground, left to right): Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder, General Sir Harold R. L. G. Alexander, Admiral Sir Andrew B. Cunningham, and (top row): Mr. Harold Macmillan, Major General W. Bedell Smith, and unidentified British officers.
Allied invasion of Sicily
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Kesselring (right) with
Erwin Rommel (left).
Allied invasion of Sicily
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Map of the Allied landings in Sicily on 10 July 1943
4.
Allied invasion of Italy
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The Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied amphibious landing on mainland Italy that took place on 3 September 1943 during the early stages of the Italian Campaign of World War II. The operation was undertaken by General Sir Harold Alexanders 15th Army Group, the main invasion force landed around Salerno on 9 September on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, while two supporting operations took place in Calabria and Taranto. Following the defeat of the Axis Powers in North Africa in May 1943, the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, in particular wanted to invade Italy, which in November 1942 he called the soft underbelly of the axis. Popular support in Italy for the war was declining, and he believed an invasion would remove Italy, in addition, it would tie down German forces. When it became clear that no cross-channel invasion of occupied France could be undertaken in 1943, it was agreed to invade Sicily, Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, to go ahead at the earliest possible date. The Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943, codenamed Operation Husky, was successful, although many of the Axis forces managed to avoid capture. The Axis viewed this as a success, more importantly, in late July, a coup deposed Mussolini as head of the Italian government, which then began approaching the Allies to make peace. It was believed an invasion of Italy might hasten an Italian surrender. However, Italian resistance proved relatively strong, and fighting in Italy continued even after the fall of Berlin in April 1945. In addition, the left the Allies in a position of supplying food and supplies to conquered territory. As well, Italy occupied by a hostile German army would have created problems for the German Commander-in-Chief. The short distance from Sicily meant landing craft could launch from there directly, montgomery was strongly opposed to Operation Baytown. He was proved correct, after Operation Baytown the British Eighth Army marched 300 miles north to the Salerno area against no other than engineering obstacles. Plans for the use of Allied airborne forces took several forms, the initial plan to land glider-borne troops in the mountain passes of the Sorrento Peninsula above Salerno was abandoned 12 August. Six days later it was replaced by Operation Giant, in two regiments of the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division would seize and hold crossings over the Volturno River. The main landings were scheduled to take place on 9 September and it would consist of the U. S. Its primary objectives were to seize the port of Naples to ensure resupply, the naval task force of warships, merchant ships and landing craft totaling 627 vessels came under the command of Vice Admiral Henry K. Hewitt. However, with the signing of the armistice with the Italians on 3 September the picture changed, the airborne division, which was undergoing training exercises in two locations 640 kilometres apart, was ordered on 4 September to embark on 8 September
Allied invasion of Italy
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Troops and vehicles being landed under shell fire during the invasion of mainland Italy at Salerno, September 1943.
Allied invasion of Italy
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Map of the Invasion of Italy.
Allied invasion of Italy
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Salerno D-Day plan
Allied invasion of Italy
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Troops from 2nd Battalion,
Northamptonshire Regiment, part of
17th Brigade of
British 5th Division, wait to board landing craft at Catania, Sicily, for the invasion of Italy, 2 September 1943.
5.
Operation Baytown
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The attack was made by Lieutenant-General Miles C. Dempseys British XIII Corps, which had under command the 1st Canadian Infantry Division, XIII Corps was part of the British Eighth Army, commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery. XIII Corps crossed the Straits of Messina from Sicily to Reggio di Calabria, the intent was to tie down German forces in the area and gain an Allied foothold at the toe of Italy. Montgomery had objected to Baytown as ineffective, but carried it out anyway, a single German regiment was left to defend 17 miles of coast. Montgomerys objections were proved correct, German troops refused battle and the Eighth Army tied down none of them, the main obstacle to the Allied advance was the terrain and German demolitions. Opposition to the landings was light, because the few German troops in the area rapidly withdrew northward. An exception was the 184th Airborne Division Nembo, which provided more determined resistance on the Aspromonte massif, but was eventually overcome on 8 September 1943. Operation Baytown was followed by Operation Slapstick, with the British 1st Airborne Division, and Operation Avalanche, both operations took place on 9 September, following the Italian surrender the day before. The surrender had been agreed on 3 September, but was not publicly announced until 8 September, Allied invasion of Italy Allied invasion of Italy order of battle Italian Campaign Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and Second World War
Operation Baytown
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British troops come ashore at Reggio
6.
Operation Avalanche
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The Allied invasion of Italy was the Allied amphibious landing on mainland Italy that took place on 3 September 1943 during the early stages of the Italian Campaign of World War II. The operation was undertaken by General Sir Harold Alexanders 15th Army Group, the main invasion force landed around Salerno on 9 September on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, while two supporting operations took place in Calabria and Taranto. Following the defeat of the Axis Powers in North Africa in May 1943, the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, in particular wanted to invade Italy, which in November 1942 he called the soft underbelly of the axis. Popular support in Italy for the war was declining, and he believed an invasion would remove Italy, in addition, it would tie down German forces. When it became clear that no cross-channel invasion of occupied France could be undertaken in 1943, it was agreed to invade Sicily, Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations, to go ahead at the earliest possible date. The Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943, codenamed Operation Husky, was successful, although many of the Axis forces managed to avoid capture. The Axis viewed this as a success, more importantly, in late July, a coup deposed Mussolini as head of the Italian government, which then began approaching the Allies to make peace. It was believed an invasion of Italy might hasten an Italian surrender. However, Italian resistance proved relatively strong, and fighting in Italy continued even after the fall of Berlin in April 1945. In addition, the left the Allies in a position of supplying food and supplies to conquered territory. As well, Italy occupied by a hostile German army would have created problems for the German Commander-in-Chief. The short distance from Sicily meant landing craft could launch from there directly, montgomery was strongly opposed to Operation Baytown. He was proved correct, after Operation Baytown the British Eighth Army marched 300 miles north to the Salerno area against no other than engineering obstacles. Plans for the use of Allied airborne forces took several forms, the initial plan to land glider-borne troops in the mountain passes of the Sorrento Peninsula above Salerno was abandoned 12 August. Six days later it was replaced by Operation Giant, in two regiments of the U. S. 82nd Airborne Division would seize and hold crossings over the Volturno River. The main landings were scheduled to take place on 9 September and it would consist of the U. S. Its primary objectives were to seize the port of Naples to ensure resupply, the naval task force of warships, merchant ships and landing craft totaling 627 vessels came under the command of Vice Admiral Henry K. Hewitt. However, with the signing of the armistice with the Italians on 3 September the picture changed, the airborne division, which was undergoing training exercises in two locations 640 kilometres apart, was ordered on 4 September to embark on 8 September
Operation Avalanche
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Troops and vehicles being landed under shell fire during the invasion of mainland Italy at Salerno, September 1943.
Operation Avalanche
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Map of the Invasion of Italy.
Operation Avalanche
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Salerno D-Day plan.
Operation Avalanche
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Troops from 2nd Battalion,
Northamptonshire Regiment, part of
17th Brigade of
British 5th Division, wait to board landing craft at Catania, Sicily, for the invasion of Italy, 2 September 1943.
7.
