1.
Arnold Toynbee
–
Arnold Toynbee was a British economic historian also noted for his social commitment and desire to improve the living conditions of the working classes. Toynbee was born in London, the son of the physician Joseph Toynbee, Toynbee was the uncle, via his brother Harry Valpy Toynbee, of universal historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee. The two are often confused for each other due to the similarity of their names, Toynbee attended public schools in Blackheath and Woolwich. In 1873 he began to study economy at Oxford University, first at Pembroke College and from 1875 at Balliol College. He married Charlotte Atwood,12 years his senior and a cousin of Harold Davidson, Toynbee died in 1883, at age 30. His health had deteriorated, probably due to exhaustion by excessive work. Of weak physique, but full of a passionate spiritual enthusiasm and he died for truth as he knew it, and those who knew him felt that his death was a national loss. For example, he argued that, despite commonly held beliefs, free trade was not generally advantageous in itself, but only certain circumstances. Toynbee considered few laws as universally true, such as the law of diminishing returns, therefore, there were no universal rules as to how strongly the state should interfere in the marketplace, all depended on the situation and varying degrees of regulation could be appropriate. Toynbee did not equate a struggle for existence and a struggle for a particular kind of existence. From the very beginning of history, he argued, all human civilisation was essentially designed to interfere with this brute struggle and we intend to modify the violence of the fight, and to prevent the weak being trampled under foot. This kind of competition has to be checked, there is no instance of its having lasted long without being modified either by combination or legislation. In England both remedies are in operation, the former through Trades Unions, the latter through factory legislation, however, in the early phase of industrial capitalism it came to be believed in as a gospel, from which it was regarded as little long of immoral to depart. He read for workers in industrial centres and encouraged the creation of trade unions. A focal point of his commitment was the slum of Whitechapel, in East London, Toynbee also encouraged his students to offer free courses for working-class audiences in their own neighbourhoods. Inspired by his ideas, Samuel Augustus Barnett and Henrietta Barnett founded the first university settlement in 1884, shortly after Toynbees death, a centre for social reform, Toynbee Hall was on Commercial Street, Whitechapel. The concept was to bring upper and middle class students into lower-class neighbourhoods, not only to education and social aid. This soon inspired a movement of university settlements
Arnold Toynbee
–
Arnold Toynbee
Arnold Toynbee
–
Toynbee Hall
settlement house,
Whitechapel, founded 1884, pictured here in 1902.
Arnold Toynbee
–
Toynbee's name on the Reformers Monument,
Kensal Green Cemetery
2.
Companion of Honour
–
The Order of the Companions of Honour is an order of the Commonwealth realms. Founded on the date as the Order of the British Empire. The order consists of the Sovereign plus no more than 65 members, additionally, foreigners from outside the realms may be added as honorary members. Membership confers no title or precedence, but those inducted into the order are entitled to use the post-nominal letters CH. Appointments can be made on the advice of Commonwealth realm prime ministers, for Canadians, the advice to the Sovereign can come from a variety of officials. The quota numbers were altered in 1970 to 47 for the United Kingdom,7 for Australia,2 for New Zealand, the quota was adjusted again in 1975 by adding 2 places to the New Zealand quota and reducing the 9 for the other countries to 7. While able to nominate candidates to the Order, New Zealand, as of 2016 those countries have nominated only politicians who have served as Prime Minister or Deputy Prime Minister. Men wear the badge on a ribbon and women on a bow at the left shoulder. Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II List of Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour List of honorary British Knights List of people who have declined a British honour
Companion of Honour
–
Order of the Companions of Honour
Companion of Honour
–
Lord Tweedsmuir, as
Governor General of Canada, wearing the Companion of Honour badge around his neck as part of his ceremonial
Windsor uniform
3.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
4.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
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Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
5.
York
–
York is a historic walled city at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The municipality is the county town of Yorkshire to which it gives its name. The city has a heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events in England throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The city offers a wealth of attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent. The city was founded by the Romans as Eboracum in 71 AD and it became the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and later of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jórvík. In the Middle Ages, York grew as a wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England. In the 19th century, York became a hub of the railway network, in recent decades, the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway-related industries to one that provides services. The University of York and health services have become major employers, from 1996, the term City of York describes a unitary authority area which includes rural areas beyond the old city boundaries. In 2011 the urban area had a population of 153,717, the word York derives from the Latinised name for the city, variously rendered as Eboracum, Eburacum or Eburaci. The first mention of York by this name is dated to circa 95–104 AD as an address on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in Northumberland, the toponymy of Eboracum is uncertain because the language of the pre-Roman indigenous population was never recorded. They are thought to have spoken a Celtic language related to modern Welsh, in his Historia Regum Britanniae the 12th century chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth, suggests the name derives from that of a pre-Roman city founded by the legendary king Ebraucus. Alternatively, the word already existed as an Old English word for wild swine. The Anglo-Saxon newcomers probably interpreted the part as eofor, and -rac as ric, while -um was a common abbreviation of the Saxon -heem. To them, it sounded as a home rich in boar, as is common in Saxon place names, the -um part gradually faded, eoforic. When the Danish army conquered the city in 866, its name became Jórvík, the Old French and Norman name of the city following the Norman Conquest was recorded as Everwic in works such as Waces Roman de Rou. The form York was first recorded in the 13th century, many company and place names, such as the Ebor race meeting, refer to the Roman name. The Archbishop of York uses Ebor as his surname in his signature, archaeological evidence suggests that Mesolithic people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known whether their settlements were permanent or temporary. By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, the area was occupied by a known to the Romans as the Brigantes
York
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York city centre from above
York
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Roman wall and the west corner tower of
Eboracum. The top half is medieval.
York
–
Roman Emperor Constantine the Great proclaimed Emperor at York in AD 306.
York
–
Micklegate – York is famous for its medieval city walls.
6.
