1.
Expressionism
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Expressionism was a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, Expressionist artists sought to express the meaning of emotional experience rather than physical reality. Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War and it remained popular during the Weimar Republic, particularly in Berlin. The style extended to a range of the arts, including expressionist architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film. The term is sometimes suggestive of angst, in a general sense, painters such as Matthias Grünewald and El Greco are sometimes termed expressionist, though in practice the term is applied mainly to 20th-century works. The Expressionist emphasis on individual perspective has been characterized as a reaction to positivism, though an alternate view is that the term was coined by the Czech art historian Antonin Matějček in 1910, as the opposite of impressionism, An Expressionist wishes, above all, to express himself. Immediate perception and builds on more complex psychic structures, in 1905, a group of four German artists, led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, formed Die Brücke in the city of Dresden. This was arguably the founding organization for the German Expressionist movement, a few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed Der Blaue Reiter in Munich. The name came from Wassily Kandinskys Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903, among their members were Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and Auguste Macke. However, the term Expressionism did not firmly establish itself until 1913, though mainly a German artistic movement initially and most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910–30, most precursors of the movement were not German. Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it overlapped with other major isms of the modernist period, with Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, more explicitly, that the expressionists rejected the ideology of realism. The term refers to a style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions. It is arguable that all artists are expressive but there are examples of art production in Europe from the 15th century onward which emphasize extreme emotion. Expressionism has been likened to Baroque by critics such as art historian Michel Ragon, according to Alberto Arbasino, a difference between the two is that Expressionism doesnt shun the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism throws some terrific fuck yous, Baroque doesnt, brazil, Anita Malfatti, Cândido Portinari, Di Cavalcanti, Iberê Camargo and Lasar Segall. Estonia, Konrad Mägi, Eduard Wiiralt Finland, Tyko Sallinen, Alvar Cawén, Juho Mäkelä, there were a number of groups of expressionist painters, including Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke. Der Blaue Reiter was based in Munich and Die Brücke was based originally in Dresden, Die Brücke was active for a longer period than Der Blaue Reiter, which was only together for a year. The Expressionists had many influences, among them Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh and they were also aware of the work being done by the Fauves in Paris, who influenced Expressionisms tendency toward arbitrary colours and jarring compositions
2.
Second Viennese School
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Though this common development took place, it neither followed a common time-line nor a cooperative path. Likewise, it was not a result of Schoenbergs teaching—which, as his various published textbooks demonstrate, was highly traditional. Schoenbergs textbooks also reveal that the Second Viennese School spawned not from the development of his serial method, the principal members of the school, besides Schoenberg, were Alban Berg and Anton Webern, who were among his first composition pupils. Both of them had already produced copious and talented music in a late Romantic idiom but felt they gained new direction, pisk, Karl Rankl, Josef Rufer, Nikos Skalkottas, Viktor Ullmann, and Winfried Zillig. Though the school included highly distinct musical personalities the impression of cohesiveness was enhanced by the efforts of some of its members. Several of those mentioned were also influential as teachers, and others as performers, in disseminating the ideals, ideas, german musical literature refers to the grouping as the Wiener Schule or Neue Wiener Schule. The existence of a First Viennese School is debatable, though Mozart and Schubert did not study with Haydn, Mozart and Haydn were admirers of each others work and evidence suggests that the two composers fed off the others compositional craftsmanship. Beethoven, however, did for a time receive lessons from the master, though he was not a pupil in the sense that Berg. Skandalkonzert René Leibowitz, Schoenberg et son école translated by Dika Newlin as Schoenberg and His School, The Contemporary Stage of the Language of Music Arnold Schoenberg Center in Vienna
3.
Nazi Party
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Its precursor, the German Workers Party, existed from 1919 to 1920. The party emerged from the German nationalist, racist, and populist Freikorps paramilitary culture, the party was created as a means to draw workers away from communism and into völkisch nationalism. Pseudo-scientific racism theories were central to Nazism, the Nazis propagated the idea of a peoples community. Their aim was to unite racially desirable Germans as national comrades, while excluding those deemed either to be political dissidents, to maintain the supposed purity and strength of the Aryan race, the Nazis sought to exterminate Jews, Romani, and the physically and mentally handicapped. They imposed exclusionary segregation on homosexuals, Africans, Jehovahs Witnesses, the partys leader since 1921, Adolf Hitler, was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933. Hitler rapidly established a regime known as the Third Reich. The term Nazi derives from the name given in German to a party member Nationalsozialist and was coined in response to the German term Sozi, members of the party referred to themselves as Nationalsozialisten, rarely as Nazis. The term Parteigenosse was commonly used among Nazis, with the feminine form Parteigenossin used when it was appropriate, the term was in use before the rise of the party as a colloquial and derogatory word for a backward peasant, characterising an awkward and clumsy person. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the name in intentional association to the long-time existing Sozi to the dismissive Nazi. In 1933, when Adolf Hitler assumed power of the German government, usage of the designation Nazi diminished in Germany, the use of Nazi Germany, and Nazi regime, was popularised by anti-Nazis and German exiles abroad. Thereafter, the spread into other languages and eventually was brought back to Germany after the Second World War. The party grew out of political groups with a nationalist orientation that formed in the last years of World War I. In 1918, a called the Freien Arbeiterausschuss für einen guten Frieden was created in Bremen. On 7 March 1918, Anton Drexler, an avid German nationalist, Drexler saw the situation of political violence and instability in Germany as the result of the new Weimar Republic being out-of-touch with the masses, especially the lower classes. These were all well-known themes popular with various Weimar paramilitary groups such as the Freikorps, though very small, Drexlers movement did receive attention and support from some influential figures. Supporter Dietrich Eckhart brought military figure Count Felix Graf von Bothmer, later in 1918, Karl Harrer, convinced Drexler and several others to form the Politischer Arbeiterzirkel. The members met periodically for discussions with themes of nationalism and racism directed against the Jews and they became one of many völkisch movements that existed in Germany at the time
4.
Degenerate music
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Degenerate music was a label applied in the 1930s by the Nazi government in Germany to certain forms of music that it considered to be harmful or decadent. The Nazi governments concern for degenerate music was a part of its larger, in both cases, the government attempted to isolate, discredit, discourage, or ban the works. Their ideas drew on decades of writing on music and on a debate on the relationship between music and mental illness. Jewish composers such as Felix Mendelssohn and Gustav Mahler were disparaged and condemned by the Nazis, in Leipzig, a bronze statue of Mendelssohn was removed. The regime commissioned music to replace his incidental music to A Midsummer Nights Dream, from the Nazi seizure of power onward, these composers found it increasingly difficult, and often impossible, to get work or have their music performed. Many went into exile, or retreated into internal exile, or ended up in the concentration camps, like degenerate art, examples of degenerate music were displayed in public exhibits in Germany beginning in 1938. Reichsmusikkammer Negermusik Reich Music Examination Office Cultural Bolshevism Low culture Swing Kids Anon, musiques interdites sous le IIIe Reich. Degenerate Music in Nazi Germany Degenerate Music at Guide to the Holocaust Database of Degenerate Music
5.
Paul Hindemith
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Paul Hindemith was a prolific German composer, violist, violinist, teacher and conductor. Notable compositions include his song cycle Das Marienleben, Der Schwanendreher for Viola and Orchestra, Hindemiths most popular work, both on record and in the concert hall, is likely the Symphonic Metamorphosis of Themes by Carl Maria von Weber, written in 1943. Born in Hanau, near Frankfurt am Main, Hindemith was taught the violin as a child and he entered Frankfurts Hoch’sche Konservatorium, where he studied violin with Adolf Rebner, as well as conducting and composition with Arnold Mendelssohn and Bernhard Sekles. At first he supported himself by playing in bands and musical-comedy groups. He became deputy leader of the Frankfurt Opera Orchestra in 1914 and he played second violin in the Rebner String Quartet from 1914. Hindemith was conscripted into the German army in September,1917, there he was assigned to play bass drum in the regiment band, and also formed a string quartet. In May 1918 he was deployed to the front in Flanders, after the armistice he returned to Frankfurt and the Rebner Quartet. In 1921 he founded the Amar Quartet, playing viola, in 1922, some of his pieces were played in the International Society for Contemporary Music festival at Salzburg, which first brought him to the attention of an international audience. The following year, he began to work as an organizer of the Donaueschingen Festival, in 1927 he was appointed Professor at the Berliner Hochschule für Musik in Berlin. Hindemith wrote the music for Hans Richters 1928 avant-garde film Ghosts Before Breakfast, although the score was subsequently lost, in 1929 he played the solo part in the premiere of William Waltons Viola Concerto, after Lionel Tertis, for whom it was written, turned it down. Hindemith did not stay in Turkey as long as many other émigrés, nevertheless, he greatly influenced the developments of Turkish musical life, the Ankara State Conservatory owes much to his efforts. In fact, Hindemith was regarded as a master by young Turkish musicians and he was appreciated. Towards the end of the 1930s, he made tours in America as a viola and viola damore soloist. Hindemiths relationship to the Nazis is a complicated one, the controversy around his work continued throughout the thirties, with the composer falling in and out of favor with the Nazi hierarchy, he finally emigrated to Switzerland in 1938. This development seems to have been supported by the Nazi regime, it may have got him out of the way, yet at the same time he propagated a German view of musical history. In 1940, Hindemith emigrated to the United States, at the same time that he was codifying his musical language, his teaching and compositions began to be affected by his theories, according to critics like Ernest Ansermet. During this time he gave the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures at Harvard. Hindemith had a friendship with Erich Katz, whose own compositions were influenced by him
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
German Romanticism
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German Romanticism was the dominant intellectual movement in the philosophy, the arts, and the culture of German-speaking countries in the late-18th and early 19th centuries. Late-stage German Romanticism emphasized the tension between the world and the irrational and supernatural projections of creative genius. In particular, the critic Heinrich Heine criticized the tendency of the early German romantics for looking to the medieval past for a model of unity in art, key figures of German romanticism include, Ludwig van Beethoven. In his earlier works, Beethoven was a Classicist in the traditions of Mozart and Haydn, because Beethoven wrote some of his greatest music after he became totally deaf, he embodies the Romantic ideal of the tragic artist who defies all odds to conquer his own fate. His later works portray the triumph of the spirit, most notably his Choral Symphony No. 9, the stirring Ode to Joy from this symphony has been adopted as the anthem of the European Union and his works are cast in the formal moulds of Classicism, he had a profound reverence for Beethoven. Liszt was by nationality a Hungarian, but nevertheless he spent many years in Germany, credited as the inventor of the tone poem. In his old age, Liszt adopted a more dissonant, ominous flavour, characteristic works being la Lugubre Gondola and Die Zelle in Nonnenwerth—predating Impressionism, a composer of the Early Romantic period, together with such figures as Schumann, Chopin and Liszt. One of the responsible for reviving interest in the almost-forgotten music of Johann Sebastian Bach. His body of work consists mainly of song cycles and German Lieder set to poems by his contemporaries and his works recall the nostalgia of lost childhood innocence, first love, and the magnificence of the German countryside. As an influential critic, he played a role in discovering new talents, among them Chopin. The greatest composer of German opera, was an exponent of Leitmotif, one of the main figures in the so-called War of the Romantics. The emotional intensity and supernatural, folklore-based themes in his operas presented a break from the Neoclassical traditions of that time. The Mystical Sources of German Romantic Philosophy, translated by Blair R. Reynolds, caspar David Friedrich, translated by Sarah Twohig. Introduction, A Revolution in Culture, in European Romanticism, A Brief History with Documents, “Making of a Romantic Icon, The Religious Context of Friedrich Overbeck’s ‘Italia und Germania. ’” American Philosophical Society,2007. “Orpheus Philologus, Bachofen versus Mommsen on the Study of Antiquity. ”Painting the Sacred in the Age of German Romanticism, baltic Light, Early Open-Air Painting in Denmark and North Germany. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1999, caspar David Friedrich and the Age of German Romanticism. New Haven and London, Yale University Press,1980, ISBN 3-8228-2293-0 ONeill, J, ed. German masters of the nineteenth century, paintings and drawings from the Federal Republic of Germany
8.
