1.
Scud
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Scud is a series of tactical ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was exported widely to both Second and Third World countries, the term comes from the NATO reporting name Scud which was attached to the missile by Western intelligence agencies. The Russian names for the missile are the R-11, and the R-17 Elbrus, the name Scud has been widely used to refer to these missiles and the wide variety of derivative variants developed in other countries based on the Soviet design. The first use of the term Scud was in the NATO name SS-1b Scud-A, the earlier R-1 missile had carried the NATO name SS-1 Scunner, but was of a very different design, almost directly a copy of the German V-2 rocket. The R-11 used technology gained from the V-2 as well, but was a new design, smaller and differently shaped than the V-2, the R-11 was developed by the Korolyev OKB and entered service in 1957. The most revolutionary innovation in the R-11 was the engine, designed by A. M, far simpler than the V-2s multi-chamber design, and employing an anti-oscillation baffle to prevent chugging, it was a forerunner to the larger engines used in Soviet launch vehicles. The SS-1e Scud-D variant developed in the 1980s can deliver a terminally guided warhead capable of greater precision, all models are 11.35 m long and 0.88 m in diameter. They are propelled by a single rocket engine burning kerosene and corrosion inhibited red fuming nitric acid with UDMH. The missile reaches a speed of mach 5. The first of the Scud series, designated R-11 originated in a 1951 requirement for a missile with similar performance to the German V-2 rocket. The R-11 was developed by engineer Viktor Makeev, who was working in the OKB-1. It first flew on 18 April 1953, was fitted with an Isayev engine using kerosene, on 13 December 1953, a production order was passed with SKB-385 in Zlatoust, a factory dedicated to producing long-range rockets. In June 1955, Makeev was appointed chief designer of the SKB-385 to oversee the program and, in July, the definitive R-11M, designed to carry a nuclear warhead, was accepted officially into service on 1 April 1958. The launch system received the GRAU designation 8K11, the R-11M had a maximum range of 270 km, but when carrying a nuclear warhead, this was reduced to 150 km. A naval variant, the R-11FM was first tested in February 1955, while the initial design was done by Korolevs OKB-1, the program was transferred to Makeevs SKB-385 in August 1955. It became operational in 1959 and was deployed onboard Project 611, during its service,77 launches were conducted, of which 59 were successful. The successor to the R-11, the R-17, renamed R-300 in the 1970s, was the most prolific of the series and it served in 32 countries and four countries besides the Soviet Union manufactured copied versions. The first launch was conducted in 1961, and it entered service in 1964, the R-17 was an improved version of the R-11
2.
Rose Gottemoeller
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Rose Eilene Gottemoeller is an American diplomat who is the current Deputy Secretary General of NATO, serving under Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg. She formerly served in her own country as Under Secretary of State for Arms Control, Gottemoeller received a B. S. from Georgetown University, and an M. A. from The George Washington University. Gottemoeller was confirmed as Under Secretary of State by the U. S. Senate on March 6,2014 and she was the chief negotiator of the follow on for the Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty otherwise known as the New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty with the Russian Federation. Since 2000, she had been with the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Before returning to government, she was an associate in the Carnegie Russia & Eurasia Program in Washington, D. C. where she worked on U. S. –Russian relations. While with Carnegie, Gottemoeller led consultative Track II meetings with Russian nuclear experts and she also served as the director of the Carnegie Moscow Center from January 2006 to December 2008. Gottemoeller was formerly the Deputy Under Secretary of Energy for Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation at the U. S Department of Energy and she had previously held the post of Assistant Secretary for Nonproliferation and National Security, also at the Department of Energy. At DOE, Gottemoeller was responsible for all nonproliferation cooperation with Russia and she first joined the Department of Energy in November 1997 as director of the Office of Nonproliferation and National Security. Prior to her work at the Department of Energy, Gottemoeller served for three years as Deputy Director of the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, previously, she was a social scientist at RAND and a Council on Foreign Relations International Affairs Fellow. She has taught Soviet military policy and Russian security at Georgetown University, on August 6,2015, Gottemoeller became the first senior American official to attend the memorial of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, Japan by the United States in World War II. It marked the 70th anniversary of the bombing and Gottemoeller was accompanied by US ambassador Caroline Kennedy, japans prime minister Shinzo Abe at the memorial, with representatives of 100 countries in attendance, reiterated Japanese policy in favor of the abolition of nuclear weapons. Japan also had hoped for US president Barack Obama to attend the memorial and has a call for the US to apologize for the bombings. Gottemoeller became the first female Deputy Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization on October 17,2016 and this article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of State website http, //www. state. gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/index. htm. Official site of the Department of States Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance Appearances on C-SPAN
3.
United States Department of State
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The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established. The Department is headquartered in the Harry S Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, the Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U. S. diplomacy efforts. The Department is also the depositary for more than 200 multilateral treaties, the Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Rex Tillerson, beginning 1 February 2017, the Secretary of State is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession, after the President pro tempore of the Senate. This legislation remains the law of the Department of State. In September 1789, additional legislation changed the name of the agency to the Department of State and these responsibilities grew to include management of the United States Mint, keeper of the Great Seal of the United States, and the taking of the census. President George Washington signed the new legislation on September 15, most of these domestic duties of the Department of State were eventually turned over to various new Federal departments and agencies that were established during the 19th century. On September 29,1789, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, then Minister to France, from 1790 to 1800, the State Department had its headquarters in Philadelphia, the capital of the United States at the time. It occupied a building at Church and Fifth Streets, in 1800, it moved from Philadelphia to Washington, D. C. where it first occupied the Treasury Building and then the Seven Buildings at 19th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue. It moved into the Six Buildings in September 1800, where it remained until May 1801 and it moved into the War Office Building due west of the White House in May 1801. It occupied the Treasury Building from September 1819 to November 1866 and it then occupied the Washington City Orphan Home from November 1866 to July 1875. It moved to the State, War, and Navy Building in 1875, since May 1947, it has occupied the Harry S. Truman Building in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, the State Department is therefore sometimes metonymically referred to as Foggy Bottom. Madeleine Albright became the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State, condoleezza Rice became the second female secretary of state in 2005. Hillary Rodham Clinton became the female secretary of state when she was appointed in 2009. In 2014, the State Department began expanding into the Navy Hill Complex across 23rd Street NW from the Truman Building, the Executive Branch and the U. S. Congress have constitutional responsibilities for U. S. foreign policy. Within the Executive Branch, the Department of State is the lead U. S, the Department advances U. S. objectives and interests in the world through its primary role in developing and implementing the Presidents foreign policy. It also provides an array of important services to U. S. citizens, the total Department of State budget, together with Other International Programs, costs about 45 cents a day for each resident of the United States. Keeping the public informed about U. S. foreign policy and relations with other countries, providing automobile registration for non-diplomatic staff vehicles and the vehicles of diplomats of foreign countries having diplomatic immunity in the United States
4.