Operation Slapstick
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Operation Slapstick was the code name for a British landing from the sea at the Italian port of Taranto during the Second World War. Planned at short notice, the followed a offer by the Italian government to open the ports of Taranto. The airborne division was selected to undertake the mission, but at the time they were located in North Africa, instead, the division had to be transported across the Mediterranean by ships of the Royal Navy. The landing was unopposed and the division successfully captured the ports of Taranto. The only German forces in the area were elements of the 1st Parachute Division, eventually, by the end of September, the British 1st Airborne Division advanced 125 miles to Foggia. Reinforcements from two divisions had by then been landed behind them, which allowed the airborne troops to be withdrawn to Taranto. Soon after, the division, minus the 2nd Parachute Brigade, sailed for England in preparation for Operation Overlord, in May 1943, the Axis powers of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were defeated in the North African Campaign. Two months later, the Allied powers of Great Britain and the United States, successfully launched their invasion of Sicily, the island being completely occupied by the end of August, the Allies next turned their attention to the invasion of Italy. The main invasion was planned for 9 September, with the U. S, fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark Clark, landing at Salerno on the western coast in Operation Avalanche, with Naples as their immediate objective. The Allies hoped that the invasion would persuade the Italian forces to surrender, if they did, the five Italian divisions in France and the twenty-nine in the Balkans would have to be replaced by German formations. Also, if the Germans then decided to continue the fight in Italy, during secret surrender negotiations with the Allies in early September, the Italian government offered to open the ports of Taranto and Brindisi on the eastern coast. German forces in area were very weak and would be expected to withdraw rather than fight if the Allies landed there. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean, quickly planned a landing, codenamed Slapstick. Slapstick was in part an operation of deception, to divert German forces away from the main Allied landings at Salerno on the day, while also attempting to capture Taranto. The main value of Taranto was its large port and its seizure would, with the expected capture of Naples in the west by the Americans, give the Allies supply points on both Italian coasts. Taranto is the city of the Province of Taranto in the region of Apulia and has a large harbor. It includes the two islets of St. Peter and St. Paul, which protect the bay, called the Mar Grande, after the unification of Italy, Taranto became the main base of the Italian Navy. The military port was located in another bay, the Mar Piccolo, in November 1940, the Royal Navy attacked the naval base in Taranto, sinking some Italian battleships
Operation Slapstick
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Aerial view of Taranto
Operation Slapstick
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Locations of the
Allied invasion of Italy.
Operation Slapstick
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Taranto naval base in the 1930s.
Operation Slapstick
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German paratroops (Fallschirmjäger) of Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 1
8.
Operation Achse
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Operation Achse, originally called Operation Alaric, was the codename for the German plan to forcibly disarm the Italian armed forces after the armistice with the Allied forces in 1943. The Armistice of Cassibile was made public on 8 September, German forces moved rapidly to take over the Italian zones of occupation in the Balkans and southern France, and to disarm Italian forces in Italy. Additionally, individual soldiers or whole units, like the 24th Pinerolo Division in Thessaly, only in Sardinia, Corsica, Calabria and in the southern part of Apulia were Italian troops able to offer successful resistance and hold off the Germans until relieved by the arrival of Allied forces. The first German combat units were sent to Italy to bolster its defenses against a probable Allied attack on Italian soil while Germany and they would be the Sardinia Command, the Sicily Command, and a ready reserve. Adolf Hitler wrote to a dubious Benito Mussolini that since they were weak units that needed reinforcements, the Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring arrived mid-May 1943 and was sent to Sicily, and the 16th Panzer Division arrived in early June and was sent west of Bari. On 19 May also, the headquarters of general Hans Hubes 14th Panzerkorps was also sent from France to strengthen the structure of the Oberbefehlshaber Süd field marshal Albert Kesselring. On 20 May 1943, during a discussion at his headquarters, Hitler expressed his doubts about the politic stability of the Fascist government. On 21 May, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, the head of the OKW, meanwhile, German reserves kept being redeployed to face potential threats in the Mediterranean theater. On 17 June Mussolini, after a refusal, urgently asked for two German armoured divisions, as a reinforcement to confront the powerful Allied forces. The last of them was deployed at Salerno on 9 July, the 29th Panzergrenadier Division was sent to Foggia in mid-June and the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division was deployed north of Rome in the first days of July. Meanwhile, on 24 June, the Reichsführer-SS Brigade had been moved to Corsica, and in mid-July, the Allied invasion of Sicily began on 10 July 1943, and established solid beachheads, despite Italian and German counterattacks. The political and military leaders of the two countries reacted immediately to the worsening situation, in Rome, Ambrosio urged unrealistic demands for help from Germany on Mussolini. Among the German commanders in Italy, Eberhard von Mackensen and Albert Kesselring became increasingly skeptical about Italian defense capabilities, on 17 July, Hitler decided to meet with Mussolini and his collaborators, and assess their resolve to continue the war. The meeting was near Feltre on 19 July 1943, the Feltre meeting had little use. Moreover, Hitler gave a view of the situation and refused the sweeping Italian requests for more land and air support, mentioning technical. After the meeting, Hitler was convinced that he had lifted Mussolini’s morale, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel had been put in charge of forces being organized in Bavaria for intervention in case of Italys defection. Rommel was worried about the fate of German troops in Sicily and southern Italy, but Hitler ignored warnings from Rommel. On 21 July, Hitler decided to suspend the planning of Alaric, on 25 July, before he learned of the fall of Mussolini, Hitler sent six Heer divisions to Italy, including a panzer division, and three Waffen-SS divisions
Operation Achse
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Disarmed Italian soldiers marching to captivity in
Bolzano
9.
Four days of Naples
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The Four days of Naples refers to the popular uprising in the Italian city of Naples between 27 and 30 September 1943 against the German forces occupying the city during World War II. From 1940–43, Naples suffered heavy Allied bombing raids, which caused much damage, the citys artistic and cultural heritage also suffered damage, such as the partial destruction of the Chiesa di Santa Chiara on 4 December 1942. With the Allied advance in southern Italy, anti-Fascists in the Naples area began to establish contacts with the Allied commanders. From 8 September 1943, the day in which the Cassibile armistice came into force, things there were already difficult, thanks to the unceasing bombing raids and the imbalance in forces. The situation in Naples soon turned into chaos, with many higher officials deserting the city and those escaping included Riccardo Pentimalli and Ettore Del Tetto, the generals entrusted with military responsibility for Naples, who fled in civilian clothing. Del Tettos last actions before fleeing had been to hand the city over to the German army and to publish a decree banning assemblies and authorising the military to fire on those who flouted that ban. Even so, sporadic but bloody attempts at resistance arose throughout the Zanzur Barracks, as far as the Carabinieri barracks at Pastrengo, on 9 September, some citizens met with German troops at Palazzo dei Telefoni, managing to escape, and in Via Santa Brigida. This latter episode involved a Carabiniere, who opened fire to defend a shop from German soldiers attempting to loot it, the retaliation for the Piazza del Plebiscito clashes came quickly, the Germans set fire to the National Library and opened fire on the crowd that gathered there. On 12 September, numerous soldiers were killed on the streets of Naples, while about 4,000 Italian soldiers and civilians were deported for forced labor. An announcement of the prefect on 22 September decreed compulsory labor for all men from 18–33 years of age and set their forced deportation to camps in northern Italy. The population refused to collaborate and rose up, every single citizen who behaves calmly will enjoy my protection. On the other hand, anyone who openly or surreptitiously acts against the German armed forces will be executed, moreover, the home of the miscreant and its immediate surroundings will be destroyed and reduced to ruins. Every German soldier wounded or murdered will be avenged a hundred times, I order a curfew from 8 pm to 6 am. Only in case of alarm will it be allowed to use the road in order to reach the nearest shelter, a state of siege is proclaimed. Within 24 hours all weapons and ammunition of any kind, including shotguns, hand grenades, anyone who, after that period, is found in possession of a weapon will be immediately executed. The delivery of weapons and ammunition shall be made to the German military patrols, people must keep calm and act reasonably. A young sailor was executed on the stairs of the headquarters, on the same day,500 people were also forcibly deported to Teverola, near Caserta, and forced to watch the execution of 14 policemen, who had offered armed resistance to the occupying forces. Almost simultaneously, a manifesto from the citys prefect called for work from all males between the ages of 18 and 30, in practice a forced deportation to labor camps in Germany
Four days of Naples
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The Biblioteca nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III in Naples where clashes took place.
