1.
Copenhagen
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Copenhagen, Danish, København, Latin, Hafnia) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. Copenhagen has an population of 1,280,371. The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants, the city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road, originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a centre of power with its institutions, defences. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century and this included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing, since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark, Copenhagens economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö. With a number of connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs, the annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, the Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the largest airport in the Nordic countries, the name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was Køpmannæhafn, meaning merchants harbour, the literal English translation would be Chapmans haven. The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, the abbreviations Kbh. or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København, and kbh. for københavnsk. The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen, where it was discovered, the bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen, Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century, the remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen
2.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
3.
Bellevue Teatret
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The Bellevue Teatret is a theatre in Klampenborg at the northern outskirts of Copenhagen, Denmark. Opened in 1936 to the design of Arne Jacobsen, the building is considered one of his most important architectural works and exemplar of Danish functionalism. The theatre is part of a scheme including the adjoining Bellevue Beach and residential block and was, at the time. In the early 1930s, Arne Jacobsen won a competition for a masterplan for the Bellevue area im Klampenborg, Gentofte Municipality, the Bellevue Teatret was the last stage of this scheme, which also included facilities for the local Bellevue Sea Bath and the Bellavista residential buildings. The theatre opened in 1936 as a summer theatre. It closed a few later, then operating as a cinema until 1980. The building is considered one of the most important architectural work by Arne Jacobsen, the inside has mosaic decorations and is noted for the retractable roof. Walls, balcony and proscenium are clad in canvas and bamboo, the front curtain shows a beach girl, painted by Åge Sikker Hansen. Since the reopening as a theatre, the repertoire has been dominated by modern music performances, an annual tradition is a Summer Ballet. Until the 2008 season produced in cooperation with Copenhagen International Ballet, it is now made in produced in cooperation with Tim Rushton, arkitektur og teater i Arne Jacobsens bygningsværk
4.
Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, Copenhagen
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Built as the SAS Royal Hotel, the hotel was renamed the Radisson SAS Royal Hotel in 1994, when SAS bought a share in the foreign division of Radisson hotels. When SAS sold their share in 2009, it was renamed the Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, its current name. At its completion the hotel was the largest in Denmark, at 69.60 meters in height, in 2009, it was the countrys seventh-highest tower. Since most of his work has replaced by corporate standard fabrics and furniture. Only a single room has been kept in the original design and it has all of the original, green furniture and the wood panels on the wall. This room, with the number 606, is available for booking. Shades of green dominate the entire design, Jacobsen, who was also working as a landscape architect 1955-1960, pursued a modern garden theme. He implemented this theme using green textiles and furniture combined with organic shapes, Jacobsen has created several furniture, lighting and textile designs. Some models were adopted into mass production and have become design classics. During the design sketches of the building where published in Danish newspapers. Critics feared a destruction of the skyline of Copenhagen. The building was compared to a punch card, Jacobsens response was, it’s funny, for that is actually what it looks like when the windows are open on a hot summer’s day. Another term used was introduced by Jacobsens former associate Erik Møller, the promoter of the international style, Philip C. Johnson, said it was the worst copy of Lever House, Jacobsen responded, At least, it came in first when they held a competition for the ugliest building in Copenhagen. The structure is twenty stories high and a characteristic of Copenhagens skyline. The structure was inspired by New York Park Avenue structures, namely Skidmore, Owings, the buildings sense of lightness emanates from its Lever House-inspired form with a two-story base supporting its lofty punch card tower. The reinforced concrete structure erected in the tower has a curtain wall of aluminum profiles and transparent green. The windows can be opened to the stories in all
5.
Aarhus City Hall
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Aarhus City Hall is the city hall of Aarhus, Denmark. The decision to build a new city hall was taken during a city hall meeting in 1937, the new building was inaugurated 2 June 1941, designed by architects Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller. On the first proposal, the plans did not include a tower, hans Wegner was in charge of the furnishing - which is uniquely designed to fit the building -, and parts of the interior design. The city hall has an area of 19,380 m² including the basement. The tower is 60 m tall and the clock face has a diameter of 7 m. The building is made of concrete plated with 6,000 m² of grey marble from Porsgrunn in Norway, on the outside, copper is used for many architectural details, signified by the characteristic green verdigris. Inside, brass and bronze is used for architectural details. The price for the building was 9.5 mio, DKR, including the cost of the land area and inventory which in itself comprised 1.5 mio. As one of just a few Danish city halls, it was marked for preservation in March 1994 because of its unique architecture, in January 2006, the city hall was included in the Danish Culture Canon under architecture. Aarhus has officially had two city halls. The first was erected in the middle of the 15th century and was situated in front of the tower of the Aarhus Cathedral, the second city hall was erected during 1856 and 1857, immediately northeast of the Cathedral. Officially it was city hall, courthouse and penitentiary, from 1856 to 1906, the county councils also held their meetings in the building and the Aarhus art museum, that now has evolved to become the ARoS art museum, started out in the attic in 1859. When the building was not needed as a city hall any longer due to the erection of the present city hall, today the building houses Kvindemuseet, a museum for womens culture and history in Denmark. The Aarhus City Hall is situated in Rådhusparken, the park is rather small, but marks the main entrance to the city for travellers arriving at the Central Station close by and hosts various events throughout the year. The City Hall Park connects with the area in front of The Concert Hall of Aarhus. Byens hus, Erhvervsarkivet 1991 ISBN 87-89386-22-1 Media related to Aarhus City Hall at Wikimedia Commons Photos of the City Hall and the park arslonga. dk
6.
St Catherine's College, Oxford
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St Catherines College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. Its motto is Nova et Vetera, which translates as, the new, the college was founded by the historian Alan Bullock, who went on to become the first master of the college, and later Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University. As of 2006, the college had a financial endowment of £53m. The college traces its descent from the Delegacy of Non-Collegiate Students, nonetheless, the social role of a college was re-established by the Delegacys students, meeting as St Catherines Club, which was named after its meeting place in a hall on Catte Street. The club was recognised by the University in 1931 as St Catherines Society. It was thus developing the characteristics of a college, and in 1956 the Delegates decided to formalise this change in status, by 1960 Sir Alan Bullock raised a further £1,000,000 with invaluable assistance from two industrial notables, Sir Alan Wilson and Sir Hugh Beaver. After a total cost of £2.5 million, the college opened in 1962 to male students, in 1974 St Catz was one of the first mens colleges to admit women as full members, the others being Brasenose, Jesus College, Hertford and Wadham. The college is situated towards the east of Oxford, on the bank of the Cherwell river and its striking buildings in glass and concrete by the Danish architect Arne Jacobsen marry modern materials with a traditional layout around a quadrangle. Jacobsens designs went further than just the fabric of the buildings, with cutlery, furniture, the dining hall is notable for its Cumberland slate floor. The original college buildings received a Grade I listing on 30 March 1993, the St Catherines Christmas carol concert has since been held in Harris Manchester Colleges chapel. The college has a bell tower however, it is visible since no college building is more than three storeys high. An extra floor was planned for most accommodation blocks, but due to regulations concerning safe building on marshland. There are also additional purpose-built conference facilities with lecture theatres, meeting rooms and bar, the dining hall, which seats 350 diners, has the largest capacity of any Oxford college. The majority of St Catherines buildings are in the form of staircases that open directly onto the quad outside, there is little indoor space in the college and St Catherines favours a minimalist, rather austere environment, though still comfortable. Student rooms are light and spacious, notable for their curtain wall glazing, prior to this, all undergraduates had the experience of living off-campus for their second year. These new staircases effectively form a quad, which is largely used to provide accommodation for conferences during the breaks between academic terms. The college celebrates its patron saint each year with a special Catz Night dinner, every three years the college also holds a ball, usually off site due to the problem of securing the colleges perimeter sufficiently for insurance purposes. The most recent off-site ball was held was 9 February 2008 at Heythrop Park, on 12 February 2011, the latest incarnation of the Catz Ball was held on-site
7.