Johannes Brahms
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Johannes Brahms was a German composer and pianist of the Romantic period. Born in Hamburg into a Lutheran family, Brahms spent much of his life in Vienna. Brahms composed for orchestra, chamber ensembles, piano, organ. A virtuoso pianist, he premiered many of his own works and he worked with some of the leading performers of his time, including the pianist Clara Schumann and the violinist Joseph Joachim. Many of his works have become staples of the concert repertoire. An uncompromising perfectionist, Brahms destroyed some of his works and left others unpublished, Brahms has been considered, by his contemporaries and by later writers, as both a traditionalist and an innovator. His music is rooted in the structures and compositional techniques of the Classical masters. While many contemporaries found his music too academic, his contribution and craftsmanship have been admired by subsequent figures as diverse as Arnold Schoenberg, the diligent, highly constructed nature of Brahmss works was a starting point and an inspiration for a generation of composers. Embedded within his meticulous structures, however, are deeply romantic motifs, Brahmss father, Johann Jakob Brahms, was from the town of Heide in Holstein. The family name was sometimes spelt Brahmst or Brams, and derives from Bram. Against the familys will, Johann Jakob pursued a career in music, arriving in Hamburg in 1826, where he work as a jobbing musician. In 1830, he married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen, a seamstress 17 years older than he was, in the same year he was appointed as a horn player in the Hamburg militia. Eventually he became a player in the Hamburg Stadttheater and the Hamburg Philharmonic Society. As Johann Jakob prospered, the family moved over the years to better accommodation in Hamburg. Johannes Brahms was born in 1833, his sister Elisabeth had been born in 1831, Fritz also became a pianist, overshadowed by his brother he emigrated to Caracas in 1867, and later returned to Hamburg as a teacher. Johann Jakob gave his son his first musical training, Johannes also learnt to play the violin, from 1840 he studied piano with Otto Friedrich Willibald Cossel. Cossel complained in 1842 that Brahms could be such a good player, at the age of 10, Brahms made his debut as a performer in a private concert including Beethovens quintet for piano and winds Op.16 and a piano quartet by Mozart. He also played as a solo work an étude of Henri Herz, by 1845 he had written a piano sonata in G minor
9.
Richard Wagner
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Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a German composer, theatre director, polemicist, and conductor who is primarily known for his operas. Unlike most opera composers, Wagner wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works and he described this vision in a series of essays published between 1849 and 1852. Wagner realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and his advances in musical language, such as extreme chromaticism and quickly shifting tonal centres, greatly influenced the development of classical music. His Tristan und Isolde is sometimes described as marking the start of modern music, Wagner had his own opera house built, the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, which embodied many novel design features. The Ring and Parsifal were premiered here and his most important stage works continue to be performed at the annual Bayreuth Festival, until his final years, Wagners life was characterised by political exile, turbulent love affairs, poverty and repeated flight from his creditors. His controversial writings on music, drama and politics have attracted extensive comment, notably, since the late 20th century, where they express antisemitic sentiments. The effect of his ideas can be traced in many of the arts throughout the 20th century, his influence spread beyond composition into conducting, philosophy, literature, Richard Wagner was born to an ethnic German family in Leipzig, where his family lived at No. 3, the Brühl in the Jewish quarter and he was baptized at St. Thomas Church. He was the child of Carl Friedrich Wagner, who was a clerk in the Leipzig police service, and his wife, Johanna Rosine. Wagners father Carl died of typhus six months after Richards birth, afterwards his mother Johanna lived with Carls friend, the actor and playwright Ludwig Geyer. In August 1814 Johanna and Geyer probably married—although no documentation of this has found in the Leipzig church registers. She and her family moved to Geyers residence in Dresden, until he was fourteen, Wagner was known as Wilhelm Richard Geyer. He almost certainly thought that Geyer was his biological father, Geyers love of the theatre came to be shared by his stepson, and Wagner took part in his performances. In his autobiography Mein Leben Wagner recalled once playing the part of an angel, in late 1820, Wagner was enrolled at Pastor Wetzels school at Possendorf, near Dresden, where he received some piano instruction from his Latin teacher. He struggled to play a scale at the keyboard and preferred playing theatre overtures by ear. Following Geyers death in 1821, Richard was sent to the Kreuzschule, at the age of nine he was hugely impressed by the Gothic elements of Carl Maria von Webers opera Der Freischütz, which he saw Weber conduct. At this period Wagner entertained ambitions as a playwright and his first creative effort, listed in the Wagner-Werk-Verzeichnis as WWV1, was a tragedy called Leubald. Begun when he was in school in 1826, the play was influenced by Shakespeare
10.
Atonality
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Atonality in its broadest sense is music that lacks a tonal center, or key. The repertory of atonal music is characterized by the occurrence of pitches in novel combinations, erialism arose partly as a means of organizing more coherently the relations used in the preserial free atonal music. Thus many useful and crucial insights about even strictly serial music depend only on such basic atonal theory, the term atonality was coined in 1907 by Joseph Marx in a scholarly study of tonality, which was later expanded into his doctoral thesis. Their music arose from what was described as the crisis of tonality between the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in classical music. The connections between harmonies were uncertain even on the lowest—chord-to-chord—level, on higher levels, long-range harmonic relationships and implications became so tenuous that they hardly functioned at all. At best, the probabilities of the style system had become obscure, at worst. The first phase, known as free atonality or free chromaticism, Works of this period include the opera Wozzeck by Alban Berg and Pierrot Lunaire by Schoenberg. This period included Bergs Lulu and Lyric Suite, Schoenbergs Piano Concerto, his oratorio Die Jakobsleiter and numerous smaller pieces, however, actual analysis of Weberns twelve-tone works has so far failed to demonstrate the truth of this assertion. One analyst concluded, following an examination of the Piano Variations. 27, that while the texture of this music may superficially resemble that of serial music. None of the patterns within separate nonpitch characteristics makes audible sense in itself, the point is that these characteristics are still playing their traditional role of differentiation. Twelve-tone technique, combined with the parametrization of Olivier Messiaen, would be taken as the inspiration for serialism, Atonality emerged as a pejorative term to condemn music in which chords were organized seemingly with no apparent coherence. In Nazi Germany, atonal music was attacked as Bolshevik and labeled as degenerate along with music produced by enemies of the Nazi regime. Many composers had their works banned by the regime, not to be played until after its collapse after World War II, after Schoenbergs death, Igor Stravinsky used the twelve-tone technique. The twelve-tone technique was preceded by Schoenbergs freely atonal pieces of 1908–1923, the twelve-tone technique was also preceded by nondodecaphonic serial composition used independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and others. Additionally George Perle explains that, the free atonality that preceded dodecaphony precludes by definition the possibility of self-consistent, in other words, reverse the rules of the common practice period so that what was not allowed is required and what was required is not allowed. This is what was done by Charles Seeger in his explanation of dissonant counterpoint, kostka and Payne list four procedures as operational in the atonal music of Schoenberg, all of which may be taken as negative rules. Equal-interval chords are often of indeterminate root, mixed-interval chords are often best characterized by their interval content, Perle also points out that structural coherence is most often achieved through operations on intervallic cells
11.
Twelve-tone technique
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All 12 notes are thus given more or less equal importance, and the music avoids being in a key. Over time, the technique increased greatly in popularity and eventually became widely influential on 20th century composers, many important composers who had originally not subscribed to or even actively opposed the technique, such as Aaron Copland and Igor Stravinsky, eventually adopted it in their music. Schoenberg himself described the system as a Method of composing with twelve tones which are related only with one another and it is commonly considered a form of serialism. Schoenbergs countryman and contemporary Josef Matthias Hauer also developed a system using unordered hexachords or tropes—but with no connection to Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique. Other composers have created systematic use of the scale. The twelve tone technique was preceded by freely atonal pieces of 1908–23 which, though free, the twelve-tone technique was also preceded by nondodecaphonic serial composition used independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and others. Oliver Neighbour argues that Bartók was the first composer to use a group of twelve notes consciously for a structural purpose, essentially, Schoenberg and Hauer systematized and defined for their own dodecaphonic purposes a pervasive technical feature of modern musical practice, the ostinato. In Hauers breakthrough piece Nomos, Op. Schoenbergs idea in developing the technique was for it to replace those structural differentiations provided formerly by tonal harmonies, Some of these composers extended the technique to control aspects other than the pitches of notes, thus producing serial music. Some even subjected all elements of music to the serial process, the basis of the twelve-tone technique is the tone row, an ordered arrangement of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale. There are four postulates or preconditions to the technique which apply to the row, on which a work or section is based, no note is repeated within the row. The row may be subjected to interval-preserving transformations -—that is, it may appear in inversion, retrograde, or retrograde-inversion, the row in any of its four transformations may begin on any degree of the chromatic scale, in other words it may be freely transposed. A particular transformation together with a choice of transpositional level is referred to as a set form or row form, every row thus has up to 48 different row forms. However, not all prime series will yield so many variations because transposed transformations may be identical to each other. A simple case is the chromatic scale, the retrograde inversion of which is identical to the prime form. In the above example, as is typical, the retrograde inversion contains three points where the sequence of two pitches are identical to the prime row, thus the generative power of even the most basic transformations is both unpredictable and inevitable. Motivic development can be driven by such internal consistency, note that rules 1–4 above apply to the construction of the row itself, and not to the interpretation of the row in the composition. While a row may be expressed literally on the surface as thematic material, it need not be, however, individual composers have constructed more detailed systems in which matters such as these are also governed by systematic rules. The tone row chosen as the basis of the piece is called the prime series, untransposed, it is notated as P0
12.
Tone row
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Tone rows are the basis of Arnold Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique and most types of serial music. Beethoven also used the technique but, on the whole, Mozart seems to have employed serial technique far more often than Beethoven, there are also examples in the works of Liszt. Tone rows are designated by letters and subscript numbers, the numbers indicate the initial or final pitch-class number of the given row form, most often with c=0. P indicates prime, a forward-directed right-side up form, I indicates inversion, a forward-directed upside-down form. R indicates retrograde, a backwards right-side up form, RI indicates retrograde-inversion, a backwards upside-down form. Transposition is indicated by a T number, for example P8 is a T transposition of P4, a twelve-tone composition will take one or more tone rows, called the prime form, as its basis plus their transformations. It is then varied again through inversion, untransposed, taking form I-0 and this whole tone scale reappears in the second movement when the chorale It is enough from Bachs cantata no. 60, which opens with consecutive whole tones, is quoted literally in the woodwinds, some tone rows have a high degree of internal organisation. A row created in this manner, through variants of a trichord or tetrachord called the generator, is called a derived row, the tone rows of many of Weberns other late works are similarly intricate. The set-complex is the forms of the set generated by stating each aspect or transformation on each pitch class. The all-interval twelve-tone row is a tone row arranged so that it contains one instance of each interval within the octave,0 through 11, the total chromatic is the set of all twelve pitch classes. An array is a succession of aggregates, an aggregate may be achieved through complementation or combinatoriality, such as with hexachords. A secondary set is a row which is derived from or, results from the reversed coupling of hexachords. First used in Babbitts String Quartet No.4, an aggregate may be vertically or horizontally weighted. An all-partition array is created by combining a collection of hexachordally combinatorial arrays, schoenberg specified many strict rules and desirable guidelines for the construction of tone rows such as number of notes and intervals to avoid. Each permutation contains a just chromatic scale, however, transformations produce pitches outside of the primary row form, the pitches of each hexachord are drawn from different otonality or utonality on A+ utonality, C otonality and utonality, and E♭- otonality, outlining a diminished triad. A literary parallel of the row is found in Georges Perecs poems which use each of a particular set of letters only once. Tone row may also be used to other musical collections or scales such as in Arabic music
13.