Balliol College, Oxford
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Balliol College /ˈbeɪliəl/, founded in 1263, is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England. Among the colleges alumni are three former ministers, five Nobel laureates, and numerous literary and philosophical figures, including Adam Smith, Gerard Manley Hopkins. In 2012 Balliol had an endowment of £62. 5m, Balliol College was founded in about 1263 by John I de Balliol under the guidance of the Bishop of Durham. Under a statute of 1881, New Inn Hall was merged into Balliol College in 1887, Balliol acquired New Inn Halls admissions and other records for 1831–1887 as well as the library of New Inn Hall, which largely contained 18th-century law books. Along with many of the ancient colleges, Balliol has evolved its own traditions and customs over the centuries, the patron saint of the College is Saint Catherine of Alexandria. On her feast day, a dinner is held for all final year students within Balliol. This festival was established by 1550. Another important feast is the Snell Dinner and this dinner is held in memory of John Snell, whose benefaction established exhibitions for students from the University of Glasgow to study at Balliol one of whom was Adam Smith. The feast is attended by fellows of Balliol College, the current Snell Exhibitioners, by far the most eccentric event is The Nepotists carol-singing event organised by the Colleges Arnold and Brackenbury Society. This event happens on the last Friday of Michaelmas term each year, on this occasion, Balliol students congregate in the college hall to enjoy mulled wine and the singing of carols. The evening historically ended with a rendition of The Gordouli on Broad Street, outside the gates of Trinity College, verses of this form are now known as Balliol rhymes. The best known of these rhymes is the one on Benjamin Jowett and this has been widely quoted and reprinted in virtually every book about Jowett and about Balliol ever since. This and 18 others are attributed to Henry Charles Beeching, the other quatrains are much less well known. For many years, there has been a traditional and fierce rivalry shown between the students of Balliol and those of its neighbour to the east, Trinity College. It has manifested itself on the field and the river, in the form of songs sung over the dividing walls. The rivalry reflects that which exists between Trinity College, Cambridge and Balliols sister college, St Johns College, Cambridge. In college folklore, the rivalry back to the late 17th century. In fact, in its form, the rivalry appears to date from the late 1890s
Balliol College, Oxford
–
Colleges and
halls of the
University of Oxford Balliol College
Balliol College, Oxford
–
The front of the college in
Broad Street.
Balliol College, Oxford
–
Balliol College Garden
Balliol College, Oxford
–
The whole of the front of Balliol College as seen from
Broad Street, looking west.
7.
Universal history
–
Universal history is a term for a work aiming at the presentation of the history of humankind as a whole, as a coherent unit. A universal chronicle or world chronicle traces history from the beginning of information about the past up to the present. Universal history embraces the events of all times and nations with the only limitation being that they should be ascertained as to make a scientific treatment of them possible. Universal history in the Western tradition is divided into three parts, viz. ancient, medieval, and modern time. The division on ancient and medieval periods is less sharp or absent in the Arabic, Indian, a synoptic view of universal history led some scholars, beginning with Karl Jaspers, to distinguish the Axial Age synchronous to classical antiquity of the Western tradition. Jaspers also proposed a more universal periodization—prehistory, history and planetary history, all distinguished earlier periods belong to the second period which is a relatively brief transitory phase between two much longer periods. Jaspers periodization gains popularity in the current research, the works of world historians, Oswald Spengler, Arnold J. Toynbee and Max Ostrovsky, are three examples of attempts to integrate primary source-based history and Universal History. Spenglers work is more general, Toynbee created a theory that would allow the study of civilizations to proceed with integration of source-based history writing, Ostrovsky based comparative analysis of civilizations on primary sources in order to draw generalizations outlining a Universal History. All three writers attempted to incorporate teleological theories into general presentations of the history, Toynbee and Ostrovsky found as the telos of universal history the emergence of a single World State. In Greco-Roman antiquity, the first universal history was written by Ephorus and this work has been lost, but its influence can be seen in the ambitions of Polybius and Diodorus to give comprehensive accounts of their worlds. Metamorphoses by Ovid has been considered as a universal history because of its comprehensive chronology—from the creation of mankind to the death of Julius Caesar a year before the poets birth, in Leipzig are preserved five fragments dating to the 2nd century AD and coming from a world chronicle. Its author is unknown, but was perhaps a Christian, although his generation was the first in China to discover the existence of kingdoms in Central Asia and India, his work did not attempt to cover the history of these regions. The universal chronicle traces history from the beginning of the world up to the present and was a popular genre of historiography in medieval Western Europe. The Chronica of Eusebius of Caesarea is considered to be the point of this tradition. The second book of work consisted of a set of concordance tables that for the first time synchronized the several concurrent chronologies in use with different peoples. Eusebius chronicle became known to the Latin West through the translation by Jerome, agustine’s thesis depicts the history of the world as universal warfare between God and the Devil. This metaphysical war is not limited by time but only by geography as it takes place on planet Earth, in other cases, any obvious theme may be lacking. Some universal chronicles bear a more or less encyclopedic character, with many digressions on non-historical subjects, while this reading of Gregory is currently a widely accepted hypothesis in historical circles, the central purpose of Gregorys writing is still a topic of hot debate
Universal history
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Europe 1550 Source: The Library of Universal History. by Israel Smith Clare, New York, R.S. Peale, J.A. Hill, 1897.
Universal history
–
Pre 1800 Map Geographicus - World. 1798
Universal history
–
The World in 1897 Cambridge University Library
8.
Historian
–
A historian is a person who researches, studies, and writes about the past, and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race, if the individual is concerned with events preceding written history, the individual is an historian of prehistory. Although historian can be used to describe amateur and professional historians alike, some historians, though, are recognized by publications or training and experience. Historian became an occupation in the late nineteenth century as research universities were emerging in Germany. Modern historical analysis usually draws upon other social sciences, including economics, sociology, politics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, while ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within the cultural context of the times. Understanding the past appears to be a human need. What constitutes history is a philosophical question, the earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. Systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development that became an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region, the earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus who later became known as the father of history. Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men and he was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis. The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, while early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder, was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. Strabo was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, livy records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history, in Chinese historiography, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. Sima Qian was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing and his written work was the Shiji, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is the source for the Apostolic Age. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages and they wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammads life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, to evaluate these sources, they developed various methodologies, such as the science of biography, science of hadith and Isnad
Historian
–
Herodotus was a Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BC and one of the earliest historians whose work survives.
Historian
–
Reproduction of part of a tenth-century copy of
Thucydides 's
History of the Peloponnesian War.
Historian
–
Leonardo Bruni (c.1370–1444), the historian who first divided history into the three eras of
Antiquity, the
Middle Ages, and
Modern times.
Historian
–
A page of
Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
9.
Philosopher of history
–
The term philosophy of history refers to the theoretical aspect of history, in two senses. It is customary to distinguish critical philosophy of history from speculative philosophy of history, speculative philosophy of history is an area of philosophy concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible end to its development—that is, it asks if there is a design, purpose, directive principle. Part of Marxism, for example, is speculative philosophy of history, another example is historiosophy, the term coined in 1838 by August Cieszkowski to describe his understanding of history. Though there is overlap between the two aspects, they can usually be distinguished, modern professional historians tend to be skeptical about speculative philosophy of history. Sometimes critical philosophy of history is included under historiography, Philosophy of history should not be confused with the history of philosophy, which is the study of the development of philosophical ideas in their historical context. Speculative philosophy of history asks several questions, What is the proper unit for the study of the human past—the individual subject. The family, polis or sovereign territory, or the whole of the human species. Are there any broad patterns that we can discern through the study of the human past, are there, for example, patterns of progress. Or are there no patterns or cycles, and is human history regulated by irregularity, related to this is the study of individual agency and its impact in history, functioning within, or opposed to, larger trends and patterns. If history can indeed be said to progress or cycle, what is its direction or pattern. What is the force of the progress or of the cycles. What does it mean to know, explain and write history, in his Poetics, Aristotle maintained the superiority of poetry over history because poetry speaks of what must or should be true rather than merely what is true. This reflects early Axial Age concerns rather than metaphysical concerns for what is, accordingly, classical historians felt a duty to ennoble the world. In keeping with philosophy of history, it is clear that their philosophy of value imposed upon their process of writing history—philosophy influenced method and hence product. Herodotus, a 5th-century BCE contemporary of Socrates, broke from the Homeric tradition of passing narrative from generation to generation in his work Investigations, History was supposed to teach good examples for one to follow. The assumption that history should teach good examples influenced how writers produced history, from the Classical period to the Renaissance, historians alternated between focusing on subjects designed to improve mankind and on a devotion to fact. History was composed mainly of hagiographies of monarchs or of epic poetry describing heroic gestures, in the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun, who is considered one of the fathers of the philosophy of history, discussed his philosophy of history and society in detail in his Muqaddimah
Philosopher of history
–
Key concepts
10.