Danmarks Nationalbank
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Danmarks Nationalbank is the central bank of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is a member of the European System of Central Banks. Since its establishment in 1818, objective of the Nationalbank as an independent and credible institution is to issue the Danish currency, the krone, the Board of Governors holds full responsibility for the monetary policy. The building which houses the headquarters was designed by the renowned architect Arne Jacobsen, in collaboration with da, Hans Dissing and, da. After Jacobsens death, his office, renamed Dissing+Weitling, has brought the construction to completion, Danmarks Nationalbank undertakes all functions related to the management of the Danish central-government debt. The division of responsibility is set out in an agreement between the Ministry of Finance of Denmark and Danmarks Nationalbank, Danish and Faroese banknotes are printed at Danmarks Nationalbanks Banknote Printing Works. This ended 20 December 2016, and the printing of banknotes has been outsourced due to demand for cash. The bank was established on 1 August 1818 by King Frederick VI of Denmark, the private bank was given a 90-year monopoly on currency issue, which was extended in 1907 out to 1938. In 1914, the National Bank became the banker for the Danish government. The bank became fully independent of the government in 1936, the Board of Governors consists of three members. The Chairman of the Board of Governors is Governor by Royal Appointment, the two other Governors are appointed by the Board of Directors. J. A. Schrøder 1935-1955, Ove Jepsen 1936-1949, C. V, the two latter provinces were lost in the 1864 Second War of Schleswig, and the bank is the only official Danish institution still using this insignia. Since the late 19th century, coins minted by the bank carry a heart-shaped mint mark, before this time, the Mint used a mark showing the royal crown. Economy of Denmark Economy of the Faroe Islands Economy of Greenland Economy of Europe Financial Supervisory Authority Payment system Real-time gross settlement Official website
8.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
9.
Designer
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A designer is a person who designs. More formally, a designer is an agent that specifies the properties of a design object. In practice, anyone who creates tangible or intangible objects, products, processes, laws, games, graphics, services, classically, the main area of design was only architecture, which were understood as the major arts. The design of clothing, furniture, and other artifacts were left mostly to tradition or artisans specializing in hand making them. The classical areas are now subdivided into smaller and more specialized domains of design according to the designed or perhaps its means of production. When designers speak of graphic design they speak of it in terms of simplifying complexity so users do not feel overwhelmed when faced with complex systems, more information can lead to a better, simpler solution to whatever problem the designer is trying to solve. Using research methodology to solve problems is one of the most important aspects of design, it enables the designer to properly assess the clients and audience needs. Part of a job is to get to know the audience they intend on canvassing. The methods of teaching or the program and theories followed vary according to schools, for more complex products, the team will also be composed of professionals from other areas like engineers, advertising specialists, and others as required. Different types of designers include, Architect Design Design engineer Design firm Design thinking Visual arts
10.
Functionalism (architecture)
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In architecture, functionalism is the principle that architects should design a building based on the purpose of that building. This statement is less self-evident than it first appears, and is a matter of confusion and controversy within the profession, Functionalism had the strongest influence in Germany, Czechoslovakia, the USSR and the Netherlands. The place of functionalism in building can be traced back to the Vitruvian triad, Functionalist views were typical of some gothic revival architects. The implication is that if the functional aspects are satisfied, architectural beauty would naturally and necessarily follow, sullivans credo is often viewed as being ironic in light of his extensive use of intricate ornament, since a common belief among functionalist architects is that ornament serves no function. The credo also does not address whose function he means, nevertheless, form follows function expresses a significant and enduring idea. Sullivans protégé Frank Lloyd Wright is also cited as an exemplar of functional design, in the mid-1930s, functionalism began to be discussed as an aesthetic approach rather than a matter of design integrity. The idea of functionalism was conflated with lack of ornamentation, which is a different matter, for 70 years the preeminent and influential American architect Philip Johnson held that the profession has no functional responsibility whatsoever, and this is one of the many views today. Johnson said, Where form comes from I don’t know, the position of postmodern architect Peter Eisenman is based on a user-hostile theoretical basis and even more extreme, I dont do function. Popular notions of modern architecture are influenced by the work of the Franco-Swiss architect Le Corbusier. Both were functionalists at least to the extent that their buildings were radical simplifications of previous styles, Functionalism was a dominant architectonic style in former Czechoslovakia in the period of 1928-1970. It was a result of fascination first by industrial development and later by an effort to create a new man and its program was formulated by the Club of architects in Prague in 1924. In 1930s and then in 1960s and 1970s the position of functionalism was dominant, the term Danish Functionalism is sometimes used to describe the Danish branch of functionalistic architecture which had its heyday in the 1960s. A fine example of the Danish Functionalist style is Aarhus University designed by the architect C. F. Møller, Danish architects such as Kaare Klint and Arne Jacobsen extended their approach to the furniture now known as Danish modern. Zlín is a city in Czech republic which was in 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism, in that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement. Zlíns distinctive architecture was guided by principles that were observed during its whole inter-war development. Its central theme was the derivation of all elements from the factory buildings. The central position of the production in the life of all Zlín inhabitants was to be highlighted. Hence the same building materials were used for the construction of all public edifices, the common structural element of Zlín architecture is a square bay of 20x20 feet
11.
Wholesaling
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In general, it is the sale of goods to anyone other than a standard consumer. Wholesalers frequently physically assemble, sort and grade goods in large lots, break bulk, repack, while wholesalers of most products usually operate from independent premises, wholesale marketing for foodstuffs can take place at specific wholesale markets where all traders are congregated. Traditionally, wholesalers were closer to the markets they supplied than the source from which they got the products, however, with the advent of the internet and e-procurement there are an increasing number of wholesalers located nearer to the manufacturers in China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Often, in the United States, wholesalers are not required to charge their buyers sales tax, the alternative to selling wholesale to distributors or retailers is to sell retail either through company owned stores or online. Advantages include receiving a slice of the price paid by the consumer. Top U. S wholesalers according to report in 2012. Cash and carry Distribution Jobbing house Retail Supply chain Supply network B2B
12.
Safety pin
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The safety pin is a variation of the regular pin which includes a simple spring mechanism and a clasp. The clasp serves two purposes, to form a closed loop thereby properly fastening the pin to whatever it is applied to, safety pins are commonly used to fasten pieces of fabric or clothing together. Similarly, they can be used to patch torn or damaged clothing, safety pins can also be used as an accessory in jewelry, like earrings, chains, and wristbands. Sometimes they are used to attach an embroidered patch, size 3 is often used in quilting and may be labelled for purchase as a quilting pin. Size 4 and larger may be called blanket pins and deemed acceptable as kilt pins for informal dress, depending upon design, however, it had a major flaw. It had no clasp or spring at the end to put it in place. Over the centuries, the fibula became forgotten, american mechanic Walter Hunt is regarded as the inventor of the safety pin that bears resemblance to those used today. The safety pin included a clasp that covered the point and kept it from opening, charles Rowley independently patented a similar safety pin in October 1849, although the company no longer makes these. Hunt made the invention in order to pay off a $15 debt to a friend and he used a piece of brass wire that was about 8 inches long and made a coil in the center of the wire so it would open up when released. The clasp at one end was devised in order to shield the sharp edge from the user, after being issued U. S. patent #6,281 on April 10,1849, Hunt sold the patent to W. R. Grace and Company for $400. Using that money, Hunt then paid the $15 owed to a friend, what Hunt failed to realize is that in the years to follow, W. R. Grace and Company would make millions of dollars in profits from his invention. This has a special sliding cap over the top of the clasp to hold the pin more securely in place, whilst the cover on the safety pin makes it less likely to hurt someone, a version was invented specially for use with babies nappies, the nappy pin. This is larger and stronger than the safety pin. Modern nappy pins have the cap to lock the pin. The laryngologist Dr. Chevalier Jackson devised special instruments for removing swallowed safety pins, because small children often swallowed them and open pins could be lodged dangerously in their throats, Jackson called them danger pins and sometimes displayed arrangements of those he had extracted. Safety pin ingestion is still a problem in some countries, including Turkey. During the emergence of rock in the late seventies, safety pins became associated with the genre, its followers. Some claim the look was originally from Richard Hell whom the British punks saw in pictures
13.