Chromatic scale
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The chromatic scale is a musical scale with twelve pitches, each a semitone above or below another. On a modern piano or other equal-tempered instrument, all the semitones have the same size, in other words, the notes of an equal-tempered chromatic scale are equally spaced. An equal-tempered chromatic scale is a nondiatonic scale having no tonic because of the symmetry of its equally spaced notes, the most common conception of the chromatic scale before the 13th century was the Pythagorean chromatic scale. Due to a different tuning technique, the twelve semitones in this scale have two different sizes. Thus, the scale is not perfectly symmetric, many other tuning systems, developed in the ensuing centuries, share a similar asymmetry. Equally spaced pitches are provided only by equal temperament tuning systems, the term chromatic derives from the Greek word chroma, meaning color. Chromatic notes are understood as harmonically inessential embellishments, shadings. The chromatic scale may be notated in a variety of ways, ascending and descending, The chromatic scale has no set spelling agreed upon by all. Its spelling is, however, often dependent upon major or minor key signatures, the images above, therefore, are only examples of chromatic scale notations. As an abstract entity, the chromatic scale is usually notated such that no scale degree is used more than twice in succession. The ancient Chinese chromatic scale is called Shí-èr-lǜ, however, it should not be imagined that this gamut ever functioned as a scale, and it is erroneous to refer to the Chinese chromatic scale, as some Western writers have done. The series of twelve known as the twelve lü were simply a series of fundamental notes from which scales could be constructed. The Indian solfège, i. e. sargam, makes up the notes of the chromatic scale with respective sharps. The total chromatic is the set of all pitch classes. An array is a succession of aggregates and these are 19-EDO just intonation approximations. In Pythagorean tuning the chromatic scale is tuned as follows, with higher than their enharmonic flats. The 12 golden notes of music Hewitt, Michael
14.
Motif (music)
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It is commonly regarded as the shortest subdivision of a theme or phrase that still maintains its identity as a musical idea. The smallest structural unit possessing thematic identity, a harmonic motif is a series of chords defined in the abstract, that is, without reference to melody or rhythm. A melodic motif is a formula, established without reference to intervals. A rhythmic motif is the term designating a characteristic rhythmic formula, a motif thematically associated with a person, place, or idea is called a leitmotif. Occasionally such a motif is a cryptogram of the name involved. A head-motif is an idea at the opening of a set of movements which serves to unite those movements. In hearing a phrase as a figure, rather than a motif, we are at the time placing it in the background, even if it is. strong. Any motif may be used to construct complete melodies, themes and pieces, musical development uses a distinct musical figure that is subsequently altered, repeated, or sequenced throughout a piece or section of a piece of music, guaranteeing its unity. Such motivic development has its roots in the sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti. Motivic saturation is the immersion of a motive in a composition. The use of motives is discussed in Adolph Weiss The Lyceum of Schönberg, hugo Riemann defines a motif as, the concrete content of a rhythmically basic time-unit. Anton Webern defines a motif as, the smallest independent particle in a musical idea, arnold Schoenberg defines a motif as, a unit which contains one or more features of interval and rhythm presence is maintained in constant use throughout a piece. Head-motif refers to a musical idea of a set of movements which serves to unite those movements. It may also be called a motto, and is a frequent device in cyclic masses
15.
Alban Berg
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Alban Maria Johannes Berg was an Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School. His compositional style combined Romantic lyricism with twelve-tone technique, Berg was born in Vienna, the third of four children of Johanna and Conrad Berg. His family lived comfortably until the death of his father in 1900 and he was more interested in literature than music as a child and did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music. In late February or early March 1902 he fathered a child with Marie Scheuchl and his daughter, Albine, was born on December 4,1902. Berg had little formal education before he became a student of Arnold Schoenberg in October 1904. With Schoenberg he studied counterpoint, music theory, and harmony, by 1906, he was studying music full-time, by 1907, he began composition lessons. His student compositions included five drafts for piano sonatas and he also wrote songs, including his Seven Early Songs, three of which were Bergs first publicly performed work in a concert that featured the music of Schoenbergs pupils in Vienna that year. The early sonata sketches eventually culminated in Bergs Piano Sonata, Op.1, Berg studied with Schoenberg for six years until 1911. Berg admired him as a composer and mentor, and they remained lifelong friends. Among Schoenbergs teaching was the idea that the unity of a musical composition depends upon all its aspects being derived from a basic idea. The Piano Sonata is a whole composition is derived from the works opening quartal gesture. Berg was a part of Viennas cultural elite during the fin de siècle period. His circle included the musicians Alexander von Zemlinsky and Franz Schreker, the painter Gustav Klimt, the writer and satirist Karl Kraus, the architect Adolf Loos, and the poet Peter Altenberg. In 1906, Berg met the singer Helene Nahowski, daughter of a family, despite the outward hostility of her family. In 1913, two of Bergs Five Songs on Picture Postcard Texts by Peter Altenberg were premièred in Vienna, settings of aphoristic poetic utterances, the songs are accompanied by a very large orchestra. The performance caused a riot, and had to be halted, the full score remained unpublished until 1966. From 1915 to 1918, Berg served in the Austro-Hungarian Army and during a period of leave in 1917 he accelerated work on his first opera, after the end of World War I, he settled again in Vienna, where he taught private pupils. Berg had a particular interest in the number 23, using it to several works
16.
Anton Webern
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Anton Friedrich Wilhelm von Webern was an Austrian composer and conductor. As an exponent of atonality and twelve-tone technique, Webern exerted influence on contemporaries Luigi Dallapiccola, Křenek, Weberns music was among the most radical of its milieu, both in its concision and in its rigorous and resolute apprehension of twelve-tone technique. Webern was born in Vienna, then Austria-Hungary, as Anton Friedrich Wilhelm von Webern and he was the only surviving son of Carl von Webern, a civil servant, and Amelie who was a competent pianist and accomplished singer—possibly the only obvious source of the future composers talent. He never used his middle names and dropped the von in 1918 as directed by the Austrian governments reforms after World War I and he lived in Graz and Klagenfurt for much of his youth. Webern memorialized the Preglhof in a diary poem An der Preglhof and in the tone poem Im Sommerwind, once Weberns father sold the estate in 1912, Webern referred to it nostalgically as a lost paradise. Art historian Ernst Dietz, Weberns cousin and at time a student at Graz, may have introduced Webern to the work of Arnold Böcklin and Giovanni Segantini. Segantinis work was an inspiration for Weberns 1905 single-movement string quartet. In 1902 Webern began attending classes at Vienna University, there he studied musicology with Guido Adler, writing his thesis on the Choralis Constantinus of Heinrich Isaac. He studied composition under Arnold Schoenberg, writing his Passacaglia, op.1 as his piece in 1908. He met Alban Berg, who was also a pupil of Schoenberg and these two relationships would be the most important in his life in shaping his own musical direction. After graduating, he took a series of conducting posts at theatres in Ischl, Teplitz, Danzig, Stettin, there he helped run Schoenbergs Society for Private Musical Performances from 1918 through 1922 and conducted the Vienna Workers Symphony Orchestra from 1922 to 1934. Letters document their correspondence in many subsequent years, and she would in turn provide him with facilities to private lessons as a convenience to Webern, his family. As early as 1933, an Austrian gauleiter on Bayerischer Rundfunk mistakenly and his familys financial situation deteriorated until, by August 1940, his personal records reflected no monthly income. It was thanks to the Swiss philanthropist Werner Reinhart that Webern was able to attend the premiere of his Variations for Orchestra, op.30 in Winterthur. Reinhart invested all the financial and diplomatic means at his disposal to enable Webern to travel to Switzerland, in return for this support, Webern dedicated the work to him. On the other, some private correspondence attests to his Nazi sympathies, Weberns patriotism led him to endorse the Nazi regime in a series of letters to Joseph Hueber, who was serving in the army and himself held such views. Webern described Hitler on May 2,1940 as this man who created the new state of Germany. Only later did Krasner himself realize how self-admittedly foolhardy he had been and in danger he had placed himself
17.
Hanns Eisler
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Hanns Eisler was an Austrian composer. He is best known for composing the anthem of the German Democratic Republic, for his long artistic association with Bertolt Brecht. The Hochschule für Musik Hanns Eisler is named after him, Eisler was born in Leipzig in Saxony, the son of Rudolf Eisler, a professor of philosophy, and Marie Ida Fischer. His father was Jewish and his mother was Lutheran, in 1901, the family moved to Vienna. His brother, Gerhart, was a Communist journalist, and his sister, during the Great War, Hanns Eisler served as a front-line soldier in the Austro-Hungarian army and was wounded several times in combat. Returning to Vienna after Austrias defeat, he studied from 1919 to 1923 under Arnold Schoenberg, Eisler was the first of Schoenbergs disciples to compose in the twelve-tone or serial technique. He married Charlotte Demant in 1920, they separated in 1934, in 1925, he moved to Berlin—then a hothouse of experimentation in music, theater, film, art and politics. There he became a supporter of the Communist Party of Germany. In 1928, he taught at the Marxist Workers School in Berlin and his son Georg Eisler and his music became increasingly oriented towards political themes and, to Schoenbergs dismay, more popular in style with influences drawn from jazz and cabaret. At the same time, he drew close to Bertolt Brecht, the collaboration between the two artists lasted for the rest of Brechts life. In 1929, Eisler composed the song cycle Zeitungsausschnitte, Op.11, the piece is dedicated to Margot Hinnenberg-Lefebre. Eislers piece parodies a newspapers layout and content, with songs in the given titles similar to headlines. The piece offers evidence of Eislers socialist leanings, as its lyrics indicate the struggles of ordinary Germans who, after World War I, Eisler wrote music for several Brecht plays, including The Decision, The Mother and Schweik in the Second World War. They also collaborated on protest songs that intervened in the turmoil of Weimar Germany in the early 1930s. Brecht-Eisler songs of this period tended to look at life from below—from the perspective of prostitutes, hustlers, the unemployed, in 1931–32 he collaborated with Brecht and director Slatan Dudow on the working-class film Kuhle Wampe. After 1933, Eislers music and Brechts poetry were banned by the Nazi Party, while Brecht settled in Svendborg, Denmark, Eisler traveled for a number of years, working in Prague, Vienna, Paris, London, Moscow, Spain, Mexico and Denmark. He made two visits to the USA, with speaking tours from coast to coast, in 1938, Eisler finally managed to emigrate to the United States with a permanent visa. In New York City, Eisler taught composition at New School for Social Research and wrote experimental chamber, in 1942, he moved to Los Angeles, where he joined Brecht who arrived in California in 1941 after a journey from Denmark across the Soviet Union and the Pacific Ocean
18.