London School of Economics
–
The London School of Economics is a public research university located in London, England and a constituent college of the federal University of London. LSE is located in Westminster, central London, near the boundary between Covent Garden and Holborn, the area is historically known as Clare Market. The LSE has more than 10,000 students and 3,300 staff and it had a total income of £340.7 million in 2015/16, of which £30.3 million was from research grants. 155 nationalities are represented amongst LSEs student body and the school has the highest percentage of students of all British universities. Despite its name, the school is organised into 25 academic departments and institutes which conduct teaching and research across a range of legal studies, in the 2014 Research Excellence Framework, the School had the highest proportion of world-leading research among research submitted of any British non-specialist university. The LSE is usually considered part of the triangle of highly research-intensive universities in southeast England. It is a member of organisations such as the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association. LSE has produced notable alumni in the fields of law, history, economics, philosophy, business, literature, media. Alumni and staff include 52 past or present heads of state or government and 20 members of the current British House of Commons. To 2016, 27% of all the Nobel Prizes in Economics have been awarded or jointly awarded to LSE alumni, current staff or former staff, LSE alumni and staff have also won 3 Nobel Peace Prizes, and 2 Nobel Prizes in Literature. Out of all European universities, LSE has educated the most billionaires according to a 2014 global census of U. S dollar billionaires, LSE graduates earn higher incomes on average than those of any other British university. The London School of Economics was founded in 1895 by Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Hutchinson, a lawyer and member of the Fabian Society, left the money in trust, to be put towards advancing its objects in any way they deem advisable. The five trustees were Sidney Webb, Edward Pease, Constance Hutchinson, William de Mattos, LSE records that the proposal to establish the school was conceived during a breakfast meeting on 4 August 1894, between the Webbs, Graham Wallas and George Bernard Shaw. The proposal was accepted by the trustees in February 1895 and LSE held its first classes in October of that year, in rooms at 9 John Street, Adelphi, in the City of Westminster. The School joined the federal University of London in 1900, and was recognised as a Faculty of Economics of the university, the University of London degrees of BSc and DSc were established in 1901, the first university degrees dedicated to the social sciences. Expanding rapidly over the years, the school moved initially to the nearby 10 Adelphi Terrace, then to Clare Market. The foundation stone of the Old Building, on Houghton Street, was laid by King George V in 1920, the 1930s economic debate between LSE and Cambridge is well known in academic circles. The dispute also concerned the question of the role
London School of Economics
–
Beatrice and
Sidney Webb
London School of Economics
–
Coat of arms of the LSE
London School of Economics
–
Friedrich Hayek, who taught at LSE during the 1930s and 40s
London School of Economics
–
Stonework featuring the initials of LSE
11.
University of London
–
The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
University of London
University of London
–
University of London
Coat of Arms The file above's purpose is being discussed and/or is being considered for
deletion. Consult image description page for details.
University of London
University of London
12.
International relations
–
International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State. As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides, in practice International Relations and International Affairs forms a separate academic program or field from Political Science, and the courses taught therein are highly interdisciplinary. The history of international relations based on sovereign states is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty, the centuries of roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of the independent, sovereign states, the institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. The French Revolution added to this the new idea that not princes or an oligarchy, such a state in which the nation is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state. The term republic increasingly became its synonym, the same claim to sovereignty was made for both forms of nation-state. The particular European system supposing the sovereign equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonialism, the contemporary international system was finally established through decolonization during the Cold War. While the nation-state system is considered modern, many states have not incorporated the system and are termed pre-modern, further, a handful of states have moved beyond insistence on full sovereignty, and can be considered post-modern. The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of different types of states is disputed. What is explicitly recognized as international relations theory was not developed until after World War I, IR theory, however, has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the I and R in international relations aims to distinguish the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of international relations. Similarly, liberalism draws upon the work of Kant and Rousseau, in the 20th century, in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism, Marxism has been a foundation of international relations. International relations as a field of study began in Britain. IR emerged as an academic discipline in 1919 with the founding of the first IR professorship. Georgetown Universitys Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States and this was rapidly followed by establishment of IR at universities in the US and in Geneva, Switzerland. The creation of the posts of Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at LSE, furthermore, the International History department at LSE developed a focus on the history of IR in the early modern, colonial and Cold War periods. The first university dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 2012, Ramon Llull University initiated the first International Relations degree in Barcelona, fully in English
International relations
–
The
Palace of Nations. In 2012 alone, the Palace of Nations hosted more than 10 000 intergovernmental meetings.
Geneva (
Switzerland) is the city that hosts the highest number of
international organisations in the world.
International relations
–
The field of international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian
Thucydides.
International relations
–
The official portraits of King
Władysław IV dressed according to
French,
Spanish and Polish fashion reflects the complex politics of the
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the
Thirty Years' War
International relations
–
Flags of the member states of the
United Nations
13.