Snap fastener
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A snap fastener is a pair of interlocking discs, made out of a metal or plastic, commonly used in place of buttons to fasten clothing and for similar purposes. A circular lip under one disc fits into a groove on the top of the other, holding them fast until a certain amount of force is applied. Different types of snaps can be attached to fabric or leather by riveting with a punch and die set specific to the type of rivet snaps used, sewing, or plying with special snap pliers. Snap fasteners are a detail in American Western wear and are also often chosen for childrens clothing. Modern snap fasteners were first patented by German inventor Heribert Bauer in 1885 as the Federknopf-Verschluss, some attribute the invention to Bertel Sanders, of Denmark. These first versions had an S-shaped spring in the disc instead of a groove. Australian inventor Myra Juliet Farrell is also credited with inventing a stitchless press stud, in America, Jack Weil put snaps on his iconic Western shirts, which spread the fashion for them. The Prym-company produces snap fastners since 1903, in the famous Chinese Terracotta Army, dating from 210 BC, the horse halters of wagons, made of a gold tube and a silver tube, were joined with a form of snap fasteners. Press studs were worn by rodeo cowboys from the 1930s onwards, because these could be removed if, in the event of a fall. Pearl snaps entered American mainstream Western fashion during the 1950s, when singing cowboys like Gene Autry, due to the popularity of Spaghetti Westerns, cowboy shirts with oversized collars were widely worn by teenagers and young adults from the mid 1960s until the early 1980s. By the 1990s, however, press studs had become associated with the clothing worn by pensioners
14.
Bank teller
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A bank teller is an employee of a bank who deals directly with customers. In some places, this employee is known as a cashier or customer representative, most teller jobs require experience with handling cash and a high school diploma. Tellers are considered a front line in the business because they are the first people who a customer sees at the bank. Being front line staff they are most likely to detect and stop fraudulent transactions in order to prevent losses at a bank, the position also requires tellers to be friendly and interact with the customers, providing them with information about customers accounts and bank services. Tellers typically work from a station, usually located on a teller line, most stations have a teller system, which includes cash drawers, receipt validator/printers, proof work sorters, and paperwork used for completing bank transactions. Paper savings bonds can no longer be purchased, only electronic bonds are available for purchase now, of these,1 out of 4 worked part-time. Median annual earnings as of May 2006 were $22,140
15.
Hobby
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A hobby is a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during ones leisure time. Hobbies can include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, a list of hobbies is lengthy and always changing as interests and fashions change. By continually participating in a hobby, one can acquire substantial skill. Engagement in hobbies has increased since the nineteenth century as workers have more leisure time and advancing production. As some hobbies have become popular, like stamp collecting, others have been created following technological advances. Hobbyists are a part of a group of people engaged in leisure pursuits where the boundaries of each group overlap to some extent. The Serious Leisure Perspective groups hobbyists with amateurs and volunteers and identifies three broad groups of activity with hobbies being found mainly in the Serious leisure category. Casual leisure is intrinsically rewarding, short-lived, pleasurable activity requiring little or no preparation b, Serious leisure is the systematic pursuit of an amateur, hobbyist, or volunteer that is substantial, rewarding and results in a sense of accomplishment. Project-based leisure is a short-term often a one-off project that is rewarding, in the 16th century, the term hobyn had the meaning of small horse and pony. The term hobby horse was documented in a 1557 payment confirmation for a Hobbyhorse from Reading, the item, originally called a Tourney Horse, was made of a wooden or basketwork frame with an artificial tail and head. It was designed for a child to mimic riding a real horse, by 1816 the derivative, hobby, was introduced into the vocabulary of a number of English people. Over the course of subsequent centuries, the term came to be associated with recreation, a hobby became an activity that is practised regularly and usually with some worthwhile purpose. Hobbies are usually, but not always, practised primarily for interest and enjoyment, the origins pursuits that others thought somewhat childish or trivial. However, as early as 1676 Sir Matthew Hale, in Contemplations Moral and Divine and he was acknowledging that a hobby horse produces a legitimate sense of pride. By the mid 18th century there was a flourishing of hobbies as working people had more hours of work. They spent more time to pursue interests that brought them satisfaction, however, there was concern that these working people might not use their leisure time in worthwhile pursuits. The hope of weaning people away from bad habits by the provision of counter-attractions came to the fore in the 1830s, the flourishing book and magazine trade of the day encouraged worthwhile hobbies and pursuits. The burgeoning manufacturing trade made materials used in hobbies cheap and was responsive to the interests of hobbyists
16.
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
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The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years, playing its part in the development of the art of Denmark. The Royal Danish Academy of Portraiture, Sculpture, and Architecture in Copenhagen was inaugurated on 31 March 1754 and its name was changed to the Royal Danish Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture in 1771. The building boom resulting from the Great Fire of 1795 greatly profited from this initiative, in 1814 the name was changed again, this time to the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. It is still situated in its building, the Charlottenborg Palace. The School of Architecture has been situated in former naval buildings on Holmen since 1996, the academy is larger and better funded than the Jutland Art Academy and Funen Art Academy, which offer similar programs. It teaches and conducts research on the subjects of painting, sculpting, architecture, graphics, photography, the academy is under the administration of the Danish Ministry of Culture. The academy’s School of Architecture offers education in the fields of design and restoration, urban and landscape planning and industrial, graphic. The school has nine departments, four research institutes and six affiliated research centres. The undergraduate course, leading to the Bachelor of Architecture diploma, in 2011, the Wall Street Journal named Ingels the Innovator of the Year for architecture. Hansen Medal Thorvaldsen Medal Eckersberg Medal Thorvald Bindesbøll Medal N. L. Høyen Medal The School of Visual Arts C. C
17.
Kay Fisker
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Kay Otto Fisker, Hon. FAIA was a Danish architect, designer and educator. He is most known for his many housing projects, mainly in the Copenhagen area, Kay Fisker was born on 14 February 1893 in the Frederiksberg, Copenhagen. In 1915, in collaboration with Aage Rafn, he won a competition to design the stations along the Almindingen-Gudhjem railway on the Danish island of Bornholm. After graduating, his career as an architect was dominated by numerous influential residential projects. Vestersøhus was built in from 1935 to 1939 by Fisker and C. F. Møller and it instantly became a model in Denmark for the balcony and bay window blocks of the time. Kay Fisker also designed the Danish Academy in Rome, from 1936 to 1963 Fisker was a professor at the Royal Academy and as teacher of the schools class on housing he was known as an inspiring lecturer with great influence on Danish housing culture. From 1951 to 1957 he was a professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Hansen Medal 1958, Prince Eugen Medal for architecture 1964, Heinrich Tessenow Medal Ibler, Marianne, Kay Fisker and the Danish Academy in Rome
18.
Kaj Gottlob
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After qualifying from Borgerdyd School in 1905, Gottlob attended the Technical School and the Royal Academy, graduating as an architect in 1914. At the time, he was one of the young neoclassicists who used to meet at the Free Architecture Society and he taught at the Technical School and was an assistant at the Royal Academys Building School. Between 1912 and 1923, he travelled to Greece, London, North Africa, Italy, Paris, after first working as an assistant at the Academys School of Architecture in 1917, he was appointed professor in 1924. In 1936, he succeeded Kristoffer Varming as royal building inspector and, in 1938, as a young man, Gottlob showed interest in classical architecture, influenced in part by the English Arts and Crafts movement. Works in the 1920s include a residence at 45 Dalgas Boulevard, but like his peers, he soon turned to Nordic Neoclassicism, appreciating its sober, contemporary style. This can be seen in his Danish Student Hostel in Paris, though it was hardly international modernism, it was something of a breakthrough for Scandinavia. In designing Ørstedhus in 1934, Gottlob maintained some of the ideals, especially with the symmetry. Standing on the corner of Gyldenløvsgade and Vester Farimagsgade in Copenhagen and it is therefore not surprising that it was made of concrete and that, unusually for an office building, the facade remained uncovered. The windows were mounted in finely shaped frames and the pillars at the entrance were lined with stainless steel. Gottlobs designs for a series of Copenhagen schools represented a break with classicism, in Katrinedal School, the large central hall or aula served as an example for many Danish schools in subsequent years. Svagbørnsskole, constructed in conjunction with Skolen ved Sundet, has south-facing fully glazed windows, both schools have aulas, symbolising modernisms concern for light, air, health and nature. Gottlobs largest project was for the university buildings at Nørrefælled, the additions, which include the school of denstistry and the zoological museum, were completed in stages in the 1940s and the 1950s. The area was conceived as an open park development where the played a important role. Gottlobs relatively low buildings, clad in travertine, respected the approach. As the architect responsible for the renewal of the two old bridges over Copenhagens harbour, he demonstrated his ability to combine attractive design with components created by engineers. Knippelsbro and Langebro, which such an important part in the city, are among the finest examples of 1930s modernism in Denmark. Other meaningful contributions by Gottlob in the 1930s were the furniture and he also designed furniture for the Danish pavilion at the 1925 World Exhibition in Paris which was successfully exhibited by the cabinetmaker A. J. Iversen with whom he worked for a number of years. His furniture in a modern style could often be seen in the exhibitions at the Design Museum
19.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
20.