Arms Control and Disarmament Act of 1961
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The Arms Control and Disarmament Act of 1961,22 U. S. C. §2551, was created to establish a body for the control and reduction of apocalyptic armaments with regards to protect a world from the burdens of armaments. The Act provided an important aspect for the Kennedy Administrations foreign policy which was coherent with the United States national security policy. The H. R.9118 legislation was passed by the United States 87th Congressional session, the Arms Control and Disarmament Act established the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency. The U. S. federal organization developed the formulation and implementation of the United States arms control, the agency provided information and recommendations with regards to U. S. economic, foreign, and national security policies to executive and legislative officials of the United States government. The Act established several core functions for the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, Conduct, coordinate, management and preparation of the United States participation in international negotiations for the arms control and disarmament peace process. Coordination and dissemination of United States public information concerning arms control, operation and preparation, as appropriate, for the United States participation in control systems of domestic and international arms control and disarmament activities. The federal statute was penned as four titles created as Chapter 35 within Title 22 which defines the United States foreign policies for international relations, Congressional legislation related to United States arms control and disarmament provisions. Peters, Gerhard, Woolley, John T. Lyndon B, johnson, Letter to the President of the Senate and to the Speaker of the House on Continuing the Agency for Arms Control and Disarmament, January 15,1965. University of California - Santa Barbara, peters, Gerhard, Woolley, John T. Lyndon B. Johnson, Remarks at the Signing of the Bill Extending the Arms Control, university of California - Santa Barbara. Peters, Gerhard, Woolley, John T. Lyndon B, johnson, Statement by the President on the Fifth Anniversary of the Arms Control and Disarmament Act. University of California - Santa Barbara, jimmy Carter, Arms Control and Disarmament Act Amendments of 1977 Statement on Signing H. R.6179 Into Law. University of California - Santa Barbara, peters, Gerhard, Woolley, John T. George Bush, Statement on Signing the Arms Control and Disarmament Amendments Act of 1989, December 11,1989. University of California - Santa Barbara
5.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
6.
John J. McCloy
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John Jay McCloy, was an American lawyer and banker who served as Assistant Secretary of War during World War II. After the war he served as president of the World Bank, High Commissioner for Germany, chairman of Chase Manhattan Bank, and chairman of the Council on Foreign Relations. He later became a prominent United States presidential adviser, served on the Warren Commission, McCloy was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the son of John J. McCloy and Anna McCloy. His father was an insurance man who died when the son was five. His mother was a hairdresser in Philadelphia, with many high-society clients and his original name was John Snader McCloy. It was later changed to John Jay McCloy, probably to sound more aristocratic, McCloy was educated at the Peddie School in New Jersey, and Amherst College from which he graduated in 1916. He was a student who excelled at tennis and moved smoothly among the sons of the nations elite. McCloy was a brother of Beta Theta Pi Fraternity at Amherst where he was initiated as Roll No.330, McCloy enrolled in Harvard Law School in 1916, and he was an average student. He was profoundly influenced by his experience at the Plattsburg Preparedness camps, when the US entered the war in 1917, he joined the Army in May and was trained at Plattsburg, New York and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Artillery on August 15,1917. He was promoted to first lieutenant on December 29, in May 1918 he was assigned as an aide to Brigadier General G. H. Preston - commander of the 160th Field Artillery Brigade of the 85th Division. He sailed for France for service with the American Expeditionary Force in France on July 29,1918 and he saw combat service in the last weeks of the war, as commander of an artillery battery during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. After the armistice of November 1918, he was transferred to General Headquarters of the AEF in Chaumont, Haute-Marne, France and he was then sent to the Advance General Headquarters in Trier, Germany and was promoted to captain on June 29. McCloy returned to the US on July 20 and resigned from the Army on August 15,1919 and he then returned to Harvard where he received his LL. B. degree in 1921. McCloy went to New York to become an associate in the firm of Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft and he moved to Cravath, Henderson, & de Gersdorff in 1924, where he worked with many wealthy clients, such as the St. Paul Railroad. In 1934 McCloy found new evidence allowing him to re-open an action for damages against Germany for the destruction caused by the 1916 Black Tom explosion. He did a deal of work for corporations in Nazi Germany and advised the major German chemical combine I. G. Farben. By the time he left for government service in 1940, McCloy earned about $45,000 a year and had savings of $106,000 and his involvement in litigation over a World War I sabotage case gave him a strong interest in intelligence issues and in German affairs. L Once the war started, McCloy was a voice in setting US military priorities
7.