London in the 1960s
–
The term Swinging London refers to a youth-driven cultural revolution that took place in London during the mid-to-late 1960s. The Swinging London also reached British cinema, which saw a surge in formal experimentation, freedom of expression, colour, and comedy. During this period, creative types of all kinds gravitated to the capital, from artists and writers to publishers, photographers, advertisers, film-makers. During this era, London from a gloomy, grimy post-War capital into a bright, the phenomenon was caused by the large number of young people in the city and the postwar economic boom. The swinging scene also served as a consumerist counterpart to the countercultural British underground of the same period, Swinging London was a youth-oriented phenomenon that emphasized the new and modern. It was a period of optimism and hedonism, and a cultural revolution, one catalyst was the recovery of the British economy after post-World War II austerity which lasted through much of the 1950s. It swings, it is the scene, and celebrated in the name of the radio station, Swinging Radio England. However, swinging in the sense of hip or fashionable had been used since the early 1960s, in 1965, Diana Vreeland, editor of Vogue magazine, said London is the most swinging city in the world at the moment. Later that year, the American singer Roger Miller had a hit record with England Swings, psychedelic rock from artists such as Pink Floyd, Cream, Procol Harum, the Jimi Hendrix Experience and Traffic grew significantly in popularity. During the time of Swinging London, fashion and photography were featured in Queen magazine, mod-related fashions such as the miniskirt stimulated fashionable shopping areas such as Carnaby Street and Kings Road, Chelsea. The model Jean Shrimpton was another icon and one of the worlds first supermodels and she was the worlds highest paid and most photographed model during this time. Shrimpton was called The Face of the 60s, in which she has been considered by many as the symbol of Swinging London, other popular models of the era included Veruschka, Peggy Moffitt, and Penelope Tree. The model Twiggy has been called the face of 1966 and the Queen of Mod, the British flag, the Union Jack, became a symbol, assisted by events such as Englands home victory in the 1966 World Cup. The Mini-Cooper car was used by a fleet of mini-cab taxis highlighted by advertising that covered their paintwork, the Jaguar E-Type sports car was another British icon of the 1960s. The phenomenon was featured in films of the time, including Darling. The comedy films Austin Powers, International Man of Mystery and Austin Powers, The Spy Who Shagged Me resurrected the imagery, the ITV spy-fi series The Avengers, particularly after it began broadcasting in colour, reveled in its Swinging London setting. In the 1967 episode, Dead Mans Treasure, Emma Peel arrives in the archetypal English village of Swingingdale, in the episode Beauty is an Ugly Word of BBCs Adam Adamant Lives. Adamant, an Edwardian adventurer suspended in time since 1902, was told, jigsaw Man, a 1968 episode of the detective series Man in a Suitcase, opened with the announcement, This is London
London in the 1960s
–
"Swinging London",
Carnaby Street, circa 1966
London in the 1960s
–
Carnaby Street, circa 1968.
14.
Joseph Toynbee
–
Joseph Toynbee was an English otologist, whose career was dedicated to pathological and anatomical studies of the ear. Joseph Toynbee was born in Heckington, Lincolnshire in 1815 and he was the second son of fifteen children of the wealthy land owner and farmer George Toynbee. His first wife and mother of Joseph was Elizabeth Cullen, after several years of private teaching, he attended Kings Lynn Grammar School in Norfolk. At the age of seventeen he studied medicine and his first experience in medicine came when he was apprenticed to William Wade of the Westminster General Dispensary in Gerrard Street in Soho London. He studied anatomy under George Derby Dermott at Hunterian Medical School at the Great Windmill Street and he was married, in August 1846, to Harriet, daughter of Nathaniel Holmes. They had nine children together, including economic historian Arnold Toynbee, and daughter Grace, another son, Harry Valpy Toynbee, was the father of universal historian Arnold J. Toynbee, and archaeologist and art historian Jocelyn Toynbee. He died in July 1866 while conducting experiments with prussic acid, either one of these substances or their combination are responsible for his death. He was buried at St Marys Church, Wimbledon and he performed studies on the functionality of the Eustachian tube and of the tympanic membrane and tried to restore attempts, the tympanoplasty. When St. Mary’s Hospital was founded in Paddington, he a became an aural surgeon, from his many dissections of deaf ears, he studied ankylosis of the stapes. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March 1842, austrian otologist Adam Politzer penned biographies in French and German honoring Toynbee, whom Politzer regarded as a major influence. On the structure of the membrana tympani in the human ear, richard Taylor, London 1851 On the use of an artificial membrana tympani in cases of deafness, dependent upon perforation or destruction of the natural organ. J. Churchill, London 1857 A Descriptive Catalogue of Preparations illustrative of the Diseases of the Ear in the Museum of Joseph Toynbee, J. Churchill, London 1857 The Diseases of the Ear, Their Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Blanchard and Lea,1860 Hints on the Formation of Local Museums, robert Hardwicke,1863 Betlejewski, Stanisław, Betlejewski, Andrzej
Joseph Toynbee
–
Joseph Toynbee, published in 1910
15.
19th-century philosophy
–
Pressures for egalitarianism, and more rapid change culminated in a period of revolution and turbulence that would see philosophy change as well. With the tumultuous years of 1789–1815, European culture was transformed by revolution, war, by ending many of the social and cultural props of the previous century, the stage was set for dramatic economic and political change. European philosophy reflected on, participated in, and drove, many of these changes, Immanuel Kant is a name that most would mention as being among the most important of influences, as is Jean-Jacques Rousseau. While both of these philosophers were products of the 18th century and its assumptions, they pressed at the boundaries. In trying to explain the nature of the state and government, Rousseau would challenge the basis of government with his declaration that Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains. Kant, while attempting to preserve axiomic skepticism, was forced to argue that we do not see true reality, all we know of reality is appearances. Since all we can see of reality is appearances, which are subject to certain necessary and subjective forms of perceptions, Hegels distinction between the unknowable and the circumstantially unknown can be seen as the beginnings of Hegels rational system of the universe. Yet another philosopher of the late Enlightenment that was influential in the 19th century was Pierre-Simon Laplace and this is by no means an exhaustive list of all 19th-century philosophy. One of the first philosophers to attempt to grapple with Kants philosophy was Johann Gottlieb Fichte, in Wissenschaftslehre, Fichte argues that the self posits itself and is a self-producing and changing process. But it was another of Fichtes students, and former roommate of Schelling and his work revealed the increasing importance of historical thinking in German thought. Arthur Schopenhauer, rejecting Hegel and also materialism, called for a return to Kantian transcendentalism, at the same time adopting atheism and determinism, amongst others. His secular thought became popular in Europe in the second half of the 19th century. This trend of thought survived into the beginning of the century, influencing 20th century philosophical movements such as Neopositivism. One of the most famous opponents of idealism in the first half of the German 19th century was Ludwig Feuerbach, in early 19th century Britain, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill promoted the idea that actions are right as they maximize happiness, and happiness alone. Marx analysed history itself as the progression of dialectics in the form of class struggle, from this it is argued that the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Marxism had a influence on the history of the 20th Century. Existentialism as a movement is properly a 20th-century movement, but its major antecedents, Søren Kierkegaard. In the 1840s, academic philosophy in Europe, following Hegel, was almost completely divorced from the concerns of human life
19th-century philosophy
–
History of
Western philosophy
16.