Le Corbusier
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Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, known as Le Corbusier, was a Swiss-French architect, designer, painter, urban planner, writer, and one of the pioneers of what is now called modern architecture. He was born in Switzerland and became a French citizen in 1930 and his career spanned five decades, he constructed buildings in Europe, Japan, India, and North and South America. Le Corbusier prepared the plan for the city of Chandigarh in India. On July 17,2016, seventeen projects by Le Corbusier in seven countries were inscribed in the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites as an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement and it was an industrial town, devoted to the manufacture of watches. His father was an artisan who enameled boxes and watches, while his mother gave piano lessons and his elder brother Albert was an amateur violinist. He attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods, like his contemporaries Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier did not have formal academic training as an architect. He was attracted to the arts and at the age of fifteen he entered the municipal art school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds which taught the applied arts connected with watchmaking. Three years later he attended the course of decoration, founded by the painter Charles LEplattenier. Le Corbusier wrote later that LEplattenier had made him a man of the woods and his father took him frequently into the mountains around the town. He wrote later, we were constantly on mountaintops, we grew accustomed to a vast horizon and his architecture teacher in the Art School was the architect René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusiers earliest house designs. However, he reported later that it was the art teacher LEplattenier who made him choose architecture, I had a horror of architecture and architects, he wrote. I was sixteen, I accepted the verdict and I obeyed. Le Corbusier began teaching himself by going to the library to read about architecture and philosophy, by visiting museums, by sketching buildings, located on the forested hillside near Chaux-de-fonds. It was a chalet with a steep roof in the local alpine style. The success of this led to his construction of two similar houses, the Villas Jacquemet and Stotzer, in the same area. In Florence, he visited the Florence Charterhouse in Galluzzo, which made an impression on him. I would have liked to live in one of what they called their cells and it was the solution for a unique kind of workers housing, or rather for a terrestrial paradise. In 1911, he traveled again for five months, this time he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Serbia, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, as well as Pompeii and Rome. Filling nearly 80 sketchbooks with renderings of what he saw—including many sketches of the Parthenon and he spoke of what he saw during this trip in many of his books, and it was the subject of his last book, Le Voyage dOrient
21.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
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Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was a German-American architect. He is commonly referred to and was addressed as Mies, his surname, along with Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and Frank Lloyd Wright, he is widely regarded as one of the pioneers of modernist architecture. Mies, like many of his post-World War I contemporaries, sought to establish a new style that could represent modern times just as Classical. He created an influential twentieth-century architectural style, stated with clarity and simplicity. His mature buildings made use of materials such as industrial steel. He strove toward an architecture with a framework of structural order balanced against the implied freedom of unobstructed free-flowing open space. He called his buildings skin and bones architecture and he sought an objective approach that would guide the creative process of architectural design, but he was always concerned with expressing the spirit of the modern era. He is often associated with his quotation of the aphorisms, less is more, Mies was born March 27,1886 in Aachen, Germany. He worked in his fathers stone carving shop and at several design firms before he moved to Berlin. Mies served as manager of the Embassy of the German Empire in Saint Petersburg under Behrens. His talent was recognized and he soon began independent commissions. He began his independent professional career designing upper-class homes, joining the movement seeking a return to the purity of early 19th-century Germanic domestic styles and he rejected the eclectic and cluttered classical styles so common at the turn of the 20th century as irrelevant to the modern times. In 1913, Mies married Adele Auguste Bruhn, the daughter of a wealthy industrialist, during his military service in 1917, Mies fathered a son out of wedlock. In 1925 Mies began a relationship with designer Lilly Reich that ended when he moved to the United States, from 1940 until his death, artist Lora Marx was his primary companion. Mies carried on a relationship with sculptor and art collector Mary Callery for whom he designed an artists studio in Huntington, Long Island. He also was rumored to have a relationship with Edith Farnsworth. Mariannes son Dirk Lohan studied under, and later worked for, after World War I, Mies began, while still designing traditional neoclassical homes, a parallel experimental effort. He joined his avant-garde peers in the search for a new style that would be suitable for the modern industrial age
22.
Walter Gropius
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Born in Berlin, Walter Gropius was the third child of Walter Adolph Gropius and Manon Auguste Pauline Scharnweber. In 1915 Gropius married Alma Mahler, widow of Gustav Mahler, Walter and Almas daughter, named Manon after Walters mother, was born in 1916. When Manon died of polio at age 18, in 1935, Gropius and Alma divorced in 1920. On 16 October 1923, Gropius married Ilse Frank, and they remained together until his death in 1969 and they adopted a daughter together, Beate Gropius, known as Ati. Ise Gropius died on 9 June 1983 in Lexington, Massachusetts, Walter Gropius was drafted August 1914 and served as a sergeant and then as a lieutenant in the signal corps in the First World War. He survived being buried under rubble and dead bodies, and shot out of the sky with a dead pilot. He was awarded the Iron Cross twice, Gropius then, like his father and his great-uncle Martin Gropius before him, became an architect. Gropius could not draw, and was dependent on collaborators and partner-interpreters throughout his career, in school he hired an assistant to complete his homework for him. His fellow employees at this time included Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier, in 1910 Gropius left the firm of Behrens and together with fellow employee Adolf Meyer established a practice in Berlin. Together they share credit for one of the seminal modernist buildings created during this period, the Faguswerk in Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Germany, the factory is now regarded as one of the crucial founding monuments of European modernism. Gropius was commissioned in 1913 to design a car for the Prussian Railroad Locomotive Works in Königsberg and this locomotive was unique and the first of its kind in Germany and perhaps in Europe. Other works of early period include the office and factory building for the Werkbund Exhibition in Cologne. In 1913, Gropius published an article about The Development of Industrial Buildings, Gropiuss career was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Called up immediately as a reservist, Gropius served as a sergeant major at the Western front during the war years and was wounded, Gropius was awarded an Iron Cross while fighting for four years for Germany on the Western Front. Gropiuss career advanced in the postwar period, henry van de Velde, the master of the Grand-Ducal Saxon School of Arts and Crafts in Weimar was asked to step down in 1915 due to his Belgian nationality. His recommendation for Gropius to succeed him led eventually to Gropiuss appointment as master of the school in 1919, in principle, the Bauhaus represented an opportunity to extend beauty and quality to every home through well designed industrially produced objects. The Bauhaus program was experimental and the emphasis, was theoretical, one example product of the Bauhaus was the armchair F51, designed for the Bauhauss directors room in 1920 – nowadays a re-edition in the market, manufactured by the German company TECTA/Lauenfoerde. In 1919, Gropius was involved in the Glass Chain utopian expressionist correspondence under the pseudonym Mass
23.