Nonproliferation
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Four countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapons States have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons, India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. None of these four is a party to the NPT, although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003, Research into the development of nuclear weapons was undertaken during World War II by the United States, Germany, Japan, and the USSR. The United States was the first and is the country to have used a nuclear weapon in war. With their loss during the war, Germany and Japan ceased to be involved in any nuclear weapon research, in August 1949, the USSR tested a nuclear weapon. The United Kingdom tested a nuclear weapon in October 1952, France developed a nuclear weapon in 1960. The Peoples Republic of China detonated a weapon in 1964. India exploded a device in 1974, and Pakistan conducted a series of nuclear weapon tests in May 1998. In 2006, North Korea conducted its first nuclear test, none of these efforts were explicitly public, because the weapon developments themselves were kept secret until the bombing of Hiroshima. The Baruch Plan, which drew heavily from the Acheson–Lilienthal Report of 1946, proposed the verifiable dismantlement, Security Council could veto, and which would proportionately punish states attempting to acquire the capability to make nuclear weapons or fissile material. Baruchs plea for the destruction of nuclear weapons invoked basic moral, in one part of his address to the UN, Baruch said, Behind the black portent of the new atomic age lies a hope which, seized upon with faith, can work out our salvation. If we fail, then we have damned every man to be the slave of Fear and we must elect World Peace or World Destruction. We must answer the worlds longing for peace and security, with this remark, Baruch helped launch the field of nuclear ethics, to which many policy experts and scholars have contributed. Although the Baruch Plan enjoyed wide support, it failed to emerge from the UNAEC because the Soviet Union planned to veto it in the Security Council. Still, it remained official American policy until 1953, when President Eisenhower made his Atoms for Peace proposal before the U. N. General Assembly, eisenhowers proposal led eventually to the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency in 1957. Efforts to conclude an agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s. Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, in 1968, governments represented at the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee finished negotiations on the text of the NPT. In June 1968, the U. N. General Assembly endorsed the NPT with General Assembly Resolution 2373, and in July 1968, the NPT entered into force in March 1970. The main materials whose generation and distribution is controlled are highly enriched uranium and plutonium, dual-use technology refers to the possibility of military use of civilian nuclear power technology
8.
Disarmament
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Disarmament is the act of reducing, limiting, or abolishing weapons. Disarmament generally refers to a military or specific type of weaponry. Disarmament is often taken to mean total elimination of weapons of destruction, such as nuclear arms. ”Before World War I at the Hague Peace Conferences in 1899 and 1907 government delegations debated about disarmament. The court was considered necessary because it was understood that nation-states could not disarm into a vacuum, after the war revulsion at the futility and tremendous cost of the war was widespread. A commonly held belief was that the cause of the war had been the escalating buildup of armaments in the half century among the great powers. Although the Treaty of Versailles effectively disarmed Germany, a clause was inserted that called on all the powers to likewise progressively disarm over a period of time. One of the earliest successful achievements in disarmament was obtained with the Washington Naval Treaty, the size of the three countrys navies was set at the ratio 5-5-3. In 1921 the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments was set up by the League of Nations to explore possibilities for disarmament, proposals ranged from abolishing chemical warfare and strategic bombing to the limitation of more conventional weapons, such as tanks. A draft treaty was assembled in 1923 that made aggressive war illegal, although there were 65 signatories to the pact, it achieved nothing, as it set out no guidelines for action in the event of a war. A final attempt was made at the Geneva Disarmament Conference from 1932–37, Germany demanded the revision of the Versailles Treaty and the granting of military parity with the other powers, while France was determined to keep Germany demilitarised for its own security. Meanwhile, the British and Americans were not willing to offer France security commitments in exchange for conciliation with Germany, the talks broke down in 1933, when Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany from the conference. Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating nuclear weapons and to the end state of a nuclear-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated. In the United Kingdom, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament held a public meeting at Central Hall, Westminster, on 17 February 1958. After the meeting a few hundred left to demonstrate at Downing Street, cNDs declared policies were the unconditional renunciation of the use, production of or dependence upon nuclear weapons by Britain and the bringing about of a general disarmament convention. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches, in 1961, US President John F. There have been many large demonstrations and protests. On June 12,1982, one million people demonstrated in New York Citys Central Park against nuclear weapons and it was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. He also notes, Now a freeze or a mutually agreed increase is not strictly speaking disarmament at all, and such measures may not even be intended to be a first step towards any kind of reduction or abolition
9.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
10.
People's Republic of China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
11.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
12.
Clinton administration
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The presidency of Bill Clinton began on January 20,1993 at noon Eastern Standard Time, when Bill Clinton was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on January 20,2001. His running mate, Al Gore, took office as Vice President on the same day, Clinton, a Democrat, took office after defeating Republican incumbent President George H. W. Bush and Independent businessman Ross Perot in the 1992 presidential election. Four years later, he defeated Republican Bob Dole and Ross Perot to win a term of office. During both elections, Clinton ran as a New Democrat, and many of his administrations policy proposals reflected his centrist, Third Way thinking. He was succeeded in office by Republican George W. Bush, months into his first term, he signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which raised taxes and set the stage for future budget surpluses. He also signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement, a trade pact negotiated by President George H. W. Bush among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. His most ambitious legislative initiative, a plan to provide health care. Clintons party suffered a strong rebuke in the 1994 elections, the Republican Revolution, as the 1994 elections came to be known, empowered Congressional Republicans led by Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich to propose several conservative policies. While Clinton vetoed many of these policies, he signed some, including the Personal Responsibility. After disagreements with Congressional Republicans led to two shutdowns of the government between 1995 and 1996. In foreign policy, Clintons first term saw American interventions in Haiti and the Balkans, Clinton also appointed two Supreme Court Justices, Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer. Clintons second term saw the first federal budget surpluses since the 1960s and his impeachment arose after he denied having an affair with a White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Though the House of Representatives voted to impeach Clinton, he was acquitted of all charges by the Senate, in 1997, Clinton signed into law a bill creating the State Childrens Health Insurance Program, which was to help provide health care coverage for millions of children. In 1999, he signed the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which allowed for the consolidation of investment banks, commercial banks, in foreign policy, Clinton launched a major bombing campaign in the Balkans, which led to the creation of a United Nations protectorate in Kosovo. Clinton also pursued trade agreements, most notably with China. Since the end of his presidency, historians and political scientists have tended to rank Clinton as an average to above average president. In the 1992 presidential election, Clinton defeated incumbent Republican president George H. W. Bush to become the first Democratic president since Jimmy Carter left office in 1981, Clinton took office with Democratic majorities in both houses, and attempted to pass an ambitious health care reform bill. Republicans took control of both houses of Congress in 1994 and retained control throughout Clintons presidency, but Clinton won reelection in 1996
13.