Winchester College
–
Winchester College is an independent boarding school for boys in the British public school tradition, situated in Winchester, Hampshire. It has existed in its present location for over 600 years and it is the oldest of the original seven English public schools defined by the Clarendon Commission and regulated by the Public Schools Act 1868. It is sometimes referred to by pupils, former pupils and others as Win, Coll, the upper-class lifestyle magazine Tatler named the school as its Public School of the Year in 2010. Winchester College was founded in 1382 by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester and it was founded in conjunction with New College, Oxford, for which it was designed to act as a feeder, the buildings of both colleges were designed by master mason William Wynford. In addition to the 70 scholars and 16 Quiristers, the provided for ten noble Commoners. These Commoners were paying guests of the Headmaster or Second Master in his apartments in College. In the 1860s New Commoners was closed and converted to classrooms, at the same time two more houses were acquired and added to the Houses category, a tenth was acquired in 1905 and allotted to Commoners. There are therefore now ten houses in addition to College, which continues to occupy the original 14th-century buildings, from the late 1970s there has been a continual process of extension to and upgrading of College Chambers. The Scholars live in the buildings, known as College. College is not usually referred to as a house, hence the terms housemaster of College and College house are not generally used, the housemaster of College is now known as the Master in College, though these duties formerly belonged to the Second Master. Within the school, College refers only to the body of scholars, Winchester College, every pupil at Winchester, apart from the Scholars, lives in a boarding house, chosen or allocated when applying to Winchester. It is here that he studies, eats and sleeps, each house is presided over by a housemaster and a number of house tutors. Houses compete in competitions, mostly in sporting competitions. Each house has a name, usually based on the family name of the first housemaster. Each house also has a name, which is more frequently used in speech. Each house also has a letter assigned to it, in the order of their founding, to act as an abbreviation, especially on laundry tags. A member of a house is described by the name of the house with -ite suffixed, as a Furleyite, a Toyeite. The houses have been ordered by their year of founding, College does not have an informal name, although the abbreviation Coll is sometimes used, especially on written work
Winchester College
–
Winchester College chapel
Winchester College
Winchester College
–
East window
Winchester College
–
Chapel ceiling
17.
British School at Athens
–
The British School at Athens is one of the 17 Foreign Archaeological Institutes in Athens, Greece. The School was founded in 1886 as the fourth institution in Greece. For example, it has made contributions in the fields of epigraphy. Its facilities include one of the most important Classical and archaeological libraries in Greece, and the Fitch laboratory, the BSA also operates a branch at Knossos in Crete, including one of the islands main archaeological libraries. The trip they took to the Balkans during the session was published in 1917 as A Ride Through the Balkans, agnes Conway married architect-archaeologist George Horsfield in 1932. † Died in office British School at Rome Helen Waterhouse, The British School at Athens, London, British School at Athens,1986. Helen Waterhouse and others, Ανασκαφές, A Celebration of the British School at Athens 1886–1986, eleni Calligas and James Whitley, On Site, British Archaeologists in Greece. Elena Korka, Foreign Archaeological Schools in Greece,160 Years, Athens, Hellenic Ministry of Culture,2005. Sifting the Soil of Greece, The Early Years of the British School at Athens, London, Institute of Classical Studies, University of London. British School official website History of the Institute Ambrosia - The BSA/ASCSA libraries Union catalogue Bibliography from WorldCat
British School at Athens
–
The BSA maintains one of the foremost
Classical /
archaeological libraries in
Europe.
British School at Athens
–
The
Heraion of
Perachora, excavated by the British School at Athens during the 1930s.
18.
British Foreign Office
–
The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, commonly called the Foreign Office, is a department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for protecting and promoting British interests worldwide and it was created in 1968 by merging the Foreign Office and the Commonwealth Office. The head of the FCO is the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and this position is regarded as one of the four most prestigious appointments in the Cabinet, alongside those of Chancellor of the Exchequer and Home Secretary. Together with the Prime Minister, these are the Great Offices of State, the FCO is managed from day-to-day by a civil servant, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, who also acts as the Head of the Her Majestys Diplomatic Service. This position is held by Sir Simon McDonald, who took office on 1 September 2015, safeguarding the UK’s national security by countering terrorism and weapons proliferation, and working to reduce conflict. Building the UK’s prosperity by increasing exports and investment, opening markets, ensuring access to resources, supporting British nationals around the world through modern and efficient consular services. The two departments foreign affairs responsibilities became the Foreign Office, whilst their domestic affairs responsibilities were assigned to the Home Office, the Home Office is technically the senior. One of the most influential Times journalists was Valentine Chirol, British Ambassadors across Europe communicated with him on a number of political and local issues. Twentieth century During World War I, the Arab Bureau was set up within the British Foreign Office as a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department, the FCO was formed in 1968, from the merger of the short-lived Commonwealth Office and the Foreign Office. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office held responsibility for development issues between 1970 and 1974, and again between 1979 and 1997. From 1997, this became the responsibility of the separate Department for International Development, the National Archives website contains a Government timeline to show the departments responsible for Foreign Affairs from 1945. When David Miliband took over as Foreign Secretary in June 2007, one of the key messages of these discussions was the conclusion that the existing framework of ten international strategic priorities, dating from 2003, was no longer appropriate. Although the framework had been useful in helping the FCO plan its work and allocate its resources, the new strategic framework consists of three core elements, A flexible global network of staff and offices, serving the whole of the UK Government. Three essential services that support the British economy, British nationals abroad and these services are delivered through UK Trade & Investment, consular teams in Britain and overseas, and UK Visas and Immigration. In August 2005 a report by management consultant group Collinson Grant was made public by Andrew Mackinlay, the report severely criticised the FCOs management structure, noting, The Foreign Office could be slow to act. Delegation is lacking within the management structure, the FCO could feasibly cut 1200 jobs. At least £48 million could be saved annually, the Foreign Office commissioned the report to highlight areas which would help it achieve its pledge to reduce spending by £87 million over three years. In response to the report being made public, the Foreign Office stated it had implemented the reports recommendations
British Foreign Office
–
Foreign and Commonwealth Office Main Building,
London, seen from
Whitehall
British Foreign Office
–
Foreign and Commonwealth Office
Welsh: Y Swyddfa Dramor a Chymanwlad
British Foreign Office
–
The Foreign Office building by Sir
George Gilbert Scott, viewed from
Horse Guards Road
British Foreign Office
–
The Grand Staircase in September 2013
19.
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
–
It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The main result was the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and this provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for the expensive reparations Germany was intended to pay. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, the conference opened on 18 January 1919. Key recommendations were folded into the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the five major powers controlled the Conference. Amongst the Big Five, in practice Japan played a small role, the four met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by other attendees. The open meetings of all the approved the decisions made by the Big Four. The conference came to an end on 21 January 1920 with the inaugural General Assembly of the League of Nations, the main result was the Treaty of Versailles, with Germany, which in section 231 laid the guilt for the war on the aggression of Germany and her allies. This provision proved humiliating for Germany and set the stage for very high reparations Germany was supposed to pay, republican Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia were present, a central issue of the Conference was the disposition of the overseas colonies of Germany. The British dominions wanted their reward for their sacrifice, Australia wanted New Guinea, New Zealand wanted Samoa, and South Africa wanted South West Africa. Wilson wanted the League of Nations to administer all the German colonies until such time as they were ready for independence, Lloyd George realized he needed to support his dominions, and he proposed a compromise that there be three types of mandates. Mandates for the Turkish provinces were one category, they would be divided up between Britain and France, Wilson and the others finally went along with the solution. The dominions received Class C Mandates to the colonies they wanted, Japan obtained mandates over German possessions north of the equator. Wilson wanted no mandates for the United States, his top advisor Colonel House was deeply involved in awarding the others, Wilson was especially offended by Australian demands. He and Hughes had some clashes, with the most famous being, Wilson, But after all. Hughes, I represent sixty thousand dead, prior to Wilsons arrival in Europe in December 1918, no American president had ever visited Europe while in office. High hopes and expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era, in doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles. Once Wilson arrived, however, he found rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged and he worked mostly trying to sway the direction that the French and British delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe, as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
–
Detail from
William Orpen 's painting The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28th June 1919, showing the signing of the peace treaty by the German Minister of Transport Dr
Johannes Bell, opposite to the representatives of the winning powers.