Flemming Lassen
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Flemming Lassen was a Modernist Danish architect and designer, working within the idiom of the International Style. Among his most notable buildings are libraries and cultural centres and he was the brother of Mogens Lassen, also an architect. Flemming Lassen was born on 23 February 1902 in Copenhagen into an artistic family and his father Hans Vilhelm Lassen was a decorative painter and his mother, Ingeborg Winding, was a painter. He trained as a mason before completing his education at the Technical School, built full scale at the subsequent exhibition in Copenhagens Forum, it was a spiral-shaped, flat-roofed house in glass and concrete, incorporating a private garage, a boathouse and a helicopter pad. Other striking features were windows that rolled down like car windows, a tube for the mail. Together with Jacobsen, he went on to design Søllerød Town Hall, in partnership with Erik Møller, he designed the Nyborg Library, for which he was awarded the Eckersberg Medal. In the 1960s, Lassen completed a number of centres and libraries including the Randers Cultural Centre, complete with a museum. The three-storey rectangular building in reinforced concrete is illuminated from a courtyard while the walls along the streets are free of windows. All display strongly Cubist lines with rather raw exteriors but with well formed, in the 1930s and early 1940s, with his unconventional curved designs, Lassen contributed to the development of the Danish modern style. Always intent on simple, clearly defined lines, he also designed lamps and silverware
24.
Forum Copenhagen
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Forum Copenhagen is a large multi-purpose, rentable indoor arena located in Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark. It hosts a variety of concerts, markets, exhibitions. The venue can hold up to 10,000 people depending on the event, the Forum operates as a convention center, concert hall and indoor arena. It was opened in February 1926 to host a car exhibition and was last renovated in 1996–97, over two storeys there is a combined exhibition floor area of 5,000 m² and a separate restaurant for up to 250 seated guests. The Metro station Forum is adjacent to the building, Forum Copenhagen was designed by Oscar Gundlach-Pedersen, and the lighting was from Poul Henningsens brand new PH-lamp. In 1929 it held an exhibition, which was one of the first presentations of functionalism in Denmark. It was at this exhibition that Arne Jacobsen and Flemming Lassen exhibited their subscription to the cylindrical House of the Future, during World War II, the Danish resistance movement group Holger Danske destroyed the original hall in an act of sabotage in August 1943. The hall was first rebuilt and extended in 1947, an annual six-day bicycle race was originally held here and was later moved to Ballerup Super Arena. In 1997, the Forum concluded an extensive renovation of the roof costing 70 million DKK, resulting in better acoustic sound, the venue has hosted numerous music acts since its opening
25.
Garage (residential)
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A residential garage is a walled, roofed structure for storing a vehicle or vehicles that may be part of or attached to a home, or a separate outbuilding or shed. Residential garages typically have space for one or two cars, although three-car garages are used, when a garage is attached to a house, the garage typically has an entry door into the house. Garages normally have a door which can be raised to permit the entry and exit of a vehicle. A garage protects a vehicle from precipitation, and, if it is equipped with a garage door, it also protects the vehicle from theft. Garages are also used for a variety of projects including painting, woodworking and assembling of projects, some garages have an electrical mechanism to automatically open or close the garage door when the homeowner presses a button on a small remote control. Some garages have enough space, even with cars inside, for the storage of such as bicycles or a lawnmower, in some cases. Garages that are attached to a house may be built with the external materials. Garages that are not connected to the home may use a different style of construction from the house, in some places, the term is used synonymously with carport, though that term normally describes a structure that, while roofed, is not completely enclosed. A carport protects the vehicle to some degree from inclement weather, the word garage, introduced to English in 1902, originates from the French word garer, meaning shelter. In northern climates, temperatures inside an uninsulated attached residential garage can decrease to freezing levels during the winter, temperatures inside an uninsulated attached garage in temperate climates can reach uncomfortable levels during summer months. Extreme temperatures can be a source of waste and discomfort in adjoining living areas. Homes with an attached garage often experience this interface problem, insulating only the outside of the building against the elements without extending the insulation to the garage walls and roof is a costly mistake. Australian homes typically have a two, one and a half or double car garage, with newer houses having a triple garage, with one double door. The most common doors on these garages were either 2 wooden barn style doors with a standard sized access door on the side of the garage, or the B&D Rolla Door, which is described below. The most common garage door to date in Australia is the B&D Rolla Door, having been around since 1956 and they are a corrugated flexible but strong sheet steel door, sliding up tracks and rolling around a drum mounted above the door opening on the inside of the garage. These come in manual and remote controlled electric, with conversion kits available, newer homes feature more American styled tilting panel lift doors which slide up onto a track on the ceiling via a motor and chain drive. Most older unit blocks in Australia have garages on the ground floor accessible through a hallway and access doors. Newer ones now have underground parking, British homes featuring a garage typically have a single or double garage either built into the main building, detached within the grounds, or in a communal area
26.
Boathouse
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A boathouse is a building especially designed for the storage of boats, normally smaller craft for sports or leisure use. These are typically located on water, such as on a river. Often the boats stored are rowing boats, other boats such as punts or small motor boats may also be stored. Sometimes, a boathouse may be the headquarters of a club or rowing club. It may also include a restaurant, bar, and other leisure facilities, boathouses are also sometimes modified to include living quarters for people, or the whole structure may be used as temporary or permanent housing. In Scandinavia, the boathouse is known as a naust, a word deriving from Old Norse naverstað and these were typically built with stone walls and timber roofs and would be either open to the sea or provided with sturdy doors. The floors would be a continuation of the beach sand or rock. Boatshed Houseboat, a used as a house
27.
Helipad
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A helipad is a landing area or platform for helicopters and powered lift aircraft. Larger helipads, intended for use by helicopters and other vertical take-off and landing aircraft, an example is Vertiport Chicago, which opened in 2015. Helipads may be located at a heliport or airport where fuel, air traffic control, some basic helipads are built on highrise buildings for evacuation in case of a major fire outbreak. Major police departments may use a dedicated helipad at heliports as a base for police helicopters, large ships and oil platforms usually have a helipad on board for emergency use. In such a case, the term helideck or helodeck has been used in the meaning of a helipad on board. In urban environments, these heliports are typically located on the roof of the hospital, rooftop helipads sometimes display a large two-digit number, representing the weight limit of the pad. In addition, a number may be present, representing the maximum rotor diameter in feet. Location identifiers are often, but not always, issued for helipads and they may be issued by the appropriate aviation authority. Some helipads may have location identifiers from multiple sources, and these identifiers may be of different format, helipads are usually constructed out of concrete and are marked with a circle and/or a letter H, so as to be visible from the air. However, they are not always constructed out of concrete, sometimes wildfire fighters will construct a temporary helipad out of timbers to receive supplies in remote areas, rig mats may be used to build helipads. Landing pads may also be constructed in extreme conditions such as on ice, the worlds highest helipad, built by India, is located on the Siachen Glacier at a height of 21,000 feet above sea level. The worlds largest heliport is in Morgan City, Louisiana, and has a total of 46 helipads, used mostly to support offshore oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. A portable helipad is a structure with a rugged frame that can be used to land helicopters in any areas with slopes of up to 30 degrees, such as hillsides, riverbeds. Portable helipads can be transported by helicopter or powered-lift to place them where a VTOL needs to land, helicopter deck Heliport de Voogt, A. J
28.
TV dinner
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A TV dinner is a pre-packaged frozen or chilled meal that usually comes as an individual portion. It requires very little preparation and contains all the elements for a single-serving meal, the entrée could also be pasta or a common type of fish, such as Atlantic cod. Rice is a side item. In Europe, items such as Indian or Chinese meals are common, the term TV dinner is a genericized trademark originally used for a brand of packaged meal developed in 1953 by C. A. The original TV Dinner came in a tray and was heated in an oven. In the United States the term is synonymous with any prepackaged dinner purchased frozen in a supermarket, most frozen food trays are now made of microwaveable material, usually plastic. Several smaller companies had conceived of frozen dinners earlier, but the first to achieve success was Swanson, each item was placed in its own compartment. The product was cooked for 25 minutes at 425 °F and fit nicely on a TV tray table, the original TV Dinner sold for 98 cents, and had a production estimate of 5,000 dinners for the first year. The name TV dinner supposedly came from the shape of the tray it was served on, the main entrée was in a bigger compartment on one side of the tray and the vegetables lined up in smaller compartments on the other side. The arrangement was similar to that of the front panels of a 1950s television set, there were other theories about the name of the TV dinner. One reason was that early packaging featured the image of a TV set, another was that it was marketed a quick alternative to traditional cooking and could be consumed by families at dinnertime while watching TV, a popular pastime in the fifties. Much has changed since the first TV Dinners were marketed, for instance, a wider variety of main courses – such as fried chicken, spaghetti, Salisbury steak and Mexican combinations – have been introduced. Competitors such as Banquet and Morton began offering prepackaged frozen dinners at a lower price than Swanson, other changes include,1960 – Swanson added desserts to a new four-compartment tray. 1964 – Night Hawk name originated from the Night Hawk steak houses that operated in Austin, the original diners were open all night catering to the late-night crowd. The restaurants produced the first frozen Night Hawk TV dinner in 1964,1969 – The first TV breakfasts were marketed. Great Starts Breakfasts and breakfast sandwiches followed later,1973 – The first Swanson Hungry-Man dinners were marketed, these contained larger portions of its regular dinners. The American football player Mean Joe Greene was the Hungry-Man spokesman,1986 – The first microwave oven-safe trays were marketed. Modern-day frozen dinners tend to come in microwave-safe containers, product lines also tend to offer a larger variety of dinner types
29.