Egon Wellesz
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Egon Joseph Wellesz was an Austrian, later British composer, teacher and musicologist, notable particularly in the field of Byzantine music. Although both parents of Welleszs were Hungarian Christians, they both had Jewish ancestry and he received a Protestant upbringing, but later converted to Catholicism. These dual influences shaped much of his musical and scholarly thought, in 1913, Wellesz embarked upon what would become a lifelong interest in the musical achievements of Byzantium. In England he was interned as an alien, ultimately in Hutchinson Camp in the Isle of Man. Colles, the chief music critic of The Times. Altogether he wrote nine symphonies and an number of string quartets, the former starting, in 1945, only with his arrival in England. This idiom is consistent with hints of tonality, such as can be found in his string quartet. Despite his composing, Wellesz remains best known for his scholarly contributions to the study of Byzantine music. These contributions brought for him a doctorate from Oxford in 1932. A portrait was made of Wellesz by Jean Cooke, who had commissioned for the work by Lincoln College. Welleszs works as an amount to at least 112 works with opus numbers as well as some 20 works without opus number. He busied himself in a variety of media, recently, interest in Welleszs music has increased. A complete recording of his nine symphonies is available, although his music has generally been represented on CD or LP. His 3rd symphony, published posthumously, received its premiere in Vienna in 2000. Several of his symphonies have titles, including the second,18, ballet after Béla Balázs Die Prinzessin Girnara, op. 27, libretto by Jakob Wassermann Persisches Ballett, op,30, ballet after Ellen Tels Achilles auf Skyros, op. 33, ballet after Hugo von Hofmannsthal Alkestis, op,35, Libretto by Hugo von Hofmannsthal after Euripides Die Nächtlichen, Tanzsinfonien, op. 37, Ballet scene after Max Terpis Die Opferung des Gefangenen,40, Stage drama after Eduard Stucken Scherz, List und Rache, op
19.
Nikos Skalkottas
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Nikos Skalkottas was a Greek composer of 20th-century classical music. A member of the Second Viennese School, he drew his influences both the classical repertoire and the Greek tradition. Skalkottas was born in Chalcis on the island of Euboea, to a family said to have been folk musicians. From 1921 to 1933 he lived in Berlin, where he first took lessons at the Prussian Academy of Arts with Willy Hess. Deciding in 1923 to give up his career as a violinist and become a composer, he studied composition with Robert Kahn, Paul Juon, Kurt Weill, in any event Skalkottas seems to have composed nothing for at least two years. In March 1933 he was forced by poverty and debt to return to Athens, intending to stay a few months, however, he suffered a nervous breakdown and his passport was confiscated by the Greek authorities and in fact remained in Greece for the rest of his life. Among the various possessions he left behind were a number of manuscripts. According to another account, his manuscripts were sold by his German landlady shortly after he left Berlin. In Athens Skalkottas sought other means of funding through scholarships or paid work as an orchestral player, until his death he earned a living as a back-desk violinist in the Athens Conservatory, Radio and Opera orchestras. In the mid-1930s he worked at the Folk Music Archive in Athens, as a composer he worked alone, but wrote prolifically, mainly in his very personal post-Schoenbergian idiom that had little chance of being comprehended by the Greek musical establishment. He did secure some performances, especially of some of the Greek Dances and a few of his more tonal works, during the German occupation of Greece he was placed in an internment camp for some months. In 1946 he married the pianist Maria Pangali, they had two sons, Skalkottas early works, most of which he wrote in Berlin, are lost, as are some of those written in Athens. The earliest of his works available to us today date from 1922–24, among the works written in Berlin are the sonata for solo violin, several works for piano, chamber music and some symphonic works. Although during the period 1931–34 Skalkottas did not compose anything, he resumed composing in Athens and his output comprised symphonic works, chamber, vocal and instrumental works including the huge cycle of 32 Piano Pieces. Besides his musical work, Skalkottas compiled an important theoretical work, consisting of several musical articles, throughout his career Skalkottas remained faithful to the neo-classical ideals of Neue Sachlichkeit and absolute music proclaimed in Europe in the 1925. Like Schoenberg, he persistently cultivated classical forms, but his worklist is divided between atonal, twelve-tone and tonal works, all three categories spanning his entire composing career, such apparent heterogeneity could have been intensified by a love of Greek folk music. Skalkottas was evidently reluctant to deploy the kind of structural and stylistic tensions that would have betrayed the integrationist ideals of his Schoenbergian inheritance and this could be seen as a link between the Second Viennese, Busoni, Stravinsky and Bartókian schools. Around 1945 he seems to have reappraised his aesthetic direction to some extent and written works in a more conventionally tonal idiom - many of these have key signatures
20.
John Cage
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John Milton Cage Jr. was an American composer, music theorist, writer, philosopher, and artist. A pioneer of indeterminacy in music, electroacoustic music, and non-standard use of musical instruments, critics have lauded him as one of the most influential American composers of the 20th century. He was also instrumental in the development of dance, mostly through his association with choreographer Merce Cunningham. The content of the composition is not four minutes and 33 seconds of silence, as is often assumed, the works challenge to assumed definitions about musicianship and musical experience made it a popular and controversial topic both in musicology and the broader aesthetics of art and performance. Cage was also a pioneer of the piano, for which he wrote numerous dance-related works. The best known of these is Sonatas and Interludes and his teachers included Henry Cowell and Arnold Schoenberg, both known for their radical innovations in music, but Cages major influences lay in various East and South Asian cultures. Through his studies of Indian philosophy and Zen Buddhism in the late 1940s, Cage came to the idea of aleatoric or chance-controlled music, the I Ching, an ancient Chinese classic text on changing events, became Cages standard composition tool for the rest of his life. Cage was born September 5,1912, at Good Samaritan Hospital in downtown Los Angeles and his father, John Milton Cage, Sr. was an inventor, and his mother, Lucretia Harvey, worked intermittently as a journalist for the Los Angeles Times. The familys roots were deeply American, in a 1976 interview, John Milton Sr. taught his son that if someone says cant that shows you what to do. In 1944–45 Cage wrote two small character pieces dedicated to his parents, Crete and Dad, the latter is a short lively piece that ends abruptly, while Crete is a slightly longer, mostly melodic contrapuntal work. During high school, one of his teachers was Fannie Charles Dillon. By 1928, though, Cage was convinced that he wanted to be a writer and he graduated that year from Los Angeles High School as a valedictorian, having also in the spring given a prize-winning speech at the Hollywood Bowl proposing a day of quiet for all Americans. By being hushed and silent, he said, we should have the opportunity to hear other people think. Cage enrolled at Pomona College in Claremont as a major in 1928. Instead of doing as they did, I went into the stacks, I received the highest grade in the class. That convinced me that the institution was not being run correctly, Cage persuaded his parents that a trip to Europe would be more beneficial to a future writer than college studies. He subsequently hitchhiked to Galveston and sailed to Le Havre, where he took a train to Paris, Cage stayed in Europe for some 18 months, trying his hand at various forms of art. First he studied Gothic and Greek architecture, but decided he was not interested enough in architecture to dedicate his life to it and he then took up painting, poetry and music
21.
Lou Harrison
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Lou Silver Harrison was an American composer. He was a student of Henry Cowell, Arnold Schoenberg, and K. P. H. Notoprojo, the majority of his works are written in just intonation rather than the more widespread equal temperament. Harrison is one of the most prominent composers to have worked with microtones, Harrison was born in Portland, Oregon, but moved with his family to a number of locations around the San Francisco Bay Area as a child. He graduated from Burlingame High School in Burlingame, California in 1934, then he moved to San Francisco. The diverse music which he was to be exposed to there, including Cantonese opera, Native American music, Mexican music and he also heard recordings of Indonesian music early in life. Harrison took Henry Cowells Music of the Peoples of the World course and he later went to the University of California at Los Angeles to work at the dance department as a dancer and accompanist. While there, he took lessons from Arnold Schoenberg which led to an interest in Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique, the pieces he was writing at this time, however, were largely percussive works using unconventional materials, such as car brake drums, as musical instruments. These pieces were similar to those written by John Cage around the same time. In 1943, Harrison moved to New York City where he worked as a critic for the Herald Tribune. While there he met Charles Ives, became his friend, and did a deal in bringing Ives to the attention of the musical world. With the assistance of his mentor Cowell, Harrison prepared and conducted the premiere of Ivess Symphony No,3, and in return received help from Ives financially. When Ives won the Pulitzer Prize for Music for that piece, Harrison also edited a large number of Ivess works, receiving compensation often in excess of what he billed. Harrison supported and promoted the music of a number of composers in addition to Ives. These included Edgard Varèse, Carl Ruggles, and Alan Hovhaness, later during his time in North Carolina, Harrison taught at Black Mountain College. In 1947, he suffered a breakdown, and moved back to California. In New York, when I changed gears out of twelve tonalism, the gamelan movements in my Suite for Violin, Piano, and Small Orchestra are aural imitations of the generalized sounds of gamelan. Virgil Thomson gave him a copy of Harry Partchs book on musical tuning, Genesis of a Music and he did not abandon equal temperament altogether, but often expressed a desire to do so. In an oft-quoted comment referring to the ratios used in just intonation, he said
22.
Roberto Gerhard
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Robert Gerhard i Ottenwaelder was a Catalan composer and musical scholar and writer, generally known outside Catalonia as Roberto Gerhard. Roberto Gerhard was born in Valls, near Tarragona, Spain, the son of a German-Swiss father and he was predisposed to an international, multilingual outlook, but by birth and culture he was a Catalan. He studied piano with Granados and composition with the great scholar-composer Felipe Pedrell, teacher of Albéniz, Granados, Gerhard spent several years with Schoenberg in Vienna and Berlin. Returning to Barcelona in 1928, he devoted his energies to new music concerts and journalism, in conjunction with the flourishing literary. He befriended Joan Miró and Pablo Casals, brought Schoenberg and Webern to Barcelona and he also collected, edited and performed folksongs and old Spanish music from the Renaissance to the eighteenth century. Identified with the Republican cause throughout the Spanish Civil War, Gerhard was forced to flee to France in 1939 and later that year settled in Cambridge, England. Until the death of Francisco Franco, who made it his business to extirpate Catalan national aspirations, his music was proscribed in Spain. They culminated in a masterpiece as The Duenna, the Covent Garden production of Don Quixote and the BBC broadcasts of The Duenna popularized Gerhards reputation in the UK though not in Spain. From the early 1950s Gerhard suffered from a condition which eventually ended his life. He died in Cambridge in 1970 and is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, with his wife Poldi and his archive is kept at Cambridge University Library. Other personal papers of Robert Gerhard are preserved in the Biblioteca de Catalunya and this was the idiom whose major achievements included the ballets Soirées de Barcelone and Don Quixote, the Violin Concerto and the opera The Duenna. Gerhard often said that he stood by the sound of his music, yet dazzling as their scoring is, his last works are in no sense a mere succession of sonic events. Symphony Homenatge a Pedrell Symphony No.1 Symphony No, radio performance was in 1949, at BBC, its first scenic performance was in 1992 at Teatro de la Zarzuela, Madrid, and Gran Teatre del Liceu, Barcelona. The Bielefeld Opera and conductor Geoffrey Moull performed La Duenna in a new production in 1994, the Wiener Zeitung at the time remarked that the work is a rediscovered stroke of genius. Gerhard on Music, Selected Writings, edited by Meirion Bowen, Robert Gerhard i la seva obra. ISBN 84-7845-109-9 Proceedings of the 1st International Roberto Gerhard Conference, May 27-28th 2010, England, Centre for Research in New Music, University of Huddersfield,2010. Programme book for The complete Instrumental and Chamber Music of Arnold Schoenberg, Roberto Gerhard at Find a Grave Roberto Gerhard at Boosey & Hawkes Personal papers of Robert Gerhard in the Biblioteca de Catalunya
23.