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
–
"The Big Four" made all the major decisions at the Paris Peace Conference (from left to right,
David Lloyd George of Britain,
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy,
Georges Clemenceau of France,
Woodrow Wilson of the U.S.)
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
–
The British Air Section at the Conference
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
–
The Australian delegation. At the center is Australian Prime Minister
Billy Hughes
20.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
Byzantine Empire
–
Tremissis with the image of
Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) (see
Byzantine insignia)
Byzantine Empire
–
Byzantine
lamellar armour klivanium (Κλιβάνιον) - a predecessor of Ottoman krug
mirror armour
Byzantine Empire
–
The Baptism of Constantine painted by
Raphael 's pupils (1520–1524,
fresco, Vatican City,
Apostolic Palace);
Eusebius of Caesarea records that (as
was common among converts of early Christianity) Constantine delayed receiving
baptism until shortly before his death
Byzantine Empire
–
Restored section of the Theodosian Walls.
21.
Modern Greece
–
The establishment of Catholic Latin states on Greek soil, and the struggles of the Orthodox Byzantine Greeks against them, led to the emergence of a distinct Greek national identity. Ottoman control was largely absent in the interior of Greece. Rhodes fell in 1522, Cyprus in 1571, and the Venetians retained Crete until 1670, the Ionian Islands were only briefly ruled by the Ottomans, and remained primarily under the rule of Venice. The first large-scale insurrection against Ottoman rule was the Orlov Revolt of the early 1770s, as a result, especially in the aftermath of the French Revolution, liberal and nationalist ideas began to spread across the Greek lands. In 1821, the Greeks rose up against the Ottoman Empire, Greece was initially to be an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty, but by 1832, in the Treaty of Constantinople, it was recognized as a fully independent kingdom. In the meantime, the 3rd National Assembly of the Greek insurgents called upon Ioannis Kapodistrias, on his arrival, Kapodistrias launched a major reform and modernisation programme that covered all areas. Furthermore, he tried to undermine the authority of the clans that he considered the useless legacy of a bygone. The customs dues of the inhabitants of Hydra were the source of revenue for these municipalities. It appears that Kapodistrias had refused to convene the National Assembly and was ruling as a despot, the municipality of Hydra instructed Admiral Miaoulis and Alexandros Mavrokordatos to go to Poros and seize the Hellenic Navys fleet there. This Miaoulis did so with the intention of preventing a blockade of the islands, Kapodistrias called on the British and French residents to support him in putting down the rebellion, but this they refused to do. Nonetheless, an Admiral Rikord took his ships north to Poros, Colonel Kallergis took a half-trained force of Greek Army regulars and a force of irregulars in support. With less than 200 men, Miaoulis was unable to make much of a fight, Fort Heidek on Bourtzi Island was overrun by the regulars, encircled by the Russians in the harbor and Kallergis force on land, Poros surrendered. Miaoulis was forced to set charges in the flagship Hellas and the corvette Hydra to blow them up when he, Kallergis men were enraged by the loss of the ships and sacked Poros, carrying off plunder to Nauplion. The loss of the best ships in the fleet crippled the Hellenic Navy for many years and he did finally call the National Assembly, but his other actions triggered more opposition and that led to his downfall. In 1831, Kapodistrias ordered the imprisonment of Petrobey Mavromichalis, the Bey of the Mani Peninsula, Ioannis Kapodistrias was succeeded as Governor by his younger brother, Augustinos Kapodistrias. Augustinos ruled only for six months, during which the country was very much plunged into chaos, the protocol also dealt with the way in which a Regency was to be managed until Otto of Bavaria reached his majority to assume the throne of Greece. The Ottoman Empire was indemnified in the sum of 40,000,000 piastres for the loss of territory in the new kingdom. Ottos reign would prove troubled, but he managed to hang on for 30 years before he and his wife, Queen Amalia, left the way they came
Modern Greece
–
Ioannis Kapodistrias.
Modern Greece
–
Face and Obverse of a
Phoenix coin.
Modern Greece
–
Assassination of Ioannis Kapodistrias by
Dionysios Tsokos.
22.
Guardian.co.uk
–
Theguardian. com, formerly known as Guardian Unlimited and guardian. co. uk, is a British news and media website owned by the Guardian Media Group. It contains nearly all of the content of the newspapers The Guardian and The Observer, as well as a body of web-only work produced by its own staff. As of November 2014, it was the second most popular newspaper in the UK with over 17 million readers per month, with over 21 million monthly readers. The site is made up of a news site, plus a network of niche websites covering subjects including media, environment and technology, sport, education. Theguardian. com is notable for its engagement with readers, including long-running talkboards and, more recently, a network of weblogs. Its seven blogs were joined on March 14,2006, by a new comment site, Comment is free, named after the quote by The Guardian editor. Articles accept comments without pre-moderation, although posts on Comment is Free are moderated after the event, all now require registration for comments. The site can be viewed free and without registration, though some such as leaving comments on articles require users to register. In March 2009, guardian. co. uk launched their API, using the OAuth protocol, theguardian. com is part of the Guardian Media Group of newspapers, radio stations, and new media including The Guardian daily newspaper, and The Observer Sunday newspaper. Guardian. co. uk was launched in 1999, born of the Guardian New Media Lab and its popularity soared after the September 11 attacks in the United States in 2001, largely thanks to the diverse range of viewpoints published in the Guardian newspaper. The website won the Best Newspaper category in the 2005,2006 and 2007 Webby Awards, beating the New York Times, the Washington Post, in 2006 guardian. co. uk reported its first profitable year, with income coming mostly from recruitment and display advertising. On July 30,2013, the website was moved from guardian. co. uk to theguardian. com as part of increasing investments to grow globally. The Guardian′s sports section is a popular and well-respected web site, providing news, results, match reports, the site also provides some live coverage of the FA Cup, Champions League, Europa League and the occasional La Liga, League Cup and playoff games. Guardian America was an American version of the British news website Guardian Unlimited, the strategy, intended to win more US-based readers, was abandoned in October 2009. Guardianamerica. com now redirects to the websites United States topic page, much of the content on Guardian America was taken from Guardian Unlimited and The Guardian, although some content was produced specifically for Guardian America. Comment is free is a comment and political opinion site within theguardian. com and it contains the comment and opinion pieces from The Guardian and The Observer newspapers, plus contributions from more than 600 other writers. The site is edited by Natalie Hanman, its sub-site devoted to religious affairs and it was launched on March 14,2006, with Georgina Henry as launch editor. The original technical design and build was by Ben Hammersley, based on the Movable Type blogging platform, latterly, Cif runs on a bespoke Guardian-made system, using Pluck for the commenting
Guardian.co.uk
–
theguardian.com
23.