Four days of Naples
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Daimler scout car of
1st King's Dragoon Guards at the town hall in Naples, 1 October 1943
10.
Bombing of the Vatican
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Bombing of Vatican City occurred twice during World War II. The first occasion was on the evening of 5 November 1943, the second bombing, which affected only the outer margin of the city, was at about the same hour on 1 March 1944, and caused the death of one person and the injury of another. Vatican City State was neutral throughout the war, both Allied and Axis aircraft crews were generally commanded to respect its neutrality even when bombing Rome. On 25 July 1943, after Allied forces had conquered the Italian possessions in Africa and had taken Sicily, the Fascist Grand Council removed Benito Mussolini from power. The Kingdom of Italy at first remained an ally of Nazi Germany, both bombings occurred while Rome was under German occupation. An undated eyewitness account written by Monsignor Domenico Tardini in 1944 states and it was a very clear and cloudless evening. For over half an hour an aeroplane was heard circling insistently over Rome, at about 8,10, while an Allied squadron passed over the Vatican, the aeroplane that until then had been circling over Rome dropped four bombs and flew away. If they had fallen a few metres off, they would have hit the Radio, the Government building, that of the Tribunals. They caused considerable damage, for all the windows were blown to pieces, the future cardinal Tardini continued, General opinion, and general indignation, blamed the Germans and, perhaps more, the Republican Fascists. The latter view was reinforced by notes about a conversation of Barracu that a telephone operator gave to the Holy Father. 5 November is for England, Father Hughes told me, an anti-Pope day, Monsignor Carroll did not know whether the delinquent had been punished. Perhaps we will know, when the war is over, what really happened, the message from Monsignor Walter S. Carroll that Monsignor Tardini spoke of as addressed to Monsignor Montini was in reality addressed to Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Maglione. The German and British authorities gave similar assurances regarding aircraft of their countries, aware that the bombs used were British, the British pointed out that this proved nothing as they could have been taken from captured ordinance and used for precisely that purpose. Augusto Ferraras 2010 book 1943 Bombe sul Vaticano, declares that the attack was orchestrated by leading Italian Fascist politician, the aim was to knock out Vatican Radio, which was suspected of sending coded message to the Allies. The aircraft that delivered the bombs was a SIAI Marchetti S. M.79, a three-engined Italian medium bomber known as the Sparviero, which had taken off from Viterbo, some 80 kilometres north of Rome. One piece of evidence on which Ferrara bases his account of the responsibility of Farinacci was a call from a priest called Giuseppe to the Jesuit Pietro Tacchi Venturi. In Ferraras account, five bombs were dropped, of one did not explode. The 2007 book Venti angeli sopra Roma by Cesare De Simone speaks of an admission of responsibility by the RAF in the postwar period
Bombing of the Vatican
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Palace of the Governatorate of Vatican City State, one of the buildings damaged by the 5 November 1943 bombing
Bombing of the Vatican
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Map of Vatican City showing the buildings of the Governatorate, the Tribunal, and the Archpriest, and the railway station, which were damaged on 5 November 1943. The mosaic workshop, which received a direct hit, is positioned between the railway station and the residence of the archpriest.
Bombing of the Vatican
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Effects of shrapnel on a wall of the Vatican railway station wall, which is adorned with a sculpture of
Elijah in the fiery chariot
11.
Volturno Line
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The Volturno Line was a German defensive position in Italy during the Italian Campaign of World War II. The line ran from Termoli in the east, along the Biferno River through the Apennine Mountains to the Volturno River in the west. Following the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 the German forces set up a series of lines across Italy. The Volturno Line was the southernmost of these, by late morning, the two elements had linked up and that night 78th Divisions 36th Brigade were able to be landed by sea at Termoli. As more German armour arrived, the Allied troops across the Biferno were forced onto the defensive, by the afternoon of 5 October, they had been squeezed back to within.5 mi of Termoli. However, at the same time frantic round the clock efforts by engineers had resulted in a heavyweight Bailey bridge being completed allowing Canadian and that evening, 78th Divisions 38th Brigade arrived by sea at Termoli and the German attack the following morning was narrowly repulsed in desperate fighting. By late morning on 6 October, the Allies were on the attack and by afternoon the Germans had started to fall back to the next prepared defences on the River Trigno. On the other coast, the U. S, fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, attacked across the Volturno on the night of 12 October. The Germans using rearguard tactics skillfully using the terrain which was favourable for defence, Italy and the Battle for Rome 1944. From the Volturno to the Winter Line 6 October-15 November 1943, washington, United States Army Center of Military History. Smith, Col. Kenneth V. Naples-Foggia 9 September 1943-21 January 1944, washington, United States Army Center of Military History. Allied invasion of Italy Gustav Line Barbara Line British Eighth Army U. S
Volturno Line
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German prepared defensive lines south of Rome
Volturno Line
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German supreme commander in Italy—Generalfeldmarshall Albert Kesselring (1940)
Volturno Line
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Summary of U.S. Fifth Army Operations, Italy 12 October to 15 November 1943
12.
Barbara Line
–
Near the eastern coast, it ran along the line of the Trigno river. The line mostly consisted of fortified hilltop positions, generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring—German commander-in-chief Italy- ordered his forces to retreat to the Barbara Line on 12 October 1943 after the U. S. Fifth Army crossed the Volturno River, breaching the Volturno defensive line, by early November the Barbara Line on the Tyrrhenian Sea side of the Apennine Mountains had been breached by the U. S. Fifth Army, and the German Forces fell back to the Bernhardt Line, on the Adriatic front east of the Apennine Mountain spine was the British Eighth Army under General Bernard Montgomery. In October Eighth Army had crossed the Bifurno river and the British Eighth Army had broken the Viktor/Volturno Line defences on 6 October, delayed by these logistical problems, the Allies were not able to attack the next line of defences behind the Trigno river immediately. It therefore was not until the hours of 2 November that the V Corps on the right of the front on the coast. On the V Corps front, British 78th Infantry Division attacked along the road while 8th Indian Infantry Division attacked some 10 mi inland. Forward elements of Eighth Army moved to contact with the forward defenses of the German Winter Line on the high ground north of the Sangro River. The Allies were able to move forward without opposition and the Allied advance reached the Sangro on 9 November, Allied invasion of Italy Italian Campaign British Eighth Army U. S. Fifth Army Volturno Line Bernhardt Line Battle of San Pietro Infine Gustav Line Gothic Line Carver, the Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Italy 1943–1945. From the Volturno to the Winter Line 6 October-15 November 1943, washington, United States Army Center of Military History. Smith, Col. Kenneth V. Naples-Foggia 9 September 1943-21 January 1944, washington, United States Army Center of Military History
Barbara Line
–
German prepared defensive lines south of Rome
13.