United States National Security Council
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Since its inception under Harry S. Truman, the function of the Council has been to advise and assist the president on national security and foreign policies. The Council also serves as the principal arm for coordinating these policies among various government agencies. The Council has counterparts in the national security councils of other nations. The National Security Council was created in 1947 by the National Security Act and it was created because policymakers felt that the diplomacy of the State Department was no longer adequate to contain the USSR in light of the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States. On May 26,2009, President Barack Obama merged the White House staff supporting the Homeland Security Council, the HSC and NSC each continue to exist by statute as bodies supporting the President. The name of the organization was changed back to National Security Council Staff in 2014. On April 5,2017, President Trump removed Steve Bannon from the Security Council, however, Chief of Staff Reince Priebus clarified the next day that they still are invited to attend meetings. The reorganization also placed the Administrator of the United States Agency for International Development as a permanent member of the Deputies Committee, later in 1949, as part of the Reorganization Plan, the Council was placed in the Executive Office of the President. The High Value Detainee Interrogation Group also reports to the NSC, a secret National Security Council panel pursues the killing of an individual, including American citizens, who has been called a suspected terrorist. In this case, no record of this decision or any operation to kill the suspect will be made available. Reuters has reported that Anwar al-Awlaki, an American citizen, was on such a kill list and was killed accordingly, the National Security Council is chaired by the President. Its members are the Vice President, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of Energy, the National Security Advisor, and the Secretary of the Treasury. The Chief of Staff to the President, Counsel to the President, the Attorney General, the Director of the Office of Management and Budget and The Director of the Central Intelligence Agency are invited to attend meetings pertaining to their responsibilities. The heads of executive departments and agencies, as well as other senior officials, are invited to attend meetings of the NSC when appropriate. The Principals Committee of the National Security Council is the Cabinet-level senior interagency forum consideration of security policy issues. The Principals Committee is convened and chaired by the National Security Advisor, the National Security Council Deputies Committee is the senior sub-Cabinet interagency forum for consideration of national security policy issues. The Deputies Committee is also responsible for reviewing and monitoring the national security process including for establishing and directing the Policy Coordination Committees. The Deputies Committee is convened and chaired by the Deputy National Security Advisor or the Deputy Homeland Security Advisor, the Executive Secretary and the Deputy White House Counsel also attend
14.
United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
15.
Ellen Tauscher
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Ellen OKane Tauscher is an American politician and member of the Democratic Party who was the U. S. She then served as Special Envoy for Strategic Stability and Missile Defense at the State Department until August 31,2012, a Blue Dog Democrat, Tauscher is a centrist on many issues and is notably a war hawk. Tauscher also serves on the board of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network, Ellen Tauscher was born in Newark, New Jersey. Her mother was a secretary, and her father was a steward for the United Food. She graduated in 1974 from Seton Hall University, where she obtained a Bachelor of Science degree in childhood education. She then worked as an investment banker with Bache & Co. and, at age 25, was the youngest and one of the first women to become a member of the New York Stock Exchange. She also served as an officer of the American Stock Exchange from 1979 to 1983, after which she worked for Bear Stearns and a subsidiary of Drexel Burnham Lambert. In 1989, Tauscher moved to California and later founded the ChildCare Registry and she also published The ChildCare Sourcebook and headed the Tauscher Foundation, which provided funds for elementary schools to buy computers and Internet access. Before running for the United States House of Representatives, Tauscher was active in Democratic circles as a fundraiser, in 1996, Tauscher was recruited to run against two-term Republican incumbent Bill Baker in Californias 10th congressional district, which included several wealthy suburbs in the East Bay. During the campaign, Tauscher emphasized balancing the budget, her support for business, the environment. She also charged that Baker was too conservative for the district, particularly given his opposition to abortion and she narrowly defeated Baker, claiming victory by a margin of 1. 45% of the vote. The race was ranked as the fourth most expensive of that years 435 House races, Tauscher was re-elected in 1998 and 2000 against vigorous Republican opposition. She was subsequently re-elected to four terms, facing no substantive opposition. In the House of Representatives, Tauscher served on the Armed Services Committee and she chaired the Strategic Forces subcommittee of the Armed Services Committee, which oversees the countrys nuclear weapons stockpile, missile defense program, and the national labs. Tauscher was the member of Congress who had two national labs in her district, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and the California campus of Sandia National Laboratories. From her position on the Transportation Committee, Tauscher brought $33 million to her district for transportation, on March 18,2009, President Obama nominated Tauscher to the position of Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security. She was confirmed by the United States Senate on June 25,2009 by unanimous consent, notwithstanding her appointment, confirmation and acceptance, she served as Speaker Pro Tempore on June 26,2009, when the House narrowly passed a cap-and-trade global warming bill. Tauscher resigned her seat on June 26,2009, after voting was finished on the American Clean Energy & Security Act and her resignation necessitated a special election
16.
John Rood
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John Charles Rood was Acting Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 13,2006 as Assistant Secretary of State for International Security, from February 2005 to October 2006 he served as Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for Counterproliferation Strategy at the National Security Council. From September 2003 to February 2005, he was Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Forces Policy at the Department of Defense, earlier in his career, he served as Director of Proliferation Strategy, Counterproliferation and Homeland Defense at the United States National Security Council. Rood came to the Central Intelligence Agency as a summer intern and he was on the staff of U. S. Senator Jon Kyl for four years, mr. Rood received his bachelors degree from Arizona State University
17.