Royal Institute of International Affairs
–
In 2009, Chatham House was also named the top non-U. S. The current chairman of the Council of Chatham House is Stuart Popham, the research directors are Rob Bailey, Patricia Lewis, Paola Subacchi and Alex Vines. Drawing upon its members, Chatham House aims to promote debate on significant developments in international affairs, Chatham House is routinely used as a source of information for media organisations seeking background or experts upon matters involving major international issues. Although it has been alleged that Chatham House reflects a pro-establishment view of the world, Chatham House is nevertheless membership-based and it has a range of membership options for corporations, academic institutions, NGOs, and individuals including students and under 35s. The Chatham House Rule evolved to facilitate frank and honest discussion on controversial or unpopular issues by speakers who may not have otherwise had the forum to speak freely. Despite this, most meetings at Chatham House are held on the record, Chatham House also contains the Centre on Global Health Security, headed by Professor David L. Heymann. Chatham House published the research paper Livestock – Climate Change’s Forgotten Sector, Global Public Opinion on Meat and it argued that there was a major lack of public awareness of the link between climate change and human consumption of meat and dairy products. Released in July 2014, NATO, Charting the Way Forward suggested future priorities for NATO in the light of events, especially considering Afghanistan. The report was the culmination of a year of expert roundtable meetings, western Policy towards Syria, Ten Recommendations was published in December 2013. The report proposed a new G8-style group of producers and consumers called the Resource 30 or R30 to tackle resource price volatility. In May 2012, Chatham House published the report Shifting Capital, the report argued that China needs to develop a deeper and more diversified financial sector that reflects the size and the international integration of its real economy. To assess what contribution, if any, gold could make to the monetary system in the wake of the global financial crisis. In September 2011 Chatham House published a report examining support for populist extremists across Europe, in October 2010 Chatham House published a report entitled Strategy in Austerity, The Security and Defence of the United Kingdom. The report offered a framework for assessing the quality and durability of the British governments Strategic Defence, briefing Papers were also published on Iraq, Yemen, Cyber-Warfare, and the legal implications of unmanned drones amongst others. In September 2010 Chatham House produced the report The ‘Shale Gas Revolution’, Hype and Reality, by Paul Stevens, the report cast serious doubts over the industry’s confidence in the ‘revolution’ and whether conditions in the US could be replicated. It received a Special Note in the Publication of the Year category at the Prospect Think Tank Awards 2011. This report was cited by major media outlets, including The New York Times, BBC, The Guardian, The Telegraph, The Wall Street Journal. Speakers In addition to undertaking wide-ranging research, Chatham House hosts high-profile speakers from around the world, periodical publications Chatham House also houses the key scholarly and policy journal International Affairs, as well as a bi-monthly magazine The World Today
Royal Institute of International Affairs
–
Daw Aung San Suu Kyi exits Chatham House after addressing an event on responsible investment in
Burma and receiving her
Chatham House Prize, 22 June 2012
Royal Institute of International Affairs
–
Chatham House
Royal Institute of International Affairs
–
George Osborne and
Christine Lagarde speaking at Chatham House, 9 September 2011
Royal Institute of International Affairs
–
Muhammadu Buhari speaking at Chatham House, 26 February 2015.
24.
Gilbert Murray
–
George Gilbert Aimé Murray, OM was an Australian-born British classical scholar and public intellectual, with connections in many spheres. He was a scholar of the language and culture of Ancient Greece. He is the basis for the character of Adolphus Cusins in his friend George Bernard Shaws play Major Barbara, Murray was born George Gilbert Aimé Murray in Sydney, Australia. His father, Sir Terence Aubrey Murray, who died in 1873, had been a Member of the New South Wales Parliament, Gilberts mother, Agnes Ann Murray, then, in 1877, Agnes emigrated with Gilbert to the UK, where she died in 1891. Murray was educated at Merchant Taylors School and St Johns College, in 1889–1899, Murray was Professor of Greek at the University of Glasgow. There was a break in his career from 1899 to 1905. After 1908 he was Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Oxford, from 1925–1926 Murray was the Charles Elliot Norton Lecturer at Harvard University. Murray is perhaps now best known for his translations of Greek drama. As a poet he was taken to be a follower of Swinburne. The staging of Athenian drama in English did have its own cultural impact and he had earlier experimented with his own prose dramas, without much success. Over time he worked through almost the entire canon of Athenian dramas, from Euripides, the Hippolytus and The Bacchae, the Medea, Trojan Women, and Electra, Iphigenia in Tauris, The Rhesus were presented at the Court Theatre, in London. In the United States Granville Barker and his wife Lillah McCarthy gave outdoor performances of The Trojan Women, the translation of Œdipus Rex was a commission from W. B. Until 1912 this could not have been staged for a British audience, a petition was taken to Herbert Gladstone, then Home Secretary, early in 1908. He was one of the associated with Jane Harrison in the myth-ritual school of mythography. He wrote an appendix on the Orphic tablets for her 1903 book Prolegomena, the ritual had its messenger, its recognition scene and its epiphany, various plot devices for representing the moment of perception which follows the pathos. Professor Murray, in a word, studies the art of tragedy in the light of ritual forms and he was a lifelong supporter of the Liberal Party, lining up on the Irish Home Rule and non-imperialist sides of the splits in the party of the late nineteenth century. He supported temperance, and married into a prominent Liberal, aristocratic and temperance family and he made a number of moves that might have taken him into parliamentary politics, initially by tentative thoughts about standing in elections during the 1890s. In 1901-2 he was in contact with the Independent Labour Party
Gilbert Murray
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Gilbert Murray
25.