Air raid on Bari
–
The air raid on Bari was an air attack by German bombers on Allied forces and shipping in Bari, Italy on 2 December 1943 during World War II. The attack lasted a little more than one hour and put the port out of action until February 1944, the release of mustard gas from one of the wrecked cargo ships added to the loss of life. The British and US governments covered up the presence of mustard gas, on 11 September 1943 the port of Bari in southern Italy was taken without resistance by the British 1st Airborne Division. The port then served as an important logistics hub for Allied forces, Bari had inadequate air defences, no Royal Air Force fighter aircraft squadrons were based there, and fighters within range were assigned to escort or offensive duties, not port defence. Little thought was given to the possibility of a German air raid on Bari and he said, I would consider it as a personal insult if the enemy should send so much as one plane over the city. This was despite the fact that German air raids, partially executed by KG54 and KG76, hit the Naples port area four times in the previous month, thirty ships of American, British, Polish, Norwegian and Dutch registry were in Bari Harbour on 2 December. The adjoining port city held a population of 250,000. The port was lit on the night of the raid to expedite the unloading of supplies supporting Allied forces engaged in the Battle of Monte Cassino and was working at full capacity. On the afternoon of 2 December, Luftwaffe pilot Werner Hahn made a flight over Bari in a Messerschmitt Me 210. His report resulted in Albert Kesselring ordering the raid, Kesselring and his planners had earlier considered Allied airfields at Foggia as targets, but the Luftwaffe lacked the resources to attack such a large complex of targets. Generalfeldmarschall Wolfram von Richthofen—who commanded Luftflotte 2—had suggested Bari as an alternative, richthofen believed that crippling the port might slow the advance of the British Eighth Army. The Ju 88 pilots were ordered to fly east to the Adriatic Sea, then swing south and west, the attack opened at 19,25, when two or three German aircraft circled the harbour at 10,000 ft dropping Düppel to confuse Allied radar. They also dropped flares, which were not needed due to the harbour being well illuminated, the German bomber force obtained complete surprise and was able to bomb the harbour and its contents with great accuracy. Hits on two ammunition ships caused explosions which shattered windows 7 mi away, a bulk petrol pipeline on a quay was severed and the gushing fuel ignited. A sheet of burning fuel spread over much of the harbor, twenty-eight merchant ships laden with more than 34,000 short tons of cargo were sunk or destroyed, three ships carrying a further 7,500 short tons were later salvaged. The port was closed for three weeks and was restored to full operation in February 1944. All Bari-based submarines were undamaged, their tough exteriors able to withstand the German attack, one of the destroyed vessels—the U. S. Liberty ship John Harvey—had been carrying a cargo of 2000 M47A1 mustard gas bombs
Air raid on Bari
–
Junkers Ju 88, the aircraft employed in the raid.
14.
Winter Line
–
The Winter Line was a series of German military fortifications in Italy, constructed during World War II by Organisation Todt and commanded by Albert Kesselring. The series of 3 lines was designed to defend a western section of Italy, focused around the town of Monte Cassino, through which ran the important Highway 6 which led uninterrupted to Rome. The two subsidiary lines, the Bernhardt Line and the Hitler Line ran much shorter distances from the Tyrrehnian sea to just North East of Cassino where they would merge into the Gustav Line. Relative to the Gustav Line, the Hitler Line stood to the North-West, the Gustav Line, though ultimately broken, effectively slowed the Allied advance for months between December 1943 and June 1944. Major battles in the assault on the Winter Line at Monte Cassino, the center of the Gustav line crossed the main route north to Rome at strategically crucial Highway 6. It followed the Liri Valley and was anchored around the mountains behind the town of Cassino, a bloody and protracted battle was waged over the monastery, known as the Battle of Monte Cassino. The north end of the line was held by the town of Ortona. On the western side of the Apennines were two lines, the Bernhardt Line in front of the main Gustav positions, and the Hitler Line some 5 miles to the rear. The Winter Line was fortified with gun pits, concrete bunkers, turreted machine-gun emplacements, barbed-wire and it was the strongest of the German defensive lines south of Rome. About 15 German divisions were employed in the defence and it took the Allies from mid-November 1943 to June 1944 to fight through all the various elements of the Winter Line, including the well-known battles at Monte Cassino and Anzio. The offensive on the Bernhardt line was launched on December 1,1943 as part of Operation Raincoat. British and American troops took the terrain around Monte Camino and the Mingano Gap within a week, other authorities use the Winter Line name interchangeably with the Gustav Line as defined above. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, from the Volturno to the Winter Line 6 October-15 November 1943. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, smith, Col. Kenneth V. WWII Campaigns, Naples-Foggia 9 September 1943-21 January 1944. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, German Tactics in the Italian Campaign. La Tattica tedesca nella Campagna dItalia, in Linea Gotica avanposto dei Balcani, roma, Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas. The Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Italy 1943-1945, hitler’s Fortresses, German Fortifications and Defences 1939-45. Winter Line Stories Original stories from the front lines of the Italian Campaign by US Army Liaison Officer Major Ralph R
Winter Line
–
German-prepared defensive lines south of Rome.
Winter Line
–
Moro River Canadian Cemetery near Ortona.
15.
Bernhardt Line
–
The Bernhardt Line was a German defensive line in Italy during the Italian Campaign of World War II. Having reached the Bernhardt Line at the start of December 1943, Fifth Army to fight their way to the next line of defences, the Gustav Line. The line was defended by XIV Panzer Corps, part of the German Tenth Army, however, the defences of the Gustav Line on the Adriatic are sometimes referred to as the Bernhardt Line and the battles for this part of the line are included in this entry. The Bernhardt line was not as strong as the Gustav Line and was intended only to delay the Allies arrival at the Gustav Line, together with the Gustav Line and the Hitler Line, it made up the German Winter Line defences. Following the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943, the Italian government had surrendered, Alexander had three possible alternatives to reach the Italian capital of Rome. On the Adriatic front he could advance to Pescara and then use Route 5 which traversed the country to Rome on the other coast. Alternatively, on the side of the Apennines, highway 7 followed along the west coast. Finally, highway 6 ran in the direction, but further inland. The German forces in Italy were commanded by Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the defence of the Winter Line was the task of the German 10th Army under the temporary command of Lieutenant-General Joachim Lemelsen. The Allied Armies in Italy, formerly designated the 15th Army Group, were commanded by General Alexander, under his command were two field armies, to the left, on the western side of Italy, was the U. S. Fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, the Fifth Army consisted of American, British and French units. On 3 October, a battalion of the British Eighth Armys 78th Infantry Division had crossed the Bifurno river to confront the German Volturno-Viktor Line defences, by 6 October, the Germans were withdrawing to new defensive positions behind the Trigno river, the Barbara Line. At the Trigno, Eighth Army were obliged to pause because it had outrun its supply chain which stretched back over poor roads to the ports of Bari. Port and transport capacity had also affected by the logistic requirements of the Allied air force. The Eighth Army attacked across the Trigno on 2 November, by the next day, the German position had been turned and the Germans commenced a fighting withdrawal to the forward Winter-Line positions they were preparing on the ridges behind the Sangro River. The Eighth Armys forward units had reached the Sangro on 9 November, Alexander had planned for Montgomery to strike across the river on its coastal plain on 20 November with the V Corps. In secrecy, Montgomery shifted the Indian division to the right to narrow the V Corps front and concentrate its power, bringing the newly arrived 2nd New Zealand Division into the gap. Eighth Army also devised a scheme involving false troop movements
Bernhardt Line
–
Mt. Sambúcaro overlooking the modern town of San Pietro Infine (left) and ruins of the original town (center).
Bernhardt Line
–
German prepared defensive lines south of Rome
Bernhardt Line
–
Area of the U.S. Fifth Army offensive in the autumn of 1943.
16.