Dodge
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Dodge is an American brand of cars, minivans, and sport utility vehicles manufactured by FCA US LLC, based in Auburn Hills, Michigan. The factory was located in Hamtramck, Michigan and was called the Dodge Main factory from 1910 until its closing in January 1980. The Dodge brothers both died in 1920, and the company was sold by their families to Dillon, Read & Co. in 1925 before being sold to Chrysler in 1928. Dodge vehicles mainly consisted of trucks and full-sized passenger cars through the 1970s, though it made memorable compact cars and midsize cars (such as the B-Body Coronet and Charger from 1962-79. The 1973 oil crisis and its subsequent impact on the American automobile industry led Chrysler to develop the K platform of compact to midsize cars for the 1981 model year. The K platform and its derivatives are credited with reviving Chryslers business in the 1980s, in 2011, Dodge, Ram, and Dodges Viper were separated. Dodge said that the Dodge Viper would be an SRT product, in 2014, SRT was merged back into Dodge. Later that year, Chrysler Group was renamed FCA US LLC, corresponding with the merger of Fiat S. p. A. chief among these customers were the established Olds Motor Vehicle Company and the then-new Ford Motor Company. The first machine shop where the brothers worked together as parts suppliers for Olds, the location was replaced by a larger facility at Hastings Street and Monroe Avenue, which is now a parking garage for the Greektown Casino Hotel. By 1910 the Dodge Main factory was built in Hamtramck, where it remained until 1979, by 1914, John and Horace had created the new four-cylinder Dodge Model 30. S. That same year, Henry Ford decided to stop paying stock dividends to finance the construction of his new River Rouge complex. This led the Dodges to file suit to protect their annual earnings of approximately one million dollars, leading Ford to buy out his shareholders. Also in 1916, the Dodge Brothers vehicles won acclaim for durability while in service with the U. S. Armys Pancho Villa Expedition into Mexico. One notable instance was in May when the 6th Infantry received a reported sighting of Julio Cárdenas, lt. George S. Patton led ten soldiers and two civilian guides in three Dodge Model 30 touring cars to conduct a raid at a ranch house in San Miguelito, Sonora. During the ensuing firefight the party killed three men, of one was identified as Cárdenas. Pattons men tied the bodies to the hoods of the Dodges, returning to headquarters in Dublán, Dodge Brothers cars continued to rank second place in American sales in 1920. However, the year, tragedy struck as John Dodge was felled by pneumonia in January. His brother Horace then died of cirrhosis in December of the same year, with the loss of both founders, the Dodge Brothers Company passed into the hands of the brothers widows, who promoted long-time employee Frederick Haynes to the company presidency
30.
Autogyro
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While similar to a helicopter rotor in appearance, the autogyros rotor must have air flowing through the rotor disc to generate rotation. Invented by the Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva to create an aircraft that could fly safely at low speeds, De la Ciervas aircraft resembled the fixed-wing aircraft of the day, with a front-mounted engine and propeller in a tractor configuration to pull the aircraft through the air. Under license from Cierva in the 1920s and 1930s, the Pitcairn & Kellett companies made further innovations, late-model autogyros patterned after Etienne Dormoys Buhl A-1 Autogyro and Igor Bensens designs feature a rear-mounted engine and propeller in a pusher configuration. The latter term was adopted as a trademark by Bensen Aircraft. An autogyro is characterized by a rotor that turns because of the passage of air through the rotor from below. The vertical component of the total aerodynamic reaction of the rotor gives lift for the vehicle, because the craft must be moving forward in order to force air through the overhead rotor, autogyros are generally not capable of vertical takeoff or landing. A few types have short takeoff or landing. Pitch control is achieved by tilting the rotor fore and aft, three designs to affect the tilt of the rotor are a tilting hub, swashplate, or servo-flaps. On pusher configuration autogyros, the rudder is placed in the propeller slipstream to maximize yaw control at low airspeed. There are three primary flight controls, control stick, rudder pedals, and throttle, typically, the control stick is termed the cyclic and tilts the rotor in the desired direction to provide pitch and roll control. The rudder pedals provide yaw control, and the throttle controls engine power, collective pitch controls are not usually fitted to autogyros, but can be found on the Air & Space 18A and McCulloch J-2 and the Westermayr Tragschrauber and are capable of near VTOL performance. Unlike a helicopter, autogyros without collective pitch or another jump start facility need a runway to take off, however, like helicopters, each autogyro has a specific height–velocity diagram for safest operation, although the dangerous area is usually smaller than for helicopters. So-called tipjets, actually hydrogen peroxide rockets, are placed at the tips of the rotor, the rockets are used only during takeoff and emergency landing, so they do not consume much propellant. Furthermore, the weight and engine power may be reduced by half because a smaller engine is needed for takeoff. The Fairey Jet Gyrodyne and Fairey Rotodyne had true tipjets instead of the rockets and they were technically successful but were not mass-produced due to concerns about tipjet noise. Modern autogyros typically follow one of two basic configurations, the most common design is the pusher configuration, where the engine and propeller are located behind the pilot and rotor mast, such as in the Bensen Gyrocopter. It was developed by Igor Bensen in the decades following World War II, less common today is the tractor configuration. In this version, the engine and propeller are located at the front of the aircraft, ahead of the pilot and this was the primary configuration in early autogyros, but became less common after the advent of the helicopter
31.
Bellevue Beach
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Bellevue Beach, often simply referred to as Bellevue, is a beach at Klampenborg on the northern outskirts of Copenhagen, Denmark. Bellevue is a 700-metre-long sandy beach with adjoining lawns, the characteristic blue-striped, almost cartoonish, lifeguard towers and the geometric kiosks were designed by Danish architect and furniture designer Arne Jacobsen in 1932. In the 1930s, when the right to vacation became legally mandated, gentofte Municipality made plans to develop a piece of coastline north of Copenhagen into a seaside resort complex combining an existing park designed by the landscape architect C. Th. Sørensen with beach facilities catering to some 15,000 paying visitors a day, three architects were invited to submit plans for a Bellevue beach complex. The winner was the young architect Arne Jacobsen, who had just opened his office, the complex also included the Bellavista apartment buildings, a restaurant and the Bellevue Theatre, all of which still stand today in the immediate vicinity of the beach. The quest for recreation by the growing masses called for physical as well as social solutions, a political initiative provided the pre-requisites for creating a beach at Bellevue. In June 1932 the Bellevue beach was inaugurated by Danish Prime Minister Thorvald Stauning and it immediately became the most popular summer resort in Copenhagen. A direct return tram ticket from the city to Bellevue, including the entrance fee, was at the affordable price of 30 øre. In the song Hot, the track on their debut album Nik & Jay, Danish Hip-Hop/pop duo Nik & Jay describe a drive up the coast from Copenhagen. However, situated on an east-facing coast, there is no sunset to be seen at that particular location
32.