Charles Austin Beard
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Charles Austin Beard was, with Frederick Jackson Turner, one of the most influential American historians of the first half of the 20th century. For a while he was a professor at Columbia University but his influence came from hundreds of monographs, textbooks. His works included a radical re-evaluation of the fathers of the United States. Beards most influential book, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States, has been the subject of controversy ever since its publication. While frequently criticized for its methodology and conclusions, it was responsible for a wide-ranging reinterpretation of American history of the founding era and he was also the co-author with his wife Mary Beard of The Rise of American Civilization, which had a major influence on American historians. An icon of the school of historical interpretation, his reputation suffered during the Cold War era when the assumption of economic class conflict was dropped by most historians. Richard Hofstadter concluded in 1968, Today Beards reputation stands like a ruin in the landscape of American historiography. What was once the grandest house in the province is now a ravaged survival, conversely, Denis W Brogan believed that Beard lost favour in the Cold War not because his views had been proven to be wrong, but because Americans were less willing to hear them. Hofstadter, nevertheless praised Beard, saying he was foremost among the American historians of his or any generation in the search for a usable past, Charles Beard was born in the Indiana Corn Belt in 1874. His father was a farmer, contractor, part-time banker and real-estate speculator, in his youth Charles worked on the family farm and attended a local Quaker school, Spiceland Academy. He was expelled from the school for reasons, but graduated from the public Knightstown High School in 1891. For the next few years the brothers managed a local newspaper and their editorial position, like their fathers, was conservative. They supported the Republican Party and favored prohibition, a cause for which Charles lectured in later years, Beard attended DePauw University, a nearby Methodist college, graduating in 1898. He edited the newspaper and was active in debate. Beard married his classmate Mary Ritter in 1900, as an historian, Mary Beards research interests lay in feminism and the labor union movement. Beard went to England in 1899 for graduate studies at Oxford University and he collaborated with Walter Vrooman in founding Ruskin Hall, a school meant to be accessible to the working man. In exchange for reduced tuition, students worked in the various businesses. Beard taught for the first time at Ruskin Hall and he lectured to workers in towns to promote Ruskin Hall
Charles Austin Beard
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Charles A. Beard
26.
R. G. Collingwood
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Robin George Collingwood was an English philosopher, historian, and archaeologist. He is best known for his works including The Principles of Art. Collingwoods mother was also an artist and a talented pianist and he was educated at Rugby School, and at University College, Oxford, where he gained a First in Classical Moderations in 1910 and a congratulatory First in Greats in 1912. Prior to graduation he was elected a fellow of Pembroke College, Collingwood was a fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford, for some 15 years until becoming the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at Magdalen College, Oxford. He was the pupil of F. J. Haverfield to survive World War I. Important influences on Collingwood were the Italian Idealists Benedetto Croce, Giovanni Gentile and Guido de Ruggiero, other important influences were Hegel, Kant, Giambattista Vico, F. H. Bradley and J. A. Smith. After several years of debilitating strokes Collingwood died at Coniston, Lancashire. He was a practising Anglican throughout his life, Collingwood is widely noted for The Idea of History, a work collated from various sources soon after his death by his pupil T. M. Knox. Collingwood pointed out a difference between knowing things in the present and knowing history. To come to know things in the present or about things in the sciences, “real” things can be observed. The problem with coming to know things about history is that while past human actions actually or really happened, the actions, then, have no real existence or substance at the point in time that the historian is studying them. Based on the understanding that the events and actions that historians study have already happened, they are finished, Collingwood maintained that historians must use their imaginations to reconstruct and understand the past. Because human events that have taken place cannot be observed. The Principles of Art comprises Collingwoods most developed treatment of aesthetic questions, Collingwood held that works of art are essentially expressions of emotion. For Collingwood, an important social role of the artist is to clarify, in politics Collingwood defended the ideals of what he called liberalism in its Continental sense, The essence of this conception is. Collingwood was not just a philosopher of history but also a practising historian and he was, during his time, a leading authority on Roman Britain, he spent his term time at Oxford teaching philosophy but devoted his long vacations to archaeology. He began work along Hadrians Wall, the family home was at Coniston in the Lake District and his father was a leading figure in the Cumberland and Westmorland Archaeological Society. Collingwood was drawn in on a number of excavations and put forward the theory that Hadrian’s Wall was not so much a fighting platform and he also put forward the suggestion that Hadrians defensive system also included a number of forts along the Cumberland coast
R. G. Collingwood
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Robin George Collingwood
27.
Human history
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The history of the world describes the history of humanity as determined by the study of archaeological and written records, beginning with the invention of writing. The latter period marked a change in history, as humans began the systematic husbandry of plants. Agriculture advanced, and most humans transitioned from a nomadic to a lifestyle as farmers in permanent settlements. As farming developed, grain agriculture became more sophisticated and prompted a division of labour to store food between growing seasons, labour divisions then led to the rise of a leisured upper class and the development of cities. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of writing and accounting, in the mid-15th century, the invention of modern printing, employing movable type, revolutionized communication, helping end the Middle Ages and ushering in the Scientific Revolution. By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology, outside the Old World, including ancient China and ancient India, historical timelines unfolded differently. However, by the 18th century, due to world trade and colonization. Genetic measurements indicate that the ape lineage which would lead to Homo sapiens diverged from the lineage that would lead to chimpanzees around six years ago. It is thought that the Australopithecine genus, which were likely the first apes to walk upright, anatomically modern humans arose in Africa about 200,000 years ago, and reached behavioural modernity about 50,000 years ago. Modern humans spread rapidly from Africa into the frost-free zones of Europe, the rapid expansion of humankind to North America and Oceania took place at the climax of the most recent ice age, when temperate regions of today were extremely inhospitable. Yet, humans had colonized nearly all the parts of the globe by the end of the Ice Age. Other hominids such as Homo erectus had been using simple wood and stone tools for millennia, at some point, humans began using fire for heat and cooking. They also developed language in the Palaeolithic period and a repertoire that included systematic burial of the dead. Early artistic expression can be found in the form of paintings and sculptures made from wood and bone, showing a spirituality generally interpreted as animism. During this period, all lived as hunter-gatherers, and were generally nomadic. The Neolithic Revolution, beginning about 8,000 BCE, saw the development of agriculture, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution. Farming permitted far denser populations, which in time organized into states, agriculture also created food surpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production. The development of agriculture permitted the creation of the first cities and these were centres of trade, manufacturing and political power with nearly no agricultural production of their own
Human history
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Cave painting,
Lascaux, France
Human history
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World population from
− 10,000 to 2,000. The vertical (population) scale is logarithmic.
Human history
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Cuneiform —earliest known writing system
Human history
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Ancient Egyptians built the
Great Pyramids of Giza.
28.
Time (magazine)
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Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
Time (magazine)
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The first issue of Time (March 3, 1923), featuring
Speaker Joseph G. Cannon.
Time (magazine)
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Bibi Aisha on the Cover of Time.
Time (magazine)
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Time Magazine red X covers: from left to right, Adolf Hitler, Saddam Hussein, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and Osama bin Laden.
29.
BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. The total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, the BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own. Thus the BBC was granted sufficient leeway to pursue the Governments objectives largely in a manner of its own choosing, supporters of the strike nicknamed the BBC the BFC for British Falsehood Company. Reith personally announced the end of the strike which he marked by reciting from Blakes Jerusalem signifying that England had been saved, Reith argued that trust gained by authentic impartial news could then be used
BBC
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BBC Television Centre at
White City, West London, which opened in 1960 and closed in 2013
BBC
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BBC Pacific Quay in
Glasgow, which was opened in 2007
BBC
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BBC New Broadcasting House, London which came into use during 2012–13.
BBC
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The headquarters of the BBC at
Broadcasting House in
Portland Place, London, England. This section of the building is called 'Old Broadcasting House'.