Battle of Monte Cassino
–
The Battle of Monte Cassino was a costly series of four assaults by the Allies against the Winter Line in Italy held by Axis forces during the Italian Campaign of World War II. The intention was a breakthrough to Rome, at the beginning of 1944, the western half of the Winter Line was being anchored by Germans holding the Rapido-Gari, Liri and Garigliano valleys and some of the surrounding peaks and ridges. Together, these formed the Gustav Line. Monte Cassino, a historic hilltop abbey founded in AD529 by Benedict of Nursia, dominated the town of Cassino. Lying in a historic zone, it had been left unoccupied by the Germans. They had manned some positions set into the slopes below the abbeys walls. Repeated pinpoint artillery attacks on Allied assault troops caused their leaders to conclude the abbey was being used by the Germans as an observation post, fears escalated along with casualties and in spite of a lack of clear evidence, it was marked for destruction. On 15 February American bombers dropped 1,400 tons of high explosives, the raid failed to achieve its objective, as German paratroopers occupied the rubble and established excellent defensive positions amid the ruins. Between 17 January and 18 May, Monte Cassino and the Gustav defences were assaulted four times by Allied troops, the German defenders were finally driven from their positions, but at a high cost. The capture of Monte Cassino resulted in 55,000 Allied casualties, with German losses being far fewer, estimated at around 20,000 killed and wounded. On the western front, the American Fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clarks Fifth Army made slow progress in the face of difficult terrain, wet weather, the original estimates that Rome would fall by October 1943 proved far too optimistic. Highway 6 ran through the Liri valley, dominated at its entrance by the rugged mass of Monte Cassino above the town of Cassino. Excellent observation from the peaks of several hills allowed the German defenders to detect Allied movement and direct highly accurate artillery fire, preventing any northward advance. Running across the Allied line was the fast flowing Rapido River, there the Liri river joined the Gari to form the Garigliano River, which continued on to the sea. Nevertheless, some Allied reconnaissance aircraft maintained they observed German troops inside the monastery. The main central thrust by the U. S. II Corps would commence on 20 January with the U. S. 36th Infantry Division making an assault across the swollen Gari river five miles downstream of Cassino. Simultaneously the French Expeditionary Corps, under General Alphonse Juin would continue its right hook move towards Monte Cairo, VI Corps, under Major General John P. Lucas, was due to make an amphibious landing on 22 January. The intelligence assessment of Allied prospects was therefore over-optimistic and they hardly had time to prepare the new assault, let alone take the rest and reorganization they really needed after three months of attritional fighting north from Naples
Battle of Monte Cassino
–
Ruins of the town of
Cassino after the battle
Battle of Monte Cassino
–
Royal Engineers cross Garigliano river on 19 January 1944
Battle of Monte Cassino
–
A
German tank crew attempts to restore their
Panzer IV 's mobility after battle damage inflicted during the fighting
Battle of Monte Cassino
–
US soldiers with a
57mm M-1 anti-tank gun fighting near Monte Cassino during the initial assault
17.
Battle of Anzio
–
The operation was opposed by German forces in the area of Anzio and Nettuno. Any delay could result in the occupation of the mountains by the defenders, Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, commander of the U. S. Fifth Army, understood that risk, but Clark did not pass on his appreciation of the situation to his subordinate, Lucas, the initial landing achieved complete surprise with no opposition and a jeep patrol even made it as far as the outskirts of Rome. While Lucas consolidated, Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the German commander in the Italian theatre and his artillery units had a clear view of every Allied position. The Germans also stopped the pumps and flooded the reclaimed marsh with salt water, planning to entrap the Allies. For weeks a rain of shells fell on the beach, the marsh, the harbour, after a month of heavy but inconclusive fighting, Lucas was relieved and sent home. His replacement was Major General Lucian K. Truscott, who had commanded the U. S. 3rd Infantry Division. The Allies broke out in May, at the end of 1943, following the Allied invasion of Italy, Allied forces were bogged down at the Gustav Line, a defensive line across Italy south of the strategic objective of Rome. The terrain of central Italy had proved ideally suited to defense, Operation Shingle was originally conceived by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in December 1943, as he lay recovering from pneumonia in Marrakesh. His concept was to two divisions at Anzio, bypassing German forces in central Italy, and take Rome, the strategic objective of the current Battle of Rome. By January he had recovered and was badgering his commanders for a plan of attack, accusing them of not wanting to fight but of being interested only in drawing pay and eating rations. General Harold Alexander, commander of the Allied Armies in Italy, had considered such a plan since October using five divisions. However, the 5th Army did not have the troops nor the means to transport them, Clark proposed landing a reinforced division to divert German troops from Monte Cassino. This second landing, however, instead of failing similarly, would hold the shingle for a week in expectation of a breakthrough at Cassino, the Anzio beachhead is at the northwestern end of a tract of reclaimed marshland, formerly the Pontine Marshes, now the Pontine Fields. Previously uninhabitable due to mosquitoes carrying malaria, in Roman times armies marched as quickly as possible across it on the military road, the Via Appia. The marsh was bounded on one side by the sea and on others by mountains, the Monti Albani, the Monti Lepini, overall these mountains are referenced by the name Monti Laziali, the mountains of Lazio, the ancient Latium. Invading armies from the south had the choice of crossing the marsh or taking the other road to Rome. The marshes were turned into land in the 1930s under Benito Mussolini
Battle of Anzio
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Men of the
U.S. 3rd Infantry Division landing in the area in late January 1944.
Battle of Anzio
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Soldiers of the 3d Ranger Battalion board LCIs that will take them to Anzio. Two weeks later, nearly all would be killed or captured at Cisterna.
Battle of Anzio
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Force dispositions at Anzio and Cassino January / February 1944
Battle of Anzio
–
British POWs near Nettuno
18.
Trasimene Line
–
The Trasimene Line was a German defensive line during the Italian Campaign of World War II. It was sometimes known as the Albert Line, there was a huge gap between the armies and with the Allies advancing some 10 km per day, the flanks of both armies were exposed and encirclement was threatened. Two days after Rome fell, General Sir Harold R. L. G, on Lieutenant General Mark W. Clarks U. S. Remarkable though this was, he was helped by the confusion caused in the Allied advance by the relieving of the U. S. II. By the last week of June the Allies were facing the Trasimene positions, heinrich von Vietinghoffs 10th Army had Traugott Herrs LXXVI Panzer Corps facing XIII and X Corps and Valentin Feursteins LI Mountain Corps facing the Polish II Corps on the Adriatic. The toughest defenses were around the lake itself with XIII Corps British 78th Infantry Division experiencing fierce fighting on 17 June at Città della Pieve and 21 June at San Fatucchio. By 24 June they had worked their way round to the north shore, the U. S. IV Corps also found progress slow but by 1 July had crossed the river Cecina and were within 20 miles of Livorno. Meanwhile, the French Corps had been held up on the river Orcia west of Lake Trasimene until the parachutist defenders withdrew on 27 June allowing them to enter Siena on 3 July, the Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Italy 1943-1945. Washington, United States Army Center of Military History, German Tactics in the Italian Campaign. An account of the Irish Brigade attack on Sanfatucchio Ridge on 21-25 June 1944
Trasimene Line
–
Allied advance from Rome to the Arno, 1944
19.