Gentofte Municipality
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Gentofte Kommune is a municipality in the Capital Region of Denmark on the east coast of the island of Zealand in eastern Denmark. It covers an area of 25.54 km2, and has a population of 74,548. Since 1993, its mayor has been Hans Toft, a member of the Conservative Peoples Party, the municipality is an amalgamation of three formerly independent towns, and several other local settlements, all close to one another. The site of its council is in Charlottenlund. The three original towns were Gentofte, Vangede and Ordrup and it later included Tuborg, Skovshoved, Dyssegård, Hellerup, Jægersborg, and Klampenborg. Neighboring municipalities are Lyngby-Taarbæk to the north, Gladsaxe to the west, the Øresund, the strait that separates Zealand from Sweden, is to the east. Gentofte municipality was not merged with other municipalities in the 1 January 2007 nationwide Kommunalreformen, Øregård Museum Gentofte Municipality is home to four public upper secondary schools, Øregård and Gammel Hellerup in Hellerup, Aurehøj in Gentofte and Ordrup Gymnasium in Ordrup. Gentofte Studenterkursus offers a 2-year programme, the most important parks are Charlottenlund Beach Park, Hellerup Beach Park, Bernstorff Park. Natural habitats are found at Gentofte Sø, a lake with lots of birds on it, Ermelunden in Jægersborg and Gammelmose in Vangede, Øregård Park with a beautiful lake, benches. A small section of Jægersborg Dyrehave also extends into the municipality, while the rest, arne Jacobsen, architect and furniture designer, who built extensively in Gentofte and lived on Strandvejen. Shipping tycoon Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller also had his residence in the municipality, composer Per Nørgård was born in Gentofte. Writer Dan Turèll lived in the Vangede part of Gentofte from 1955–1964 and he documented these years in his 1975 book Vangede billeder. He moved to Los Angeles in 1980, singer an songwriter Agnes Obel was born in Gentofte. She moved to Berlin in 2005, musician Alex Vargas was born in Gentofte. He moved to London at 17
33.
Klampenborg
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Klampenborg is a northern suburb to Copenhagen, Denmark. It is located in Gentofte Municipality, directly on Øresund, between Taarbæk and Skovshoved, like other neighbourhoods along the Øresund coast, Klampenborg is an affluent area with many large houses. Klampenborg is known for a cluster of building projects by the Functionalist Danish architect Arne Jacobsen and these include Bellevue Beach, the Bellavista housing estate and the Bellevue Theatre, all completed between 1932–36 as some of the earliest Danish examples of Modernism. The area also includes a Jacobsen-designed restaurant, now called Jacobsen, Klampenborg is also the main gateway to the extensive Deer Garden forest park, one of the most popular natural areas in the Copenhagen area, known for its large deer population and ancient oak trees. The entrance, one of many, is located next to Klampenborg Station and is marked by a red-painted wooden gate. In connection with the lies the oldest operating amusement park in the world, Dyrehavsbakken
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International Style (architecture)
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A visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever construction. Glass and steel, in combination with usually less visible reinforced concrete, are the materials of the construction. Commissioned in 1931 by the director of the Museum of Modern Art, Alfred H. Barr Jr. The original exhibition catalogue was then followed up immediately by the book titled The International Style, the aesthetics-based definition of The International Style identified, categorized and expanded upon characteristics said to be common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. Hitchcock and Johnson identified three principles, the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis on rather than preconceived symmetry. The aim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modern architecture, all the works in the 1932 Museum of Modern Art exhibition were carefully selected, only displaying those that strictly followed these rules. Many Modernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecture that transcended style, the British architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented, To me what had been achieved in 1914 was the style of the century. It never occurred to me to look beyond, here was the one and only style which fitted all those aspects which mattered, aspects of economics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to think anybody would wish to abandon it. The exhibition Modern Architecture, International Exhibition opened on February 9,1932, at the Museum of Modern Art, in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Room B was a section titled Housing, presenting the need for a new domestic environment” as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood and Richard Neutra, among these works was shown Alvar Aaltos Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland. The exhibition is significant for its approach to the architectural exhibition. Highly curated in nature, the 1932 exhibition was driven by a desire to promote and consolidate the theory of international modernism, as such, the exhibition featured prominently the work of the core of the modernist group. With Van Der Rohe, Corbusier, Oud, and Gropius at the forefront, moMAs then director Alfred H. Barr hired art historians Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock to curate the museums first architectural exhibition. In 1929, Johnson attended the ceremony of his sister in Wellesley College, where he met Barr. In one month, Barr would be interviewed by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller for the position of the director of the MOMA, Barr added Johnson to MOMAs Junior Advisory Committee. Hitchcock graduated in 1924 after having completed his studies in three years and spending his senior year in architecture
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Lifeguard tower
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Lifeguard towers are used at recreational beaches to watch and supervise swimmers in order to prevent drownings and other dangers. Lifeguards scan for trouble from the structures, which vary from beach bungalows by the ocean to poolside towers, lifeguard towers are also used to spot sharks and other threats. The towers have featured in shows including Baywatch. Their construction is sometimes paid for with fundraisers, and their operation, design contests have challenged architects to offer their visions of the structures. Architect Frank Gehry designed a lifeguard tower into a house as part of a remodel in Venice Beach, the superstar West Coast architects were part of an exhibit of drawings and models of proposals for designer lifeguard towers in 1990. A similar contest was held in 2004 in Miami Beach with 25 local architects, the contest was organized by Jeremy Calleros Gauger, a graduate student at the University of Miami School of Architecture, and the designs were displayed at the Ocean Beach Auditorium. The winners announced were a functional cube with louvers and a modified surfboard design, a striking design called Plank earned an honorable because there had to be space for a lifeguard to change out of a wet bathing suit. A May 21,2006 Family Guy episode featured Stewie trying to destroy his rival by blowing up the lifeguard tower
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Fire lookout tower
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A fire lookout tower, fire tower or lookout tower, provides housing and protection for a person known as a fire lookout whose duty it is to search for wildfires in the wilderness. The fire lookout tower is a building, usually located on the summit of a mountain or other high vantage point, in order to maximize the viewing distance and range. From this vantage point the fire lookout can see smoke that may develop, determine the location by using a known as an Osborne Fire Finder. Lookouts also report weather changes and plot the location of lightning strikes during storms, the location of the strike is monitored for a period of days after in case of ignition. The typical fire lookout tower consists of a room, known as a cab located atop a large steel. Historically, the tops of trees have also been used to mount permanent platforms. Sometimes natural rock may be used to create a lower platform, in some cases, the terrain makes it possible so there is no need for an additional tower and these are known as ground cabs. Ground cabs are called towers, even if they dont sit on a tower, towers gained popularity in the early 1900s, and fires were reported using telephones, carrier pigeons, and heliographs. The history of fire lookout towers predates the United States Forest Service, many townships, private lumber companies, and State Forestry organizations operated fire lookout towers on their own accord. The Great Fire of 1910, also known as the Big Blowup, burned 3,000,000 acres through the states of Washington, Idaho and it is still arguably the largest forest fire ever in recorded history. The smoke from this fire drifted across the country to Washington D. C. One of the rules as a result of the 1910 fire stated all fires must be extinguished by 10 a. m. the following morning, to prevent and suppress fires, the U. S. As a result of the rules, early fire detection and suppression became a priority. Towers began to be built across the country, while earlier lookouts used tall trees and high peaks with tents for shelters, by 1911 permanent cabins and cupolas were being constructed on mountaintops. Beginning in 1910, the New Hampshire Timberlands Owners Association, a protection group, was formed and soon after, similar organizations were set up in Maine. A leader of efforts, W. R. In 1933, during the Great Depression, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt formed the Civilian Conservation Corps, consisting of young men and it was during this time that the CCC set about building fire lookout towers, and access roads to those towers. The U. S. Forest Service took great advantage of the CCC workforce and initiated a program of construction projects
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Weissenhof Estate