Robert Joseph
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Robert G. Joseph is a senior scholar at the National Institute for Public Policy and professor at Missouri State University. He was the United States Special Envoy for Nuclear Nonproliferation, with ambassadorial rank, prior to this post, Joseph was the Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security, a position he held until January 24,2007. Joseph is known for being instrumental in creating the Proliferation Security Initiative and he was also the US chief negotiator to Libya in 2003 who convinced the Libyans to give up their WMD programs. He also recently authored a book describing his experience in negotiating with Libya entitled Countering WMD, Joseph was nominated to, and attended the United States Naval Academy, at the height of the Vietnam War. He earned a BA at St. Louis University in 1971, MA at the University of Chicago in 1973, Joseph has served as a professor at a number of institutions, including Carleton College, Tulane University, and The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University. He was professor of National Security Studies at the National Defense University, he founded its. In 1993, he joined the faculty at the National War College, in 2009, Professor Joseph taught at Missouri State Universitys Defense and Strategic Studies program. Joseph has held several posts relating to security and nuclear policy, in January 2001, as George W. Bush prepared to take office, Joseph served on a panel for nuclear weapons issues sponsored by the National Institute for Public Policy, a conservative think tank. Other members of the panel included Stephen Hadley, William Schneider, Jr. and he was Senior Director for Proliferation Strategy, Counterproliferation and Homeland Defense within the National Security Council. In this capacity, he supervised the portion of President George W. Bushs 2003 State of the Union Address that dealt with intelligence on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction. Chairman Dianne Feinstein later proposed that her Senate Select Committee on Intelligences probe of intelligence in the run up to the Iraq War question staff such as Joseph, in 2005 he succeeded John R. Bolton as Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security. Joseph is known for being instrumental in creating the Proliferation Security Initiative and he was also the US chief negotiator to Libya in 2003 who convinced the Libyans to give up their WMD programs. Security policy, US Department of Defense, Washington acting prin. dep. asst. sec. for internat, additionally, he has received the Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award, and multiple citations for Senior Executive Service Meritorious Achievement. Moscows Missile Gambit The Washington Post, March 13,2008, also at Joseph, Robert, J. D. Crouch. Tough Calls, Good Calls The Wall Street Journal, January 22,2008, National Institute for Public Policy Rationale and Requirements for U. S. Nuclear Forces and Arms Control,2001 The Case for National Missile Defense, Journal of Homeland Defense, October 2000 The Role of Nuclear Weapons in U. S. Hays, Vincent J. Jodoin, USAF Academy, CO, USAF Institute for National Security Studies, c1998. Department of State NIPP, Professional Staff biography at National Institute for Public Policy Appearances on C-SPAN
18.
John R. Bolton
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John Robert Bolton is an American lawyer and diplomat who has served in several Republican administrations. Bolton served as the U. S. ambassador to the United Nations from August 2005 until December 2006 as an appointee by President George W. Bush. C. law firm Kirkland & Ellis. He was a policy adviser to 2012 presidential candidate Mitt Romney. Bolton is also involved with a number of conservative think tanks and policy institutes, including the Institute of East-West Dynamics, the National Rifle Association. Commission on International Religious Freedom, the Council for National Policy and the Gatestone Institute, Bolton has been labeled as a neoconservative, though he personally rejects the term. Bolton was born on November 20,1948 in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Virginia Clara Ginny, a housewife, and Edward Jackson Jack Bolton, a fireman. He grew up in the neighborhood of Yale Heights and won a scholarship to the McDonogh School in Owings Mills, Maryland. He also ran the schools Students For Goldwater campaign in 1964 and he then attended Yale University and Yale Law School, where he shared classes with his friend Clarence Thomas, and was a contemporary of Bill Clinton and Hillary Rodham at Yale Law School. He was a member of the Yale Political Union, and he earned a B. A. graduating summa cum laude in 1970, during the 1969 Vietnam War draft lottery, Bolton drew number 185. Bolton enlisted in the Maryland Army National Guard in 1970 rather than wait to find out if his number would be called. After serving in the National Guard for four years, he served in the United States Army Reserve until the end of his enlistment two years later and he wrote in his Yale 25th reunion book I confess I had no desire to die in a Southeast Asian rice paddy. I considered the war in Vietnam already lost, Boltons first wife was Christine Bolton, whom he married in 1972 and divorced in 1983. He is married to Gretchen Smith Bolton and she has degrees from Wellesley College and New York University. The couples home is currently in Bethesda, Maryland and they have one daughter, Jennifer Sarah Bolton. From 1974 to 1981, Bolton was an associate at the Washington office of Covington & Burling, Bolton was also a partner in the law firm of Lerner, Reed, Bolton & McManus, from 1993–1999. He is currently of counsel in the Washington office of Kirkland & Ellis, before joining the George W. Bush administration, Bolton was senior vice president for public policy research at the American Enterprise Institute, a conservative think tank, from 1997 to 2001. Between 1997 and 2000, Bolton also worked pro bono as an assistant to James Baker in Bakers capacity as Kofi Annans personal envoy to the Western Sahara. During the Reagan and George H. W. Bush administrations, he worked in positions within the State Department, the Justice Department
19.
John D. Holum
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John D. Holum was Director of the U. S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency and Under Secretary of State for Arms Control, john D. Holum was born on December 4,1940 in Highmore, South Dakota. He received a B. A. in mathematics and physics from Northern Michigan College, from 1965 to 1979 he worked as legislative director for Senator George McGovern. When McGovern ran for president in 1972, Holum wrote his fifty-six page position paper on defense policy, from 1979 to 1981, he worked as a Policy Planning staffer in the U. S. Department of State. From 1981 to 1992, he worked in Washington, D. C. for O’Melveny & Myers, in 1992, he joined Bill Clintons campaign, until he was appointed as Director of the U. S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency in 1993 and he served as Acting Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security from 1997 until he was confirmed in 2000. He left his job in 2001, with George W. Bushs administration
20.