Battle of Ancona
–
The Polish 2nd Corps was tasked with capture of the city on 16 June 1944, accomplishing the task a month later on 18 July 1944. The Allied advance north meant that the line was in need of a port closer to the front lines than the ports of Pescara. As such, two new targets were designated, Ancona on the Adriatic coast, and Leghorn on the Tyrrhenian Sea, on 17 June, Anders was given command of the Adriatic sector of the Italian theatre. The first obstacle to cross was the Chienti river, Polish troops reached it on 21 June, and heavy fighting lasted in that region until 30 June. The main offensive on Ancona began on 17 July, Polish armored troops took Monte della Crescia and outflanked German troops defending Ancona. Next, Polish troops secured Casenuove, and neighbouring British and Canadian troops took Montecchio, by the evening of 17 July, Polish troops were near Agugliano, and the following morning they took Offagna. Later that day, Polish troops took Chiaravalle, and armored troops reached the sea, the Germans were falling back towards the sea, and Polish troops encountered little resistance entering Ancona at 14,30 on 18 July. Taking Ancona was the independent operation of the Polish II Corps. Afterward, the Corps took part in the breaking of the Gothic Line, for their action in the battle while seconded to the Polish corps, the British 7th Queens Own Hussars received the battle honour Ancona. Zbigniew Wawer, Zdobycie Bolonii, Chwała Oręża Polskiego 32, Rzeczpospolita,3 March 2007
Battle of Ancona
–
German defensive positions in Northern Italy 1944. Polish II Corps advance and taking on Ancona showed on the map.
20.
Invasion of Elba
–
The invasion of Elba, codenamed Operation Brassard, was part of the Italian campaign during the Second World War. The invasion was carried out by Free French Forces supported by British and American ships and it came as a complete surprise to the German garrison although it had been reinforced for just such a possibility. The defenders resisted for two days before being given permission to withdraw to the mainland, the Allied 15th Army Group—under the command of General Sir Harold Alexander—captured Rome on 4 June 1944 and forced the German 14th and 10th Armies to withdraw into Northern Italy. This success was followed by orders for the invasion of southern France, the 15th Army Group were asked to supply the majority of the troops for the landings. This reduced the U. S. 5th Army to five divisions, the whole of the 15th Army Group now only consisted of 18 divisions, and the reduction in strength put on hold any plans Alexander had of reaching the Gothic Line by August 1944. One operation they could carry out was the invasion of Elba. The landings had then been postponed because of the shortage of support aircraft, the objectives of the invasion were to prevent the Germans using the island as a forward outpost and to provide a gun position for Allied artillery to interdict traffic on the Piombino canal. It is not known if the Germans were aware of the Allied plans, on 12 June, the German commander in Italy—Field Marshal Albert Kesselring—was informed that Elba must be defended to the last man and the last cartridge. On 14 June, German reinforcements started to arrive on Elba from Pianosa, the decision to reinforce Elba was not known to the Allies who believed the naval activity between the island and the mainland was in fact an evacuation. The naval commander for the operation was Rear-Admiral Thomas Hope Troubridge of the Royal Navy and he was in command of Force N, which would be responsible for landing the assault division. Because of the shallow waters large naval and transport ships could not be used, the only naval gunfire support would be provided by Landing Craft Hedgehogs and the Insect-class gunboats HMS Aphis and Cockchafer. The naval force would be formed into three groups, Group 1 comprised Motor Torpedo Boats and PT boats and they would initially create diversions and land the French Commandos on the northern side of the island. Their objective would be the gun batteries located there, Group 2 would comprise five Landing Craft Infantry and eight motor launches each towing a Landing Craft Assault. Their objective was four beaches on the south coast, Group 3 comprised the main force, in nine LCIs, four Landing Ships Tank, and three motor launches towing Landing Craft Support. The main landings would be on two beaches codenamed Kodak Amber and Kodak Green at 04,00 and they would be followed at 04,30 by another 28 LCIs and after dawn by 40 LCTs, bringing in heavier equipment. In the briefing immediately prior to the landing, Troubridge said he expected the shore batteries to have taken out by aerial bombardment. He also said the garrison consisted of about 800 men. On 16 June, the day before the invasion, German reconnaissance aircraft spotted two flotillas of ships, but thought they were just the normal naval convoys between Naples and Bastia
Invasion of Elba
–
French 9th Colonial Division landing on Elba, 17 June 1944.
Invasion of Elba
–
Elba between Corsica and Italy
21.
Battle of San Marino
–
It is also sometimes known as the Battle of Monte Pulito. Whilst San Marino was southwest of Rimini, the plan was for it to be bypassed entirely, in response to the Allied movements, the Germans sent a small force into San Marino to guard their lines of communication and act as artillery observers. On 17 September the 4th Indian Infantry Division attacked forces of the 278, the city was captured by the afternoon of 20 September, and the 4th Indian Division left the country on the 21st, leaving it under the control of the local defence forces. The microstate of San Marino, in the northern Italian peninsula and it had a fascist government, closely aligned with Benito Mussolinis regime, but remained neutral. It was reported to have declared war against the United Kingdom in September 1940, in early 1942, the Sammarinese government reiterated it was not at war with the United States, a position that was confirmed by the US State Department. The country was bombed by the Allies on 27 June 1944, the Sammarinese government declared the same day that no military installations or equipment were located on its territory, and that no belligerent forces had been allowed to enter. By the late summer of 1944, German forces in Italy had withdrawn toward the Gothic Line, the Allies formulated a plan to break through the defences, pushing north toward Rimini and the plains of Northern Italy. Once through the Gap, the force would deploy outward onto the Romagna Plain, meanwhile, the American Fifth Army would push north along the centre of the peninsula, hopefully converging on Bologna and trapping a large German force in a pincer movement. The main Allied assault began on 25 August, reaching the Foglia valley—the Gothic Line proper—on 29 August, the Allied offensive reached the river on 3 September, but ground to a halt due to mechanical difficulties with its tanks, strengthening German resistance, and heavy rain. The Allied forces halted, and brought up reinforcements whilst waiting for a chance to resume the offensive along the coast, on the left flank of the assault, the attack had been halted in the Battle of Gemmano, to the south of the Conca river. At this point, the forces on the Allied left wing were strung out in a line running due south from the Coriano ridge, facing westward toward San Marino, the 56th Infantry Division was opposite Croce, with the 46th Infantry Division opposite the heavily defended position at Gemmano. The 4th Indian Infantry Division was to the south of the 46th and it was finally captured by the 46th and 4th Indian Divisions on the morning of the 15th, and the British forces prepared to move toward Montescudo and exploit the German confusion. The 46th Division took Montescudo on the 15th, and on the day the 56th Division entered the town of Mulazzano, directly north of Montescudo. The fighting pressed westward from here, with the 56th Division on the northern flank, the defending force was drawn from the 278. Infanterie-Division, whilst the 4th Indian Division was assigned to attack it on the 17th and these small hills—just behind the river—were held by two battalions of the 993rd Grenadier Regiment. The first—Point 343—was taken at 05,00, but the force occupying Point 366 had to back after running low on ammunition. Point 343 was held through the 18th, however, though with the loss of 63 men, by the evening, a force of tanks had managed to come up and stabilise the position with the aid of artillery support. The 4th/11th Sikh Regiment moved around the Gurkhas to the north, covering the flank of the San Marino heights
Battle of San Marino
–
Neutrality placards at the borders of San Marino
Battle of San Marino
–
The initial plan for
Operation Olive, the attempt to break the Gothic Line (red); the planned offensive is shown in blue, along the eastern coast. The arrows converge north of San Marino.
Battle of San Marino
–
San Marino shaded in red, with major nearby sites marked
Battle of San Marino
–
British soldier observing German positions near San Marino
22.