Leon Kirchner
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Leon Kirchner was an American composer of contemporary classical music. He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Kirchner was born in Brooklyn, New York. He began his studies at the age of four. Five years later, his family moved to Los Angeles and he began composing while a student at Los Angeles City College. With the encouragement of his teachers and Ernst Toch, he entered the University of California. Kirchner began graduate studies at the University of California, Berkeley and was awarded the George Ladd Prix de Paris in 1942, as World War II put Europe in turmoil, he went to New York and studied with Roger Sessions. At the wars end, he returned to Berkeley as a lecturer and assisted Sessions, in 1961 he succeeded Walter Piston at Harvard University, where he was named Walter Bigelow Rosen Professor of Music in 1965 and taught until 1989. He won the annual Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1967 for Quartet No.3, Kirchners musical style is generally linear, chromatic, rhapsodic and rhythmically irregular, it is influenced by Schoenberg but does not employ the twelve-tone technique. Many of his works are sectional, with strongly contrasting textures. In his later works, the textures and tempos tend to be more continuous, by and large, Kirchner favored compact structures based on a minimal number of motifs. Kirchner married Gertrude Schoenberg, a singer, on July 8,1949, they had one son and he died of congestive heart failure at his home on Central Park West in New York City. For Kirchners notable students, See, List of music students by teacher, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press. Leon Kirchner, Composer and Teacher, Dies at 90 New York Times Wakin, Daniel J. Remembering Leon Kirchner, Schoenberg Remembered, Diaries and Recollections, 1938–1976. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, Leon Kirchners For the Left Hand, Effective Styles of Writing with Specific Reference to the Use of the Octatonic Scale. Recordings and videos of Leon Kirchners compositions from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Leon Kirchner papers, 1939-2009 Music Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts. List of compositions from G. Schirmer, Inc. Leon Kirchner at Library of Congress Authorities, with 103 catalog records Interview with Leon Kirchner by Bruce Duffie, December 16,1990
24.
Dika Newlin
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Dika Newlin was a composer, pianist, professor, musicologist, and punk rock singer. She received a Ph. D from Columbia University at the age of 22 and she was one of the last living students of Arnold Schoenberg, a Schoenberg scholar and a professor at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond from 1978 to 2004. She performed as an Elvis impersonator and played punk rock while in her seventies in Richmond and she was featured in the documentary Dika, Murder City. Dika Newlin was born in Portland, Oregon and her name was chosen by her mother and refers to an amazon in one of Sapphos poems. Newlin was able to read the dictionary by age 3 and she could play the piano by age 6, and began composing music at age 7. When she was 11 she wrote a piece, Cradle Song. She entered elementary school at age 5 and finished it at age 8 and she graduated from high school when she was 12 and was admitted to the freshman class at Michigan State University, where her parents taught. After graduating from Michigan State at age 16, she and her mother moved to Los Angeles so that she could study with Schoenberg at the University of California at Los Angeles, Newlin kept a diary of her studies with Schoenberg, whom she called Uncle Arnold. She published the diary in 1980 as Schoenberg Remembered, Diaries, one entry in the diary relates how Schoenberg criticized her string quartet writing as too pianistic. After she acknowledged that she knew it wasnt the best, Schoenberg replied, No, it is not the best, nor even the second best—perhaps the 50th best, yes. Newlin later wrote a biography of Schoenberg for the Encyclopædia Britannica, in addition to other articles. Newlins doctoral dissertation for Columbia University, where she was admitted in 1941 after moving to New York City, was published in 1947 as the book Bruckner, Mahler, a revised and expanded version was issued by W. W. While at Columbia she studied with among others Roger Sessions, newlins compositions include three operas, a piano concerto, a chamber symphony, and numerous chamber, vocal and mixed-media works. Newlin also translated many of Schoenbergs works from German to English, Newlin herself sang in a costumed performance of Schoenbergs Pierrot Lunaire, which she had translated into English, in Lubbock, Texas in 1999. Starting in the mid-1980s, Newlin unveiled a new persona in the form of a punk rocker with bright orange hair. In this guise, she appeared in movies by Richmond producer Michael D. Moore. In director Tim Ritters 1995 film Creep, she played a person wearing a motorcycle jacket who puts poison in baby food at a supermarket. That same year, Moore directed the documentary about Newlin titled Dika, after going through over 20 bass players in their short time together, the members of Apocowlypso went their separate ways in 1988 to pursue other projects
25.
Avant-garde
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The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
26.
Theodor W. Adorno
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Theodor W. Adorno was a German philosopher, sociologist, and composer known for his critical theory of society. He is widely regarded as one of the 20th centurys foremost thinkers on aesthetics and philosophy, as a writer of polemics in the tradition of Nietzsche and Karl Kraus, Adorno delivered scathing critiques of contemporary Western culture. Theodor W. Adorno was born as Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund in Frankfurt am Main on September 11,1903, the only child of Oscar Alexander Wiesengrund and Maria Calvelli-Adorno della Piana. His mother, a devout Catholic from Corsica, was once a professional singer, while his father, proud of her origins, Maria wanted her sons paternal surname to be supplemented by the addition of her own name, Adorno. Thus his earliest publications carried the name Theodor Wiesengrund-Adorno, upon his application for US citizenship and he was not only a precocious child but, as he recalled later in life, a child prodigy who could play pieces by Beethoven on the piano by the time he was twelve. At the age of six, he attended the Deutschherren middle school before transferring to the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gymnasium, I took this motif so much as my own that I do not believe I have ever written anything without reference to it, either implicit or explicit. Yet Adornos intellectual nonconformism was no less shaped by the repugnance he felt towards the nationalism which swept through the Reich during the First World War, the younger generations distrust for traditional knowledge arose from the way in which this tradition had discredited itself. Over time, Oscar Wiesengrunds firm established close professional and personal ties with the factory of Karplus & Herzberger in Berlin, I am not exaggerating in the slightest when I say that I owe more to this reading than to my academic teachers. In the summer of 1924, Adorno received his doctorate with a study of Edmund Husserl under the direction of the unorthodox neo-Kantian Hans Cornelius, before his graduation, Adorno had already met with his most important intellectual collaborators, Max Horkheimer and Walter Benjamin. Through Corneliuss seminars, Adorno met his future collaborator Max Horkheimer, in Vienna, he attended public lectures of the satirist Karl Kraus with Berg and met Lukács, who had been living in Vienna after the failure of the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Alban Berg, the man Adorno referred to as my master and teacher, was among the most prescient of his young pupils early friends, convinced that and you are capable of supreme achievements and will undoubtedly fulfill this promise in the shape of great philosophical works. In December 1926 Adornos Two Pieces for String Quartet, op.2 were performed in Vienna, after writing the Piano Pieces in strict twelve-tone technique, as well as songs later integrated into the Six Bagatelles for Voice and Piano, op. 6, Adorno presented his Habilitation manuscript, The Concept of the Unconscious in the Transcendental Theory of the Psyche, Cornelius advised Adorno to withdraw his application on the grounds that the manuscript was too close to his own way of thinking. In this manuscript, Adorno attempted to underline the epistemological status of the unconscious as it emerged from Freuds early writings, against the function of the unconscious in both Nietzsche and Spengler, Adorno argued that Freuds notion of the unconscious serves as a sharp weapon. Against every attempt to create a metaphysics of the instincts and to deify full, undaunted by his academic prospects, Adorno threw himself once again into composition. In addition to publishing numerous reviews of performances and concerts, Adornos Four Songs for Medium Voice and Piano. Between 1928 and 1930 Adorno took on a role within the editorial committee of the Musikblätter des Anbruch. During this period he published the essays Night Music, On Twelve-Tone Technique and Reaction, at this time, Adorno struck up a correspondence with the composer Ernst Krenek, with whom he discussed problems of atonality and twelve-tone technique
27.
Charles Rosen
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Charles Welles Rosen was an American pianist and writer on music. He is remembered for his career as a concert pianist, for his recordings and he was born in New York City. His father Irwin Rosen worked as an architect, his mother, née Anita Gerber, was a semiprofessional actress, Rosen began his musical studies at age 4 and at age 6 enrolled in the Juilliard School. At age 11 he left Juilliard to study piano with Moriz Rosenthal. Rosenthal, born in 1862, had been a student of Franz Liszt. Rosenthals memories of the 19th century in classical music were communicated to his pupil, every year from the ages of three to twelve, Rosen heard Josef Hofmann play, and he later suggested that Hofmann had a greater influence on him than Rosenthal. Rosens family background was not wealthy, the Guardian editor Nicholas Wroe interviewed him in old age and reported, His father had lost his job during the depression and things were pretty tough for a while. The family moved from Washington Heights to a ho in the less fashionable Upper West Side. Because money was so short Rosens parents arranged a contract with the Rosenthals not to pay them for Charless tuition, as I didnt make my debut in New York until I was 23, it was not a very satisfactory deal. But when I made my first recording I took some money to Hedwig Rosenthal, at age 17, Rosen enrolled in Princeton University, where he studied French, also taking courses in mathematics and philosophy. When he graduated in 1947, he was offered a fellowship of $2,000 to continue at Princeton in the French graduate program. While in graduate school he roomed with his fellow student Michael Steinberg, Rosen attained his status as a musical scholar with very little classroom training. Although Rosen in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians is referred as one of the musicologist Oliver Strunks students, Rosens very extensive knowledge of music appears to have arisen partly from a culturally rich family background and partly from reading. Nicholas Wroe reported, Through the Rosenthals, Rosen was connected to the New York musical scene, says that by the time he went to Princeton, he knew all the music department socially. So that made me too proud to take a degree in music, I sound like a snotty bastard, which I might have been, but I really did know more music as an undergraduate than the postgraduate students. Ivan Hewett suggests that a major temptation of Rosens 1947 fellowship offer was that it offered him time to practice and to read extensively in the Princeton library. The year 1951 was a one for Rosen, he completed his French Literature Ph. D. gave his first piano recital. His career as a pianist made progress only slowly at first, in 1953 he moved to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to teach French. He described this period to Nicholas Wroe, I suppose I could have stayed on as an academic, the only time I taught was when my playing would only support me for half a year, but I could only get a full-time job
28.
Carl Dahlhaus
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Carl Dahlhaus, a musicologist from Berlin, was one of the major contributors to the development of musicology as a scholarly discipline during the post-war era. His education was interrupted by the Second World War where he served on the front and he completed school exams through a special program designed for those engaged in combat. He showed an interest in banned literature and was well read. After the war, he first studied law, later musicology at the University of Göttingen and his thesis at Göttingen in 1953 concerned the masses of Josquin. In the 1950s he was a co-founder of the Darmstadt new music festival, from 1962 to 1966 he served as a research assistant at the state musical research center at the University of Kiel. He earned a grade from that university where he investigated the origins of harmonic tonality. In 1967 was hired as professor in history at the Berlin Institute of Technology. His other favourite topics included music theory, the aesthetics of music, Dahlhaus was honored with the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, a Blue Max, and accepted into the German Academy. In 1987, he was awarded the Frankfurter Musikpreis, Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press. Between Romanticism and Modernism, Four Studies in the Music of the Later Nineteenth Century, Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press. Translated from the German by Siegmund Levarie, Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press, schoenberg and the New Music, Essays. Translated by Derrick Puffett and Alfred Clayton, Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press. English translation by J. Bradford Robinson, Studies on the Origin of Harmonic Tonality. Ludwig van Beethoven, Approaches to His Music, Oxford, Clarendon Press, New York, Oxford University Press. Ruth Katz and Carl Dahlhaus, Contemplating Music, New York, I Substance, Vol. II Import, Vol. III Essence, Vol. IV Community of Discourse. The Shoulders on Which We Stand, biography in English from the TU Berlin Press Office. Carl Dahlhaus y la de la recepción
29.