Eugene V. Rostow
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Eugene V. Rostow was an American legal scholar and public servant. He was Dean of Yale Law School and served as Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs under President Lyndon B. Johnson. Rostow was born in Brooklyn, New York, a grandson of poor Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire, and raised in Irvington, New Jersey, and New Haven, Connecticut. His parents were socialists and their three sons, Eugene, Ralph, and Walt, were named after Eugene V. Debs, Ralph Waldo Emerson. Rostow attended New Haven High School and was admitted to Yale College in 1929, at the time, his scores on his entrance examinations were so high that The New York Times called him the first perfect freshman. In 1931 he earned Phi Beta Kappa, and in 1933 he earned a B. A and he became a member of Alpha Delta Phi. From 1933 to 1934 Rostow studied economics at Cambridge University as a Henry Fellow and he then returned to Yale, attending Yale Law School, and earning his LL. B. with highest honors. From 1936 to 1937 he served as editor-in-chief of the Yale Law Journal, after graduation, Rostow worked at the New York law firm of Cravath, deGersdorff, Swaine and Wood specializing in bankruptcy, corporations, and antitrust. In 1937 he returned to Yale Law School as a faculty member, in that paper he wrote, We believe that the German people bear a common political responsibility for outrages secretly committed by the Gestapo and the SS. What are we to think of our own part in a program which violates every democratic social value, yet has been approved by the Congress, the President, in 1955, Rostow became dean of Yale Law School, a post he held until 1965. Towards the end of his tenure, he was appointed Sterling Professor of Law, at one point in 1962 – according to Alistair Cooke – he was considered by John F. Kennedy for appointment to the Supreme Court but geographical and religious issues interfered. From 1966 to 1969 he served as Under Secretary for Political Affairs in Lyndon B, johnsons government, the third-highest-ranking official in the State Department. During this time he helped draft UN Security Council Resolution 242, after leaving government service Rostow returned to Yale Law School, teaching courses in constitutional, international, and antitrust law. Concerned about Soviet military expansionism, in the mid-1970s he was an member of the Coalition for a Democratic Majority and helped found. In 1981, President Ronald Reagan appointed him director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, at his confirmation hearing in 1981, Senator Claiborne Pell asked Rostow if he thought the US could survive a nuclear war. Rostow replied that Japan not only survived but flourished after the nuclear attack, when questioners pointed out that the Soviet Union would attack with thousands of nuclear warheads rather than two, Rostow replied, the human race is very resilient. Depending upon certain assumptions, some estimates predict that there would be ten million casualties on one side, but that is not the whole of the population. In 1984 Rostow became Sterling Professor of Law and Public Affairs Emeritus, the Jewish settlers in the West Bank are most emphatically volunteers
21.
George M. Seignious
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Lieutenant General George Marion Seignious U. S. Army was a distinguished military leader, diplomat and college president. West and Ernest Hollings who was also a long time U. S. senator, Army, Europe and as Chief of Staff of the 3d Infantry Division. In 1964 he became one of the youngest generals in Army history at the age of 42. S, Army, Berlin where he also served as a military advisor to Ambassador Kenneth Rush during the Quadripartite Negotiations on Berlin. Returning to the Pentagon he served concurrently as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs and Director and he was later chairman of the board for a high tech telecommunications company and also served as a trade representative for the state of South Carolina. Seignious Hall, the facility at The Citadel is named in his honor. The Citadel obituary The Citadel Archives, George Marion Seignious Collection
22.
Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
23.
Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
24.
LibriVox
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On 6 August 2016, the project completed project number 10,000. Most releases are in the English language, but many works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, LibriVox is closely affiliated with Project Gutenberg from where the project gets some of its texts, and the Internet Archive that hosts their offerings. LibriVox was started in August 2005 by Montreal-based writer Hugh McGuire, who set up a blog, the first recorded book was The Secret Agent by Joseph Conrad. LibriVox is an invented word inspired by Latin words liber in its genitive form libri and vox, the word was also coined because of other connotations as liber also means child and free, independent, unrestricted. As the LibriVox forum says it, We like to think LibriVox might be interpreted as child of the voice, finally, the other link we like is library so you could imagine it to mean Library of Voice. There has been no decision or consensus by LibriVox founders or the community of volunteers for a single pronunciation of LibriVox and it is accepted that any audible pronunciation is accurate. LibriVox is a volunteer-run, free content, Public Domain project and it has no budget or legal personality. The development of projects is managed through an Internet forum, supported by an admin team, in early 2010, LibriVox ran a fundraising drive to raise $20,000 to cover hosting costs for the website of about $5, 000/year and improve front- and backend usability. Volunteers can choose new projects to start, either recording on their own or inviting others to join them, once a volunteer has recorded his or her contribution, it is uploaded to the site, and proof-listened by members of the LibriVox community. Finished audiobooks are available from the LibriVox website, and MP3, recordings are also available through other means, such as iTunes, and, being free of copyright, they are frequently distributed independently of LibriVox on the Internet and otherwise. LibriVox only records material that is in the domain in the United States. Because of copyright restrictions, LibriVox produces recordings of only a number of contemporary books. These have included, for example, the 9/11 Commission Report and it contains much popular classic fiction, but also includes less predictable texts, such as Immanuel Kants Critique of Pure Reason and a recording of the first 500 digits of pi. The collection also features poetry, plays, religious texts and non-fiction of various kinds, in January 2009, the catalogue contained approximately 55 percent fiction and drama,25 percent non-fiction and 20 percent poetry. By the end of 2016, the most viewed item was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer in a 2006 solo recording by John Greenman, around 90 percent of the catalogue is recorded in English, but recordings exist in 31 languages altogether. Chinese, French and German are the most popular languages other than English amongst volunteers, LibriVox has garnered significant interest, in particular from those interested in the promotion of volunteer-led content and alternative approaches to copyright ownership on the Internet. It has received support from the Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg, intellectual freedom and commons proponent Mike Linksvayer described it in 2008 as perhaps the most interesting collaborative culture project this side of Wikipedia
25.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
26.