Gothic Line
–
The Gothic Line was a German defensive line of the Italian Campaign of World War II. Adolf Hitler had concerns about the state of preparation of the Gothic Line, in response to this order, Kesselring renamed it the Green Line in June 1944. Initially this line was breached during Operation Olive, but Kesselrings forces were able to retire in good order. Operation Olive has been described as the biggest battle of materials ever fought in Italy, over 1,200,000 men participated in the battle. The battle took the form of a manoeuvre, carried out by the British Eighth Army. Fifth Army against the German 10th Army and German 14th Army, Rimini, a city which had been hit by previous air raids, had 1,470,000 rounds fired against it by allied land forces. This would have required the U. S and this last redoubt proved the Germans determination to continue fighting. Nevertheless, it was fortunate for the Allies that at this stage of the war the Italian partisan forces had become effective in disrupting the German preparations in the high mountains. By September 1944, German generals were no longer able to move freely in the area behind their lines because of partisan activity. One of his colleagues who ignored this caution—Wilhelm Crisolli —was caught, Fifth Army to take part in the landings in southern France, Operation Dragoon. Whilst this would threaten Germany from the rear, Churchill was more concerned to forestall the Russians advancing into central Europe, Chiefs of Staff had strongly opposed this strategy as diluting the Allied focus in France. However, following the Allied successes in France during the summer, Chiefs relented, and there was complete agreement amongst the Combined Chiefs of Staff at the Second Quebec Conference on 12 September. It was the shortest route to his objective, the plains of Lombardy and he mounted a deception operation to convince the Germans that the main blow would come on the Adriatic front. On 4 August, Alexander met Lieutenant-General Leese, the British Eighth Army commander and he suggested a surprise attack along the Adriatic coast. On the coast, Lieutenant-General Sir Oliver Leese, the British Eighth Army commander, had Polish II Corps with 5th Kresowa Division in the front line and the 3rd Carpathian Division in reserve. To the left of the Poles was Canadian I Corps which had the Canadian 1st Infantry Division in the front line, for the opening phase the corps artillery was strengthened with the addition of the British 4th Infantry Divisions artillery. West of the Canadians was British V Corps with the British 46th Infantry Division manning the right of the front line. In reserve were the British 56th Infantry and 1st Armoured Divisions, further to the rear was the British 4th Division, waiting to be called forward to join the corps
Gothic Line
–
German defensive positions in Northern Italy, 1944
Gothic Line
–
By the end of 1944, the replacements made with troops of the
U.S. 92nd Infantry Division (photo) and the
Brazilian division, still hadn't covered the blank left by those diverted to Southern France.
Gothic Line
–
British tanks and infantry of the 5th Battalion,
Sherwood Foresters, part of
139th Brigade of
46th Division, during the advance to the Gothic Line, 27–28 August 1944.
Gothic Line
–
Top of Il Giogo Pass in the Gothic Line, looking toward the north.
23.
Spring 1945 offensive in Italy
–
The Spring 1945 offensive in Italy, codenamed Operation Grapeshot, was the final Allied attack during the Italian Campaign in the final stages of the Second World War. The attack into the Lombardy Plain by the 15th Allied Army Group started on 6 April 1945, Fifth Army, led by Lieutenant General Mark Clark, attacking through the central Apennine Mountains. Although they managed to breach the formidable Gothic Line defences, they failed to break out into the Po Valley before the winter weather closed in. Their forward formations spent the rest of the winter in highly inhospitable conditions while preparations were made to renew the campaign when better conditions returned in the spring. When Field Marshal Sir John Dill, the head of the British Mission in Washington, died on 5 November, General Harold Alexander, having been promoted to Field Marshal, was in turn appointed to replace Wilson as Allied Supreme Commander Mediterranean on 12 December. Lieutenant General Mark Clark succeeded Alexander as commander of the Allied forces in Italy and he returned to Italy to assume command of U. S. Command changes also took place in the German army before the spring campaign, on 23 March Albert Kesselring was appointed Commander-in-Chief Army Group West, replacing General-Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt. Heinrich von Vietinghoff returned from the Baltic to take over from Kesselring while Traugott Herr, joachim Lemelsen, who had had temporary command of the 10th Army, returned to the command of the 14th Army. Looking ahead to the spring, the problems of manning continued, in early January 1945 the British 1st British Division was sent to Palestine. At the end of January 1945, I Canadian Corps and British 5th Infantry Division were ordered to North West Europe, two other divisions, both British, were to follow them to Europe, but Alexander argued for these to instead remain in Italy. S. Allied strength amounted to 17 divisions plus 8 independent brigades, an equivalent of just under 20 divisions. 15th Army Groups total headcount amounted to 1,334,000 men with Eighth Armys effective fighting strength totalling 632,980 men, against them were ranged 21 much weaker German divisions and 4 Italian ENR divisions, a total of 25. Clark set out his plan on 18 March. Its objective was. to destroy the maximum number of forces south of the Po, force crossings of the Po. An amphibious operation across the lake and parachute drop would bring pressure to bear on the flank, depending on the relative success of these actions a decision would be made on whether Eighth Armys prime objective would become Ferrara, on the Via Adriatica, or remain Budrio. Meanwhile, it was intended for U. S, Fifth Army to launch the Army Groups main effort at 24 hours notice from two days after Eighth Armys attack and break into the Po valley. The capture of Bologna was given as a secondary task, in Phase II, the Eighth Army was to drive north west to capture Ferrara and Bondeno, blocking routes of potential retreat across the Po. Fifth Army was to push past Bologna north to link with Eighth Army in the Bondeno region to complete an encirclement of German forces south of the Po
Spring 1945 offensive in Italy
–
British troops of the
5th (Huntingdonshire) Battalion, Northamptonshire Regiment, part of
11th Brigade of
78th Division, pick their way through the ruins of Argenta, 18 April 1945
Spring 1945 offensive in Italy
–
Allied Spring Offensive April 1945: Note that 21 ID NZ is actually New Zealand 2nd Infantry Division
Spring 1945 offensive in Italy
–
5th Army offensive, April 1945
24.
Armistice
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An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, since it may constitute only a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace and it is derived from the Latin arma, meaning arms and -stitium, meaning a stopping. The United Nations Security Council often imposes, or tries to impose, armistices are always negotiated between the parties themselves and are thus generally seen as more binding than non-mandatory UN cease-fire resolutions in modern international law. An armistice is a modus vivendi and is not the same as a peace treaty, the 1953 Korean War Armistice Agreement is a major example of an armistice which has not been followed by a peace treaty. Armistice is also different from a truce or ceasefire, which refer to a cessation of hostilities for an agreed limited time or within a limited area. A truce may be needed in order to negotiate an armistice, under international law an armistice is a legal agreement which ends fighting between the belligerent parties of a war or conflict. The Hague II Treaty, says If duration is not fixed, the parties can resume fighting as they choose and this is in comparison to a fixed duration armistice, where the parties can renew fighting only at the end of the particular fixed duration. Most countries changed the name of the holiday after World War II, to veterans of that. Most member states of the Commonwealth of Nations adopted the name Remembrance Day, archived from the original on 2 February 2007. The Expanded Cease-Fires Data Set Code Book
Armistice
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Ratification of the
Treaty of Münster, 1648
Armistice
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The announcing of the armistice on November 11, 1918, was the occasion for large celebrations in the allied nations.
Armistice
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Delegates sign the Korean Armistice Agreement
25.