Artur Schnabel
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Artur Schnabel was an Austrian classical pianist, who also composed and taught. Schnabel was known for his seriousness as a musician, avoiding pure technical bravura. His performances of compositions have often been hailed as models of interpretative penetration. His best-known recording is of the complete Beethoven piano sonatas, recorded between 1932 and 1935, it is the first recording made of the complete cycle of 32 sonatas. Schonberg to refer to Schnabel as the man who invented Beethoven, born in Lipnik near Bielitz, Galicia, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Schnabel was the youngest of three children born to Isidor Schnabel, a textile merchant, and his wife, Ernestine Taube. He had two sisters, Clara and Frieda, Schnabels parents moved to Vienna in 1884, when he was two. He began learning the piano at the age of four, when he took a spontaneous interest in his eldest sister Claras piano lessons, at the age of six he began piano lessons under Professor Hans Schmitt of the Vienna Conservatorium. Schnabel remained under Leschetizkys tutelage for seven years, between 1891 and 1897 and his co-students of Leschetizky during that period included Ossip Gabrilowitsch, Mark Hambourg and Ignaz Friedman. Initially, for his first year under Leschetizky, he was given rigorous preparatory technical tuition from Anna Yesipova, from age ten, he participated in all Leschetizkys classes. Following a failed approach to Anton Bruckner, Schnabel studied music theory. Mandyczewski was an assistant to Johannes Brahms, and through him Schnabel was introduced to Brahms circle and was often in the composers presence. The young Schnabel once heard Brahms play in a performance of his first piano quartet, for all the notes, said Schnabel. Schnabel made his concert debut in 1897, at the Bösendorfer-Saal in Vienna. Later that same year, he gave a series of concerts in Budapest, Prague, Schnabel moved to Berlin in 1898, making his debut there with a concert at the Bechstein-Saal. Following World War I, Schnabel also toured widely, visiting the United States, Russia, in chamber music, he founded the Schnabel Trio with the violinist Alfred Wittenberg and the cellist Anton Hekking, they played together between 1902 and 1904. In 1905, he formed a second Schnabel Trio with Carl Flesch, in 1914, with the outbreak of the First World War, Gérardy left the trio as he could no longer remain in Germany. He was replaced by Hugo Becker and this became the third Schnabel Trio, later, Schnabel also played in a quartet with violinist Bronisław Huberman, composer/violist Paul Hindemith and the cellist Gregor Piatigorsky. Schnabel also played with a number of famous musicians including the violinist Joseph Szigeti
30.
Rudolf Serkin
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Rudolf Serkin was a Bohemian-born pianist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest Beethoven interpreters of the 20th century, Serkin was born in Eger, Bohemia, Austro-Hungarian Empire, to a Russian Jewish family. His father, Mordko Serkin, had been a Russian basso, from 1918 to 1920 he studied composition with Arnold Schoenberg and participated actively in Schoenbergs Society for the Private Performance of Music. In 1921, at age 17, he made his Berlin debut performing in Mr Buschs ensemble as the keyboard soloist in the Brandenburg Concerto no.5, at the end of the concert, Busch told Serkin to play an encore to the enthusiastic audience. Serkin later reported that he asked Busch, What shall I play, and Busch as a joke told him to play the Goldberg Variations and I took him seriously. When I finished there were four people left, Adolf Busch, Artur Schnabel, Alfred Einstein. In the 1920s and early 1930s, Serkin performed throughout Europe both as soloist and with Busch and the Busch Quartet, with the rise of Hitler in Germany in 1933, Serkin and the Busches left Berlin for Basel, Switzerland. In 1933, Serkin made his first United States appearance at the Coolidge Festival in Washington, in 1936, he launched his solo concert career in the USA with the New York Philharmonic under Arturo Toscanini. The critics raved, describing him as an artist of unusual and impressive talents in possession of a technique, plenty of power, delicacy. In 1937, Serkin played his first New York City recital at Carnegie Hall, from 1968 to 1976 he served as the Institutes director. He lived with his family, first in New York, then in Philadelphia, as well as on a dairy farm in rural Guilford. In 1951, Serkin and Adolf Busch founded the Marlboro Music School and Festival in Marlboro, Vermont, with the goal of stimulating interest in and performance of chamber music in the United States. He made numerous recordings from the 1940s into the 1980s, including one at RCA Victor of Beethovens Piano Concerto No.4 in 1944, most of his recordings were made for Columbia Masterworks, although in the 1980s he also recorded for Deutsche Grammophon and Telarc. Serkin admired the music of Max Reger, which he discovered while working with Adolf Busch, in 1959, he became the first pianist in the United States to record Regers Piano Concerto, Op.114, with Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia Orchestra. Serkin was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963 and in March 1972 celebrated his 100th appearance with the New York Philharmonic by playing Johannes Brahms Piano Concerto No.1, in 1986, he celebrated his 50th anniversary as a guest artist with the orchestra. He is also regarded as one of the interpreters of the music of Beethoven in the 20th century. He died of cancer on 8 May 1991, aged 88 and he and Irene were the parents of seven children, including pianist Peter Serkin and cellist Judith Serkin. They also had fifteen grandchildren, including the composer David Ludwig, Irene Busch Serkin died in 1998
31.
Eduard Steuermann
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Eduard Steuermann was an Austrian pianist and composer. Steuermann studied piano with Vilém Kurz at the Lemberg Conservatory and Ferruccio Busoni in Berlin and he played the piano part in the first performance of Schoenbergs Pierrot Lunaire and premiered his Piano Concerto. He continued his association with Schoenberg as a pianist for the composers Society for Private Musical Performances in Vienna and he performed in the radio premiere of Schoenbergs Ode to Napoleon Bonaparte with the New York Philharmonic under Artur Rodziński on November 26,1944. In 1952 he was awarded the Schoenberg Medal by the International Society for Contemporary Music and he taught at the Internationale Ferienkurse für Neue Musik at Darmstadt. In the United States, where he emigrated in 1938, he was famed for his Beethoven recitals of the 1950s and was a distinguished teacher, in America he was known as Edward Steuermann. Among the prominent performers who studied with Steuermann are Alfred Brendel, Jakob Gimpel, Moura Lympany, Avraham Sternklar and he also taught philosopher Theodor W. Adorno, composer Gunther Schuller and theorists Edward T. In 1964 he died of leukemia, in 1989, the University of Nebraska Press published a collection of Steuermanns writings entitled, The Not Quite Innocent Bystander, Writings of Edward Steuermann. The book was co-edited by Clara Steuermann, David H. Porter and Gunther Schuller, the actress Salka Viertel was his sister. Steuermann married Clara Silvers, a pianist and noted music librarian, in 1949
32.
Glenn Gould
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Glenn Herbert Gould was a Canadian pianist who became one of the best-known and most celebrated classical pianists of the 20th century. He was particularly renowned as an interpreter of the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. His playing was distinguished by remarkable technical proficiency and capacity to articulate the polyphonic texture of Bachs music, after his adolescence, Gould rejected most of the standard Romantic piano literature including Liszt, Schumann, and Chopin. Gould was well known for eccentricities, from his unorthodox musical interpretations and mannerisms at the keyboard to aspects of his lifestyle. He stopped giving concerts at the age of 31 to concentrate on studio recording, Gould was the first pianist to record any of Liszts piano transcriptions of Beethovens symphonies. Gould was also known as a writer, composer, conductor and he was a prolific contributor to musical journals, in which he discussed music theory and outlined his musical philosophy. His career as a composer was less distinguished and his output was minimal and many projects were left unfinished. There is evidence that, had he lived beyond 50, he intended to abandon the piano and devote the remainder of his career to conducting, as a broadcaster, Gould was prolific. His output ranged from television and radio broadcasts of performances to musique concrète radio documentaries about life in the Canadian wilderness. Glenn Herbert Gould was born at home in Toronto on 25 September 1932, to Russell Herbert Gold and Florence Emma Gold and his maternal grandfather was a cousin of Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg. Gould had no Jewish ancestry, though he made jokes on the subject, like When people ask me if Im Jewish. Gould grew up in a home at 32 Southwood Drive, Toronto and his childhood home has been named a historic site by the City of Toronto. Goulds interest in music and his talent as a pianist became evident very early, both his parents were musical, and his mother, especially, encouraged the infant Goulds early musical development. Before his birth, his mother planned for him to become a successful musician, as a baby, he reportedly hummed instead of crying and wiggled his fingers as if playing chords, leading his doctor to predict that he would be either a physician or a pianist. By the age of three, Goulds perfect pitch was noticed and he learned to read music before he could read words. When presented with a piano, the young Gould was reported to strike notes and listen to their long decay. Goulds interest in the piano proceeded side by side with an interest in composition and he would play his own little pieces for family, friends, and sometimes large gatherings, including, in 1938, a performance at the Emmanuel Presbyterian Church of one of his own compositions. At the age of six, he was taken for the first time to hear a live performance by a celebrated soloist
33.
Leopoldstadt
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Leopoldstadt is the 2nd municipal District of Vienna. There are 103,233 inhabitants over 19.27 km2 and it is situated in the heart of the city and, together with Brigittenau, forms a large island surrounded by the Danube Canal and, to the north, the Danube. It is named after Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, due to its relatively high percentage of Jewish inhabitants, Leopoldstadt gained the nickname Mazzesinsel. This context was a significant aspect for the twinning with the New York City borough Brooklyn in 2007. Places of interest include the Wiener Prater, former imperial hunting grounds to which the public was denied access until 1766, the Schweizerhaus, an establishment boasting a huge beer garden, sells the original Czech Budweiser draught beer. The owners claim that, back in the 1920s, the potato crisp was invented there, nearby you can find the Republic of Kugelmugel, a micronation proclaimed in 1984 that became a landmark of the area. There is also a steam railway which, on its track through the woodland parallel to the Hauptallee. Another, smaller, park in Leopoldstadt is the topiary-type Augarten and its distinguishing marks are two disused Flak towers built towards the end of the Second World War. For features of this versatile district not listed here, see the bottom-linked Leopoldstadt Category page, in 1625 Rabbi Yom-Tov Lipmann Heller became the rabbi of Vienna. At the time the Jews of Vienna were scattered throughout the city, Heller obtained for the Jews the right to establish a central Jewish community in Leopoldstadt, which was already then a suburb of Vienna. He was instrumental in reorganizing the community, and he drew up its constitution, by the mid-17th century, part of the built-up area was the Jewish ghetto. At that time the area was called Im Werd, with the Jewish population living in an area called Unterer Werd. The hatred that Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor held for the Jews led to the expulsion and destruction of the Jewish community. As a thanksgiving for the expulsion, the renamed the area Leopoldstadt. The high number of Jewish inhabitants led to the area being called Mazzesinsel, several important synagogues were located there, including the Schiff Shul, the Leopoldstädter Tempel, the Türkischer Tempel, the Polnische Schul, and the Pazmanitentempel, as well as yeshivas. None of the synagogues escaped the destruction during the Kristallnacht pogroms of November 1938 following the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, a fragment of a Torah scroll was saved by Heschel Messias from one of the synagogues as it burned. The Jewish population was isolated and terrorised and was finally deported and exterminated in concentration camps such as Auschwitz. The once thriving communal life was completely destroyed, only a handful of survivors were able to hide until the end of the war, from an original population of several thousands
34.