List of Presidents of the United States
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The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is elected to a four-year term by the people through an Electoral College. Since the office was established in 1789,44 people have served as president, the first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two terms in office, and is counted as the nations 22nd and 24th president. Thus the incumbent, Donald Trump, is the nations 45th president, there are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a president was on December 26,2006 with the death of Gerald Ford. William Henry Harrison spent the shortest time in office, dying 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. Of the individuals elected as president, four died in office of natural causes, four were assassinated, the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tylers precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which an intra-term vacancy in the presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office, later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a vacancy was left unfilled. Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties, the Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and he was, and remains, the only U. S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a party at the time they assumed office. Four presidents held other high U. S. federal offices after leaving the presidency, several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U. S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency. Additionally, one president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War
27.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
28.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
29.
List of United States Senators from Massachusetts
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This is a chronological listing of the United States Senators from Massachusetts. United States Senators are popularly elected, for a six-year term, elections are held the first Tuesday after November 1. Before 1914, they were chosen by the Massachusetts General Court, the current Senators are Democrats Elizabeth Warren and Ed Markey. Through the 20th century, mid-term vacancies were filled with the governors appointee, in 2004, the Democratic-controlled state legislature changed the vacancy-filling process, mandating that a special election occur, which removed the Governors appointment power. This statute was enacted over the veto by the Governor, Mitt Romney, generally, the law requires a special election within 145 to 160 days from the date of the filing of a Senate resignation. The law contemplates resignations that become effective some period of time after the filing of the resignation, while terminally ill with brain cancer, Ted Kennedy requested that the Massachusetts legislature change the law to allow an interim appointment. Kennedy died shortly thereafter, and the legislature passed a bill providing for an interim appointment. As of October 2016, there are four living former U. S, Senators from Massachusetts, two from Class 1 and two from Class 2. The most recent senator to die was Edward Brooke of Class 2 who died on January 3,2015, the most recent Class 1 senator to die was Ted Kennedy, who died in office on August 25,2009. The most recently serving Class 2 senator to die was Paul Tsongas on January 18,1997
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United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
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Massachusetts's 11th congressional district
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Massachusetts Congressional District 11 is an obsolete congressional district in eastern Massachusetts. It was eliminated in 1993 after the 1990 U. S. Census and its last Congressman was Brian Donnelly, its most notable wereJohn Quincy Adams following his term as president, eventual president John F. Kennedy and Speaker Tip ONeill. 1893, Suffolk County, Boston, Wards 21,22, middlesex County, City of Newton, towns of Belmont, Holliston, Sherborn, and Water- town. Norfolk County, Towns of Bellingham, Brookline, Dedham, Dover, Foxboro, Franklin, Hyde Park, Medfield, Medway, Millis, Needham, Norfolk, Norwood, Sharon, Walpole, bristol County, Town of North Attleboro. Worcester County, Towns of Hopedale and Milford,1916, Suffolk County, Boston Wards 10,11,12,18,19,21,22,23. 1968, Norfolk County, City of Quincy, Towns of Avon, Braintree, Canton, Dedham, Holbrook, Milton, Norwood, Randolph, Sharon, Stoughton, and Weymouth. Suffolk County, City of Boston, Ward 18,1977, Norfolk County, City of Quincy. Towns of Avon, Braintree, Holbrook, Milton, Randolph, Suffolk County, City of Boston, Wards 15,16,17,18. 1985, Norfolk County, City of Quincy, Towns of Avon, Braintree, Holbrook, Milton, Randolph, and Weymouth. Towns of Abington, East Bridgewater, Rockland, West Bridgewater, Suffolk County, City of Boston, Wards 15,16,17, and 18. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
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Presidency of John F. Kennedy
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The presidency of John F. Kennedy was succeeded by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. A Democrat, he took office following the 1960 presidential election, in which he defeated Richard Nixon, Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president, and, at age 43, the youngest person elected to the office. He was also the first Roman Catholic elected to the presidency, Kennedys time in office was marked by Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union and its satellite states, as well as Cuba. In Cuba, an attempt was made in April 1961 at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro. Kennedys administration subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. Kennedy took steps to support the Civil Rights Movement, and after his death his proposed civil rights bill was passed as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Kennedy brought to the White House a contrast in organization compared to the structure of former-General Eisenhower. Kennedy preferred the structure of a wheel with all the spokes leading to the president. He was ready and willing to make the number of quick decisions required in such an environment. He selected a mixture of experienced and inexperienced people to serve in his cabinet and we can learn our jobs together, he stated. Kennedys brother, Robert F. Kennedy, served as Attorney General, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was largely sidelined during the administration. Thurgood Marshall, who Kennedy appointed to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20,1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be citizens, famously saying, Ask not what your country can do for you. He asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the enemies of man, tyranny, poverty, disease. He added, All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days, nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. The address reflected Kennedys confidence that his administration would chart an historically significant course in both policy and foreign affairs. President Kennedys foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, in 1961, Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. He started off on the foot by reacting aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on Cold War confrontation in early 1961
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Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy
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This timeline begins on January 2,1960, the date when then U. S. Senator Kennedy announced his intention to run for the Democratic Party presidential nomination, and concludes on November 25,1963, Kennedy, the 35th United States president, was the first Roman Catholic as well as the first person born in the 20th century to be elected president. Additionally, he is the youngest individual ever elected to the office, Kennedy was the eighth president to die in office and the fourth one to be assassinated. Upon his death, in accordance with Constitutional procedure, Vice President Lyndon B, Johnson, succeeded to the presidency and took the presidential oath of office aboard Air Force One less than an hour after Kennedy died. Johnson served out the remaining 425 days of Kennedys term, and was elected to the presidency in his own right in 1964, January 2 – Senator John Fitzgerald Kennedy of Massachusetts officially announces his intention to run for the Presidency of the United States. March 8 – Kennedy wins the New Hampshire primary, receiving 88% of the vote and this would be the first of 10 primary victories for the Massachusetts Senator. May 4 – Senators Kennedy and Humphrey hold a debate in West Virginia. May 10 – Kennedy wins the West Virginia primary, receiving 61% of the vote, West Virginia shows that Kennedy, a Catholic, could win in a heavily Protestant state. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas is nominated for Vice President, Kennedy was the first senator since 1920 to be nominated for the presidency by either the Democrats or the Republicans. September 26 – Senator Kennedy and Vice President Richard Nixon participate in the first televised presidential debate, October 7 – Kennedy and Nixon participate in the second presidential debate, held in Washington, D. C. October 13 – Senator Kennedy and Vice President Nixon debate each other for the third time, Kennedy participates from a New York studio, while Nixon participates from a Los Angeles studio. October 21 – Kennedy and Nixon participate in the fourth and final debate in New York. November 9 – Republican presidential candidate Richard Nixon concedes the presidency to Kennedy, Kennedys official popular vote margin is 0. 1% and his electoral margin is 84 electoral votes. Nixon won more states,26 to 22, the electoral result proves to be the closest since the 1916 presidential election. November 25 – John Fitzgerald Kennedy Jr. President-elect and Mrs. Kennedys second child, is born at Georgetown University Hospital, December 6 – President-elect Kennedy meets with President Dwight Eisenhower at the White House to discuss the presidential transition. January 20 – Kennedys presidency begins with his inauguration at the United States Capitol in Washington and he is congratulated by Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. Kennedy also formally nominates his cabinet and attends the inaugural balls, January 21 – Kennedy meets with former President Harry S. Truman and issues Executive Order 10914 directing a doubling of the quantity of surplus food distributed to needy families. Kennedy also attends a meeting at the Democratic National Committee and hosts the swearing-in of his cabinet, January 22 – Kennedy meets with the poet Robert Frost
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Inauguration of John F. Kennedy
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The inauguration of John F. Kennedy as the 35th President of the United States was held on Friday, January 20,1961 at the eastern portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. The inauguration marked the commencement of John F. Kennedys only term as President, johnsons only term as Vice President. Kennedy died 2 years,306 days into this term, Kennedy took office following the November 1960 presidential election, in which he narrowly defeated Richard Nixon, the then–incumbent Vice President. He was the first Roman Catholic to become President, and became the youngest person elected to the office and his inaugural address encompassed the major themes of his campaign and would define his presidency during a time of economic prosperity, emerging social changes, and diplomatic challenges. This inauguration was the first in which a poet, Robert Frost, frank Sinatra and Peter Lawford organized and hosted a pre-inaugural ball at the D. C. Armory on the eve of Inauguration day, January 19,1961, considered as one of the biggest parties ever held in Washington, D. C. With tickets ranging from $100 per person to $10,000 per group, davis eventually switched his support to the Republican Party and Richard Nixon in the early 1970s. Harry Belafonte expressed sadness at the controversy, stating It was the ambassador, sammy not being there was a loss. On inauguration day, January 20,1961, the skies began to clear but the snow created chaos in Washington and this task force employed hundreds of dump trucks, front-end loaders, sanders, plows, rotaries, and flamethrowers to clear the route. Over 1,400 cars which had been stranded due to the conditions, the snowstorm dropped visibility at Washington National Airport to less than half a mile, preventing former President Herbert Hoover from flying into Washington and attending the inauguration. Before the proceeding to the Capitol in company with outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the invocation and prayers lasted a total of 28 minutes. Marian Anderson sang The Star-Spangled Banner, and a composition by musical Leonard Bernstein titled Fanfare for the Inauguration of John F. Kennedy was played, the oath of office for Vice President was administered by the Speaker of the House of Representatives Sam Rayburn to Lyndon Johnson. Robert Frost, then 86 years old, recited his poem The Gift Outright, Kennedy requested Frost to read a poem at the inauguration, suggesting The Gift Outright, considered an act of gratitude towards Frost for his help during the campaign. Kennedy would later state that he admired the courage, the skill and daring of Frost, and adding that Ive never taken the view the world of politics. I think politicians and poets share at least one thing, American poet William Meredith would say that the request focused attention on Kennedy as a man of culture, as a man interested in culture. Frost composed a new poem titled Dedication specifically for the ceremony as a preface to the poem Kennedy suggested, to the surprise of Kennedys friends. On the morning of the inauguration, Frost asked Stewart Udall, Kennedys future Secretary of the Interior, to have his handwritten draft type scripted for easier reading, once at the presidential podium, however, the glare of the sun and snow prevented him from reading his papers. When Frost started reading, he stumbled on the first three lines, squinting at his papers in view of the crowd and cameras
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John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates
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Although he was president for less than three years, John F. Kennedy appointed two men to the Supreme Court of the United States, Byron White and Arthur Goldberg. Associate Justice Charles Evans Whittaker retired from the Supreme Court in March 1962 after just over five years on the court, the Whittaker retirement gave Kennedy his first vacancy on the Supreme Court. Two names initially came up as nominees, Judge William H. Hastie of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. United States Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy had recommended Hastie, Robert F. Kennedy said it would mean so much overseas that we had a Negro on the Supreme Court. However, Hastie was opposed by Chief Justice Earl Warren, who balked because hes not a liberal and hell be opposed to all measures we are interested in, Associate Justice William O. Douglas also objected to Hastie as the nominee. In addition, President Kennedys adviser, Ted Sorensen, opposed Hastie because Kennedy was in the process of considering another African-American, Sorensen argued that the first appointment should be one hailed by all for his judicial mien. Sorensen recommended Freund as the nominee, ultimately, Kennedy selected White, who was a longtime supporter of his and who had been serving as United States Deputy Attorney General. Kennedy formally nominated White to the Supreme Court on April 3,1962, White was confirmed by the United States Senate just eight days later, on April 11,1962, in a voice vote. After suffering a stroke, Associate Justice Felix Frankfurter retired from the Supreme Court on August 28,1962, there is not much evidence that Kennedy considered any other candidate other than Goldberg for the vacancy. It had been reported that Frankfurters seat was considered a Jewish seat on the Supreme Court. Kennedy nominated Goldberg, who at time was United States Secretary of Labor. The United States Senate confirmed Goldberg in a vote on September 25,1962