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The Weissenhof Estate is a housing estate built for exhibition in Stuttgart in 1927. It was a showcase of what later became known as the International style of modern architecture. Two of its buildings, designed by Le Corbusier, as well as several of his works, were inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Le Corbusier was awarded the two sites, facing the city, and by far the largest budget. The twenty-one buildings vary slightly in form, consisting of terraced and detached houses and apartment buildings, all but two of the entries were white. Bruno Taut had his entry, the smallest, painted in various colors, the exhibition opened to the public on 23 July 1927, a year late, and drew large crowds. Of the original buildings, eleven survive as of 2006. Bombing damage during World War II is responsible for the loss of the homes by Gropius, Hilberseimer, Bruno Taut, Poelzig, Max Taut. Another of Max Tauts homes was demolished in the 1950s, as was Radings, 1-4, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 5-9, J. J. P. Oud 10, Victor Bourgeois Originally, the lot was to be built on by Adolf Loos, instead, Bourgeois built a home that was more traditional than the planned design by Loos, which was to have an innovative relation between up and down. One unique feature is a cellar from gravel rather than concrete. The two-story family home was damaged during the war, and was turned into a two-family dwelling afterward. 11 and 12, Adolf Gustav Schneck 13-15, Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret 16 and 17, Walter Gropius 18, Ludwig Hilberseimer Designed for a family of six, painted in light gray. For reasons of economy, Hilberseimers planned sliding windows were replaced with cheaper, conventional buildings—when Hilberseimer visited the finished house, the building was destroyed in the war, a conventional home now occupies the plot. 19, Bruno Taut Taut was part of the group on the recommendation of his older brother, house 19 is a single-family, two-story home with a basement, designed as a proletarians home. His house was painted red, blue, and yellow, and was destroyed in the war,20, Hans Poelzig Poelzigs contribution is a single-family, two-story home with a winter garden and a sun terrace as prominent features. It was destroyed in the war,21 and 22, Richard Döcker Döcker was assigned two lots in van der Rohes plan, between Rathenaustraße and Bruckmannweg. Both were single-family homes, no.22 with one and a half stories, Döcker wanted brightly colored homes, what color they were painted can no longer be determined since both were destroyed completely in the war
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Stuttgart
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Stuttgart is the capital and largest city of the German state of Baden-Württemberg. It is located on the Neckar river in a fertile valley known as the Stuttgart Cauldron an hour from the Swabian Jura. Stuttgarts urban area has a population of 623,738, making it the sixth largest city in Germany. 2.7 million people live in the administrative region and another 5.3 million people in its metropolitan area. Since the 6th millennium BC, the Stuttgart area has been an important agricultural area and has been host to a number of cultures seeking to utilize the rich soil of the Neckar valley. The Roman Empire conquered the area in 83 AD and built a massive Castrum near Bad Cannstatt, Stuttgarts roots were truly laid in the 10th century with its founding by Liudolf, Duke of Swabia as a stud farm for his warhorses. Overshadowed by nearby Cannstatt, the town grew steadily and was granted a charter in 1320, the fortunes of Stuttgart turned with those of the House of Württemberg, and they made it the capital of their County, Duchy, and Kingdom from the 15th Century to 1918. Stuttgart prospered despite setbacks in the forms of the Thirty Years War and devastating air raids by the Allies on the city, however, by 1952, the city had bounced back and became the major economic, industrial, tourism and publishing center it is today. Stuttgart is also an important transport junction, and possesses the sixth largest airport in Germany. Such companies as Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, Daimler AG, Dinkelacker, Stuttgart is unusual in the scheme of German cities. It is spread across a variety of hills, valleys and parks and this is often a source of surprise to visitors who associate the city with its reputation as the Cradle of the Automobile. The citys tourism slogan is Stuttgart offers more, under current plans to improve transport links to the international infrastructure, the city unveiled a new logo and slogan in March 2008 describing itself as Das neue Herz Europas. For business, it describes itself as Where business meets the future, in July 2010, Stuttgart unveiled a new city logo, designed to entice more business people to stay in the city and enjoy breaks in the area. Stuttgart is a city of mostly immigrants, according to Dorling Kindersley Publishings Eyewitness Travel Guide to Germany, In the city of Stuttgart, every third inhabitant is a foreigner. 40% of Stuttgarts residents, and 64% of the population below the age of five are of immigrant background, the reason for this being that the city was founded in 950 AD by Duke Liudolf of Swabia to breed warhorses. Originally, the most important location in the Neckar river valley as the rim of the Stuttgart basin at what is today Bad Cannstatt. As with many military installations, a settlement sprang up nearby, when they did, the town was left in the capable hands of a local brickworks that produced sophisticated architectural ceramics and pottery. When the Romans were driven back past the Rhine and Danube rivers in the 3rd Century by the Alamanni, in 700, Duke Gotfrid mentions a Chan Stada in a document regarding property
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Skovshoved Petrol Station
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The Skovshoved Petrol Station is a historic, still-operating filling station in Skovshoved at the northern outskirts of Copenhagen, Denmark. First opened in 1936, it was designed by Arne Jacobsen and is an example of the functionalist style typical of the time and it is Class A listed and was thoroughly restored in 2002. The filling station was commissioned by Amoco but is now operated by Uno-X. Whilst the pumps and the roof are used as petrol station. The exterior of the building is dominated by the projecting oval canopy and it offers shade and shelter for filling motorists but, illuminated from beneath, also doubles as a sign at night
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Stelling House
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Stelling House is a building on Gammeltorv in the centre of Copenhagen, Denmark. Towards the end of the 1930s, influenced in part by Gunnar Asplund, indeed, built in a puritanically modernistic style, Stellings Hus complements the classicism of the surrounding buildings. The reinforced concrete structure is six storeys tall, the top floor being slightly set back, the two bottom storeys are clad in green-painted steel plate while the upper part of the building is finished in grey tiling. Although the building does not appear to be out of place today, in 1991, it became a listed building. The Oonaco restaurant and café on the floor is furnished with tables. It replaces the Stelling Café which used to occupy the site, Vibeke Andersson Møller, Stellings hus,2003, Frederiksberg
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Gammeltorv
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Gammeltorv is the oldest square in Copenhagen, Denmark. With adjoining Nytorv it forms a common space along the Strøget pedestrian zone, while the square dates back to the foundation of the city in the 12th century, most of its buildings were constructed after the Great Fire of 1795 in Neoclassical style. Another dominating feature is the Caritas Well, a Renaissance fountain erected by King Christian IV in 1610, historically, Gammeltorv has been the focal point of Copenhagens judicial and political life as well as one of its two principal marketplaces. Several former city halls have been located on the square or in its immediate vicinity, surprisingly, its name is not a reference to adjoining Nytorv but to the slightly younger Amagertorv, Copenhagens other major market in early times. Already prior to Absolons construction of his castle on Slotsholmen, there seems to have been a marketplace at Gammeltorv, possibly also a Thing. Copenhagens first town hall, of which nothing is known, was built on the east side of the square but later destroyed during Hanseatic capture. In 1374 the square is referred to as Forum and in 1446 the square is referred to as the old square as opposed to the somewhat younger Amagertorv, from 1470 the name Gammeltorv is used consistently. In 1479 a new hall was built om the south side of Gammeltorv. Towards the end of the 16th century, King Frederick II provided for the construction of a tube from Lake Emdrup. Six kilometres long, it was made from carved out tree trunks, King Christian IV rebuilt the town hall in Renaissance style from 1608 to 1610. He also moved and redesigned Frederick IIs fountain, creating the Caritas Well and it was also at this point that the area behind the town hall was cleared and Nytorv founded. When Kongens Nytorv—King Christian Vs grand new place royale—was established in 1670, in the Great Fire of 1728, the town hall was among the many buildings lost to the flames. A new town hall was erected on its foundation, built to a design of Johan Conrad Ernst, to commemorate the tercentenary of the House of Oldenburgs accent to the Danish throne, the City Magistrate erected an octagonal memorial temple in the square in 1749. In the Copenhagen Fire of 1795 the city burnt down once again. After this it was moved to a site at Nytorv and the two squares were merged to form one large, rectangular space. After the fire the buildings around the square were rebuilt in the Neoclassical style typical of the time. The square was known for its poultry ladies who gathered around the Caritas Well, selling poultry. They came from the village of Valby unlike the vendours on Amagertorv who came from Amager, after this the Citys attention became directed at the trade at Gammeltorv and on 15 April 1910 a Pork Hall was inaugurated
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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