Ghetto
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A ghetto is a part of a city in which members of a minority group live, especially because of social, legal, or economic pressure. The term was used in Venice to describe the part of the city to which Jews were restricted and segregated. The term has been applied in various contexts, the word ghetto comes from the Jewish area of Venice, the Venetian Ghetto in Cannaregio. However, there is no agreement among etymologists about the origins of the Venetian language term, by 1899 the term had been extended to crowded urban quarters of other minority groups. In Northern Ireland, towns and cities have long been segregated along ethnic, religious, Northern Irelands two main communities are its Irish nationalist/republican community and its unionist/loyalist community. Ghettos emerged in Belfast during the riots that accompanied the Irish War of Independence, for safety, people fled to areas where their community was the majority. They then sealed off these neighborhoods with barricades to keep out rioters or gunmen from the other side, many more ghettos emerged after the 1969 riots and beginning of the Troubles. In August 1969 the British Army was deployed to restore order, the government built barriers called peace lines. Many of the ghettos came under the control of such as the Provisional Irish Republican Army. One of the most notable ghettos was Free Derry, the existence of ethnic enclaves in the United Kingdom is controversial. By 2001, two London boroughs – Newham and Brent – had minority majority populations, and most parts of the city tend to have a diverse population, in France, a banlieue is a suburb of a large city. Banlieues are divided into autonomous entities and do not constitute part of the city proper. For instance, 80% of the inhabitants of the Paris area live outside the city of Paris, a Jewish quarter is the area of a city traditionally inhabited by Jews in the diaspora. Jewish quarters, like the Jewish ghettos in Europe, were often the outgrowths of segregated ghettos instituted by the surrounding authorities, a Yiddish term for a Jewish quarter or neighborhood is Di yiddishe gas, or The Jewish street. Many European and Middle Eastern cities once had a historical Jewish quarter, Jewish ghettos in Europe existed because Jews were viewed as alien. As a result, Jews were placed under strict regulations throughout many European cities, the character of ghettos has varied through times. In some cases, the ghetto was a Jewish quarter with an affluent population. In other cases, ghettos were places of terrible poverty and during periods of growth, ghettos, had narrow streets and tall
35.
Bratislava
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Bratislava is the capital of Slovakia, and with a population of about 450,000, the countrys largest city. The greater metropolitan area is home to more than 650,000 people, Bratislava is in southwestern Slovakia, occupying both banks of the River Danube and the left bank of the River Morava. Bordering Austria and Hungary, it is the national capital that borders two sovereign states. The history of the city has strongly influenced by people of different nations and religions, namely by Austrians, Croats, Czechs, Germans, Hungarians, Jews, Serbs. The city served as the site and legislative center of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1536 to 1783. Bratislava is the political, cultural and economic centre of Slovakia and it is the seat of the Slovak president, the parliament and the Slovak Executive. It is home to several universities, museums, theatres, galleries, many of Slovakias large businesses and financial institutions also have headquarters there. The capital of Slovakia is the eighth best city for freelancers to live in, mostly because of fast internet, in 2017, Bratislava was ranked as the third richest region of the European Union by GDP per capita. GDP at purchasing power parity is about three times higher than in other Slovak regions, the city received its contemporary name in 1919. Beforehand it was known in English by its German name, Pressburg, as it was long dominated by Austrians. This is the term which the German, the pre-1919 Slovak, the citys Hungarian name, Pozsony, was given after the castles first castellan, Poson. The origin of the name is unclear, it come from the Czech Pos or the German Poscho. Hungarian speakers still use the Hungarian name, Pozsony, the medieval settlement Brezalauspurc is sometimes attributed to Bratislava, however the actual location of Brezalauspurc is under scholarly debate. The citys modern name is credited to Pavel Jozef Šafáriks misinterpretation of Braslav as Bratislav when analyzing medieval sources, thus coming up with the term Břetislaw, during the revolution of 1918–1919, the name Wilsonov or Wilsonstadt was proposed by American Slovaks, as he supported national self-determination. The name Bratislava, which was used only by some Slovak patriots. The name Pressburg was also used in English-language publications until 1919, in older documents, confusion can be caused by the Latin forms Bratislavia, Wratislavia etc. which refer to Wrocław, Poland – not to Bratislava. The first known permanent settlement of the area began with the Linear Pottery Culture, about 200 BC, the Celtic Boii tribe founded the first significant settlement, a fortified town known as an oppidum. They also established a mint, producing silver coins known as biatecs, the area fell under Roman influence from the 1st to the 4th century AD and was made part of the Danubian Limes, a border defence system
36.
Shopkeeper
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A shopkeeper is an individual who owns or runs a shop. Generally, shop employees are not shopkeepers, but are often referred to as shopkeepers. Shopkeepers may manage their own independent corner shop or run a store on behalf of a retail chain. Unlike store managers who work for a large retailer, shopkeepers will normally have overall responsibility for a store. Independent shopkeepers include grocers, corner shops, newsagents, butchers, bakers, booksellers, florists, a shopkeeper would serve clients at a counter and carry out other duties such as taking customer payments, giving change, helping customers and wrapping gifts and purchases. Most of the shopkeepers are answering customers enquirers, giving advice about products to customers and listening to customers’ needs and requests. They also calculate daily takings, prepare pages, deposit cash at the bank, book-keep, ordering stock from wholesalers, manufacturers, agents and importers, sometimes this task can also given to small shop keeper if the shop is too small and dont have purchaser. Many people in the village owns a shop and sells household products. People in the village do this if they dont get work in the farm or for the daily income. In big cities, there are big-big malls instead of small shops, nation of shopkeepers Winstanley, Michael J. Manchester, Manchester University Press ISBN9780719007286
37.
Prague
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Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is the 14th largest city in the European Union and it is also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters. Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its history and it was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire. Prague is home to a number of cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites. The city has more than ten major museums, along with theatres, galleries, cinemas. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city, also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe. Prague is classified as an Alpha- global city according to GaWC studies, Prague ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016. Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination, and the city more than 6.4 million international visitors annually. Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul, the region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes, around the area where present-day Prague stands, the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis. In the following century, the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area, most notably in Levý Hradec, Butovice and in the Šárka valley. The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century, the first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest. The other prominent Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad, was founded in the 10th century, Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century. The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied, I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars. She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c.1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya. The region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia, under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973
38.
Counterpoint
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In music, counterpoint is the relationship between voices that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and contour. It has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition, strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period, the term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning point against point. Counterpoint generally involves musical lines with strongly independent identities, Counterpoint has been used to designate a voice or even an entire composition. In each era, contrapuntally organized music writing has been subject to rules—sometimes strict ones, chords are the simultaneous soundings of notes, whereas harmonic, vertical features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the produced by that interaction. In the words of John Rahn, It is hard to write a beautiful song and it is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole. The way that is accomplished in detail is, some examples of related compositional techniques include, the round, the canon, and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention, the fugue. All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint, Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to the composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a strict counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to free counterpoint according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a concept in his Scintille di musica. Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, a succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fuxs seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in the rules. The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part, if the final is approached from below, then the leading tone must be raised in a minor key, but not in Phrygian or Hypophrygian mode. Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C♯ is necessary at the cadence, permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth. The ascending minor sixth must be followed by motion downwards. The three notes should be from the triad, if this is impossible, they should not outline more than one octave. In general, do not write more than two skips in the same direction, if writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction. The interval of a tritone in three notes should be avoided as is the interval of a seventh in three notes, there must be a climax or high point in the line countering the cantus firmus. This usually occurs somewhere in the middle of exercise and must occur on a strong beat, an outlining of a seventh is avoided within a single line moving in the same direction
39.
Alexander Zemlinsky
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Alexander Zemlinsky or Alexander von Zemlinsky was an Austrian composer, conductor, and teacher. Zemlinsky was born in Vienna to a multicultural family. Zemlinskys grandfather, Anton Semlinski, emigrated from Žilina, Hungary to Austria, both were from staunchly Roman Catholic families, and Alexanders father, Adolf, was raised as a Catholic. Alexanders mother was born in Sarajevo to a Sephardic Jewish father, Alexanders entire family converted to the religion of his maternal grandfather, Judaism, and Zemlinsky was born and raised Jewish. His father added an aristocratic von to his name, though neither he nor his forebears were ennobled and he also began spelling his surname Zemlinszky. Alexander studied the piano from a young age and he played the organ in his synagogue on holidays, and was admitted to the Vienna Conservatory in 1884. He studied piano with Anton Door, winning the schools piano prize in 1890 and he continued his studies until 1892, studying theory with Robert Fuchs and composition with Johann Nepomuk Fuchs and Anton Bruckner. At this time he began writing music, in Johannes Brahms, Zemlinsky had a valuable supporter. In 1893, on the invitation of Zemlinskys teacher Johann Nepomuk Fuchs, soon after that, Brahms attended a performance of one of Zemlinkys quartets by the Hellmesberger Quartet. Brahms, impressed with Zemlinskys music, recommended the younger composers Clarinet Trio to the N. Simrock company for publication, Zemlinsky also met Arnold Schoenberg when the latter joined Polyhymnia, an orchestra in which he played cello and helped found in 1895. The two became friends and later mutual admirers and brothers-in-law when Schoenberg married his sister Mathilde. Zemlinsky gave Schoenberg lessons in counterpoint, thus becoming the formal music teacher Schoenberg would have. In 1897 Zemlinskys Symphony No.2 was a success when premiered in Vienna and his reputation as a composer was further helped when Gustav Mahler conducted the premiere of his opera Es war einmal at the Hofoper in 1900. In 1899 Zemlinsky secured the post of Kapellmeister at Viennas Carltheater, in 1899, Zemlinsky converted to Protestantism. He alluded to the Christian cross and to Jesus in the text of Turnwächterlied, in 1900, Zemlinsky met and fell in love with Alma Schindler, one of his composition students. She reciprocated his feelings initially, however, Alma felt a great deal of pressure from close friends and they were primarily concerned with Zemlinskys lack of an international reputation and by an unappealing physical appearance. She broke off the relationship with Zemlinsky and subsequently married composer Gustav Mahler in 1902, Zemlinsky married Ida Guttmann in 1907, but the marriage was an unhappy one. Following Idas death in 1929, Zemlinsky married Luise Sachsel in 1930, a woman twenty-nine years his junior and this was a much happier relationship, lasting until Zemlinskys death
40.