Walter Bedell Smith
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He was Eisenhowers chief of staff at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force in the campaign in Western Europe from 1944 through 1945. Smith enlisted as a private in the Indiana Army National Guard in 1911, in 1917, during World War I, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant. He was wounded in the Aisne-Marne Offensive in 1918, after World War I, he was a staff officer and instructor at the U. S. Army Infantry School. In 1941, he became Secretary of the General Staff, and his duties involved taking part in discussions of war plans at the highest level, and Smith often briefed President Franklin D. Roosevelt on strategic matters. Smith became chief of staff to Eisenhower at AFHQ in September 1942 and he acquired a reputation as Eisenhowers hatchet man for his brusque and demanding manner. However, he was capable of representing Eisenhower in sensitive missions requiring diplomatic skill. Smith was involved in negotiating the armistice between Italy and the Allies, which he signed on behalf of Eisenhower, in 1944, he became the Chief of Staff of SHAEF, again under Eisenhower. After World War II, he served as the U. S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1946 to 1948, then in 1950, Smith became the Director of Central Intelligence, the head of the Central Intelligence Agency and other intelligence agencies in the United States. Smith reorganized the CIA, redefined its structure and its mission and he made the CIA the arm of government primarily responsible for covert operations. He left the CIA in 1953 to become an Under Secretary of State, after retiring from the State Department in 1954, Smith continued to serve the Eisenhower Administration in various posts for several years, until his retirement and his death in 1961. Smith was called Bedell from his boyhood, from an early age he was nicknamed Beetle, or occasionally Beedle or Boodle. He was educated at St. Peter and Paul School, public schools #10 and #29, Oliver Perry Morton School, and Emmerich Manual High School, while still there, he took a job at the National Motor Vehicle Company, and eventually left high school without graduating. Smith enrolled at Butler University, but his father developed serious health problems, in 1911, at the age of 16, Smith enlisted as a private in Company D of the 2nd Indiana Infantry of the Indiana National Guard. The Indiana National Guard was called out twice in 1913, for the Ohio River flood, Smith was promoted to corporal and then sergeant. During the Pancho Villa Expedition he served on the staff of the Indiana National Guard, in 1913, Smith met Mary Eleanor Cline, who was born in 1893 and died in 1963, and they were married in a traditional Roman Catholic wedding ceremony on 1 July 1917. Their marriage was of long duration but childless, Smiths work during the Ohio River flood of 1913 led to his nomination for officer training in 1917, and he was sent to the Officer Candidate Training Camp at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana. Upon his graduation on 27 November 1917, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant and he was then assigned to the newly formed Company A, 1st Battalion, 39th Infantry, part of the 4th Infantry Division at Camp Greene, North Carolina. The 4th Infantry Division embarked for Europe, then embroiled in World War I, from Hoboken, New Jersey, on 9 May 1918, reaching Brest, France, on the 23rd of May
Walter Bedell Smith
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Walter Bedell Smith
Walter Bedell Smith
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Allied leaders in the Sicilian campaign. General Eisenhower meets in North Africa with (foreground, left to right): Air Chief Marshal Sir
Arthur Tedder, General Sir
Harold R.L.G. Alexander, Admiral Sir
Andrew B. Cunningham, and (top row): Mr.
Harold Macmillan, Major General W. Bedell Smith, and several unidentified British officers.
Walter Bedell Smith
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Secret Emissaries to Lisbon (left to right) Brigadier Kenneth W. D. Strong, Generale di Brigata Giuseppe Castellano, Smith, and Consul Franco Montanari, an official from the Italian Foreign Office.
Walter Bedell Smith
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Smith and his wartime secretary, Ruth Briggs, who was also Smith's executive assistant when he was Ambassador to the Soviet Union after the war
26.
Giuseppe Castellano
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Giuseppe Castellano was an Italian general who negotiated the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces on September 8,1943. Of Sicilian descent but born in Prato he was the son of a military man and his career in the Army was rapid and brilliant. In the First World War he was Captain of Artillery, in 1941, he was promoted to brigadier general during the Invasion of Yugoslavia, and was at that time, the youngest general in Italy. In 1942 he was called to the Army General Staff and the year, to the High Command. He was a friend of Benito Mussolinis son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano. Ciano was involved in ousting Mussolini in July 1943 after the Allied invasion of Sicily, Castellano sided with Ciano and had a prominent role in the events that led up to the fall of the fascist regime. He organised the arrest of Mussolini, the new Prime Minister, Pietro Badoglio, sent Castellano to Lisbon in order to contact Allied diplomats to set the conditions for the surrender of Italy. He ordered Castellano to insist that any surrender of Italy was subject to a landing of Allied troops on the Italian mainland, Badoglio also dared to ask for access to Allied military plans, which was not accepted. After complicated negotiations the government and king accepted the conditions for the armistice, the agreement was not announced until September 8, when Badoglio addressed the nation during a radio broadcast. After the armistice Castellano emerged as Sicily’s military commander and he had been given powers to hold talks to resolve the separatist threat to Italian unity. He became convinced that the Mafia was the strongest political and social force on Sicily to be reckoned with and he started to establish cordial relations with Mafia leaders. The general believed that law and order could be restored if the system employed by the old. Castellano made contacts with Mafia leaders and met with several times. He gained the cooperation of Mafia boss Calogero Vizzini, who had supported separatism but was now prepared for a change in the political situation. Together with Vizzini, he approached Trapani politician Virgilio Nasi to offer him the leadership of a movement for Sicilian autonomy with the support of the Mafia. The plan was to stage Nasi as a candidate for High Commissioner for Sicily to oppose the favourite, castellano’s initiative weakened the Sicilian Independence Movement of Andrea Finocchiaro Aprile. The Mafia, however, became a force of order and stability on the island, the seeds were planted from which the Mafia would tremendously benefit in the decades to come. He wrote a number of books about his experiences during the War, Come firmai larmistizio di Cassabile, published by Mondadori in 1945, La guerra continua, and Roma Kaputt
Giuseppe Castellano
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Giuseppe Castellano
Giuseppe Castellano
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Castellano (in civilian) shakes hands with Eisenhower after the signing of the Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces in Cassibile on September 8, 1943
27.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
Kingdom of Italy
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Italian unification process.
Kingdom of Italy
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Flag
Kingdom of Italy
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Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, the first Prime Minister of the unified Italy.
Kingdom of Italy
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Victor Emmanuel II, the first King of the united Italy.
28.
Allies of World War II
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The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese, at the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland was a minor factor after its defeat in 1939, France was a minor factor after its defeat in 1940. China had already been into a war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942, however, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the Big Three – the UK, the Soviet Union, in 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I, Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republics legitimacy became shaken, by the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German-populated Austria. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement, in Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933, after four quiet years, the Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japans actions and initiated sanctions on Japan, the United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country, also, the French had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the powers. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, a Polish government-in-exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini
Allies of World War II
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Poland first to fight — British wartime poster supporting
Poland after the German invasion, 1939
Allies of World War II
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Allied Powers (and their colonies)
Allies of World War II
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British
Supermarine Spitfire fighter aircraft (left) flying past a German
Heinkel He-111 bomber aircraft (right) during the
Battle of Britain
Allies of World War II
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British tanks during the
North African Campaign
29.
Cassibile (village)
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Cassibile is an Italian village and civil parish of the city and municipality of Syracuse, in Sicily. As of 2006 its population was of 5,800, in 1797 the Bourbons conceded the territory, together with the title of Marquis, to Silvestro Loffredo. In 1850, he started the construction of the village, which was completed by his son Gaetano. During the Second World War, the village became famous as the location of the armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces, signed on September 3 and publicly declared on September 8,1943. The archaeological site of Cassibile, spread over the hills on either side of the Cassibile river, consists of hundreds of chamber tombs dating to the Late Bronze. Cassibile is located 18 km south of Syracuse and close to the village of Fontane Bianche, by the Mediterranean Sea and it is 12 km far from Avola and 21 from Noto. The Cassibile river flows a few kilometres west of the village, the A18, a partially built motorway that links Messina and Gela through Catania, Syracuse and Ragusa, serves the locality. Cassibile also contains a railway station on the Syracuse-Gela-Canicattì line. Media related to Cassibile at Wikimedia Commons Cassibile official website Cassibile in the World Cassibile online The sea resort of Fontane Bianche
Cassibile (village)
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Village church