Operetta
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Operetta is a genre of light opera, light in terms both of music and subject matter. By this time, the part of the genre name had become misleading. With this new connotation, opéra comique had dominated the French operatic stage since the decline of tragédie lyrique, most researchers acknowledge that the credit for creating the operetta form should go to Hervé, a singer, composer, librettist, conductor, and scene painter. In 1842 he wrote the little opérette, LOurs et le pacha, based on the vaudeville show by Scribe. In 1848, Hervé made his first notable appearance on the Parisian stage, with Don Quichotte et Sancho Pança, hervés most famous works are the Gounod-parody Le Petit Faust and Mamzelle Nitouche. Jacques Offenbach further developed and popularized operetta, giving it its enormous vogue during the Second Empire, Offenbachs earliest one-act pieces included Les deux aveugles, Le violoneux and Ba-ta-clan, and his first full-length operetta success was Orphée aux enfers. Offenbachs tradition was carried on by Robert Planquette, André Messager. What characterizes Offenbachs operettas is both the way they portray life, and the extremely frivolous way this is done. The character was modeled after Offenbachs female star Hortense Schneider. Considering how Zolas Nana describes an Offenbach-style operetta performance in Paris, it is not surprising that the mostly male, upper-class audiences in other cities like Vienna and Berlin longed to see these shows in their home towns as well, which inspired worldwide performance of Offenbachs works. The highly erotic way Offenbachs operettas were originally played, with stars like Hortense Schneider created a reaction from certain parts of the general public. Operetta was considered an art form. Indeed, together with its grotesque qualities, frivolity is one of the elements of authentic operetta à la Offenbach. It was only later, when audiences widened and became more middle and lower class, the most significant composer of operetta in the German language was the Austrian Johann Strauss II. His first operetta was Indigo und die vierzig Räuber and his third operetta, Die Fledermaus, became the most performed operetta in the world, and remains his most popular stage work. Its libretto was based on a written by Offenbachs librettists. In all, Strauss wrote 16 operettas and one opera, most with great success when first premiered, many of his lesser operettas are now largely forgotten, since his later librettists were less talented and he often composed independently of the plot. Strausss operettas, waltzes, polkas, and marches often have a strongly Viennese style, the Theater an der Wien never failed to draw huge crowds when his stage works were first performed
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Richard Strauss
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Richard Georg Strauss was a leading German composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras. Strauss was also a prominent conductor in Western Europe and the Americas, enjoying quasi-celebrity status as his compositions became standards of orchestral and operatic repertoire. Strauss was born on 11 June 1864 in Munich, the son of Josephine and Franz Strauss, in his youth, he received a thorough musical education from his father. He wrote his first composition at the age of six and continued to write music almost until his death, during his boyhood Strauss attended orchestra rehearsals of the Munich Court Orchestra, where he received private instruction in music theory and orchestration from an assistant conductor. In 1872 he started receiving violin instruction at the Royal School of Music from Benno Walter, in 1874 Strauss heard his first Wagner operas, Lohengrin and Tannhäuser. The influence of Wagners music on Strausss style was to be profound, but at first his musically conservative father forbade him to study it. Indeed, in the Strauss household, the music of Richard Wagner was viewed with deep suspicion, in later life, Strauss said that he deeply regretted the conservative hostility to Wagners progressive works. Nevertheless, Strausss father undoubtedly had a influence on his sons developing taste. In early 1882 in Vienna he gave the first performance of his Violin Concerto in D minor, playing a piano reduction of the part himself. The same year he entered Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he studied philosophy and art history, Strauss learned the art of conducting by observing Bülow in rehearsal. Bülow was very fond of the man and decided that Strauss should be his successor as conductor of the Meiningen Court Orchestra when Bülow resigned in 1885. Strausss compositions at time were indebted to the style of Robert Schumann or Felix Mendelssohn. 1, Op.11, is representative of this period and is a staple of modern horn repertoire, Strauss married soprano Pauline de Ahna on 10 September 1894. She was famous for being irascible, garrulous, eccentric and outspoken, throughout his life, from his earliest songs to the final Four Last Songs of 1948, he preferred the soprano voice to all others, and all his operas contain important soprano roles. The Strausses had one son, Franz, in 1897, Franz married Alice von Grab-Hermannswörth, daughter of a Jewish industrialist, in a Roman Catholic ceremony in 1924. Franz and Alice had two sons, Richard and Christian, some of Strausss first compositions were solo instrumental and chamber works. After 1890 Strauss composed very infrequently for chamber groups, his energies being almost completely absorbed with large-scale orchestral works and operas. Four of his pieces are actually arrangements of portions of his operas, including the Daphne-Etude for solo violin and the String Sextet
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Gustav Mahler
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Gustav Mahler was an Austrian late-Romantic composer, and one of the leading conductors of his generation. As a composer he acted as a bridge between the 19th century Austro-German tradition and the modernism of the early 20th century, born in Bohemia as a German-speaking Jew of humble circumstances, Mahler displayed his musical gifts at an early age. During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler—who had converted to Catholicism to secure the regular opposition. Late in his life he was director of New Yorks Metropolitan Opera. Mahlers œuvre is relatively limited, for much of his composing was necessarily a part-time activity while he earned his living as a conductor. Some of Mahlers immediate musical successors included the composers of the Second Viennese School, notably Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, dmitri Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten are among later 20th-century composers who admired and were influenced by Mahler. The International Gustav Mahler Institute was established in 1955 to honour the composers life, the Mahler family came from eastern Bohemia and were of humble circumstances, the composers grandmother had been a street pedlar. Bohemia was then part of the Austrian Empire, the Mahler family belonged to a German-speaking minority among Bohemians, from this background the future composer developed early on a permanent sense of exile, always an intruder, never welcomed. Bernhard Mahler, the son and the composers father, elevated himself to the ranks of the petite bourgeoisie by becoming a coachman. He bought a modest house in the village of Kalischt, halfway between Prague in Bohemia and Brno in Moravia, in the center of todays Czech Republic. Bernhards wife, Marie, gave birth to the first of the couples 14 children, a son Isidor, two years later, on 7 July 1860, their second son, Gustav, was born. In December 1860, Bernhard Mahler moved with his wife and infant son, Gustav, to the town of Iglau,25 km to the south-east, the family grew rapidly, but of the 12 children born to the family in Iglau only six survived infancy. All of these elements would later contribute to his musical vocabulary. When he was four years old, Gustav discovered his grandparents piano and he developed his performing skills sufficiently to be considered a local Wunderkind and gave his first public performance at the town theatre when he was ten years old. Although Gustav loved making music, his reports from the Iglau Gymnasium portrayed him as absent-minded. In 1871, in the hope of improving the results, his father sent him to the New Town Gymnasium in Prague. In 1874 he suffered a personal loss when his younger brother Ernst died after a long illness. Mahler sought to express his feelings in music, with the help of a friend, Josef Steiner, he work on an opera
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Gurre-Lieder
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Gurre-Lieder is a large cantata for five vocal soloists, narrator, chorus and large orchestra, composed by Arnold Schönberg, on poems by the Danish novelist Jens Peter Jacobsen. In 1900, Schönberg began composing the work as a cycle for soprano, tenor. It was written in a lush, late-romantic style heavily influenced by Richard Wagner, according to Schönberg, however, he finished them half a week too late for the contest, and this decided the fate of the work. Later that year, he expanded his original conception, composing links between the first nine songs as well as adding a prelude, the Wood Doves Song. He worked on this version sporadically until around 1903, when he abandoned the task of orchestrating the work. He had also come under the spell of Gustav Mahler, whom he had met in 1903, in Des Sommerwindes wilde Jagd, Schönberg also introduced the first use of Sprechgesang, a technique he would explore more fully in Pierrot Lunaire of 1912. The orchestration was completed in November 1911. Franz Schreker conducted the premiere of the work in Vienna on 23 February 1913, by this time, Schönberg was disenchanted with the style and character of the piece and was even dismissive of its positive reception, saying I was rather indifferent, if not even a little angry. I foresaw that this success would have no influence on the fate of my later works, I had, during these thirteen years, developed my style in such a manner that to the ordinary concertgoer, it would seem to bear no relation to all preceding music. I had to fight for new work, I had been offended in the most outrageous manner by criticism, I had lost friends. And I stood alone against a world of enemies, violinist Francis Aranyi called it the strangest thing that a man in front of that kind of a hysterical, worshipping mob has ever done. It would be wrong to assume that Schoenberg considered Gurre-Lieder a composition of no merit, a few months after the premiere he wrote to Wassily Kandinsky, I certainly do not look down on this work, as the journalists always suppose. For although I have certainly developed very much since those days, I have not improved, I consider it important that people give credence to the elements in this work which I retained later. The Dutch first performance, directed by Schoenberg himself, was in March 1921, clark had tried to have the premiere the previous year, on 14 April 1927, but these plans fell through. Leopold Stokowski conducted the American premiere on 8 April 1932, with the Philadelphia Orchestra, soloists, stokowskis performances on 9 and 11 April 1932 were recorded live by RCA. Bell Laboratories had been recording the Philadelphia Orchestra in high fidelity and stereophonic sound. A performance of Gurre-Lieder without intermission runs over an hour and a half, riccardo Chaillys 1990 Decca recording, for example, lasts more than 100 minutes and takes two compact discs. In 2014 the Dutch National Opera in Amsterdam was the first company to stage the Gurre-Lieder, the cantata is divided into three parts
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Lutheranism
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Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
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Alexander von Zemlinsky
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Alexander Zemlinsky or Alexander von Zemlinsky was an Austrian composer, conductor, and teacher. Zemlinsky was born in Vienna to a multicultural family. Zemlinskys grandfather, Anton Semlinski, emigrated from Žilina, Hungary to Austria, both were from staunchly Roman Catholic families, and Alexanders father, Adolf, was raised as a Catholic. Alexanders mother was born in Sarajevo to a Sephardic Jewish father, Alexanders entire family converted to the religion of his maternal grandfather, Judaism, and Zemlinsky was born and raised Jewish. His father added an aristocratic von to his name, though neither he nor his forebears were ennobled and he also began spelling his surname Zemlinszky. Alexander studied the piano from a young age and he played the organ in his synagogue on holidays, and was admitted to the Vienna Conservatory in 1884. He studied piano with Anton Door, winning the schools piano prize in 1890 and he continued his studies until 1892, studying theory with Robert Fuchs and composition with Johann Nepomuk Fuchs and Anton Bruckner. At this time he began writing music, in Johannes Brahms, Zemlinsky had a valuable supporter. In 1893, on the invitation of Zemlinskys teacher Johann Nepomuk Fuchs, soon after that, Brahms attended a performance of one of Zemlinkys quartets by the Hellmesberger Quartet. Brahms, impressed with Zemlinskys music, recommended the younger composers Clarinet Trio to the N. Simrock company for publication, Zemlinsky also met Arnold Schoenberg when the latter joined Polyhymnia, an orchestra in which he played cello and helped found in 1895. The two became friends and later mutual admirers and brothers-in-law when Schoenberg married his sister Mathilde. Zemlinsky gave Schoenberg lessons in counterpoint, thus becoming the formal music teacher Schoenberg would have. In 1897 Zemlinskys Symphony No.2 was a success when premiered in Vienna and his reputation as a composer was further helped when Gustav Mahler conducted the premiere of his opera Es war einmal at the Hofoper in 1900. In 1899 Zemlinsky secured the post of Kapellmeister at Viennas Carltheater, in 1899, Zemlinsky converted to Protestantism. He alluded to the Christian cross and to Jesus in the text of Turnwächterlied, in 1900, Zemlinsky met and fell in love with Alma Schindler, one of his composition students. She reciprocated his feelings initially, however, Alma felt a great deal of pressure from close friends and they were primarily concerned with Zemlinskys lack of an international reputation and by an unappealing physical appearance. She broke off the relationship with Zemlinsky and subsequently married composer Gustav Mahler in 1902, Zemlinsky married Ida Guttmann in 1907, but the marriage was an unhappy one. Following Idas death in 1929, Zemlinsky married Luise Sachsel in 1930, a woman twenty-nine years his junior and this was a much happier relationship, lasting until Zemlinskys death
listen); 13 September 1874 – 13 July 1951) was an Austrian composer, music theorist, and painter. He was associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, and leader of the Second Viennese School, with the rise of the Nazi Party, Schoenberg's works were labeled degenerate music, because they were modernist, atonal and what even Paul Hindemith called "sonic orgies" and "decadent intellectual efforts" (Petropoulos 2014, 94–95). He emigrated to the United States of America in 1934.
