1.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
2.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
3.
Burgundian Netherlands
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The area comprised large parts of present-day Belgium and the Netherlands, as well as Luxembourg and parts of northern France. A fair share of these territories were inherited by the Burgundian dukes, together they initiated an era of Burgundian governance in the Low Countries. His son, the last Burgundian duke Charles the Bold, in 1473 annexed the Duchy of Guelders, the Valois era would last until 1477, when Duke Charles the Bold died at the Battle of Nancy leaving no male heir. The territorial Duchy of Burgundy reverted to the French crown according to Salic law, the Imperial fiefs passed to the Austrian House of Habsburg through Charles daughter Mary of Burgundy and her husband Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg, son of Emperor Frederick III. Maximilian however regarded the Burgundian Netherlands including Flanders and Artois as the domains of his wife and himself. The conflict culminated at the Battle of Guinegate in 1479, though Maximilian was victorious, he was only able to gain the County of Flanders according to the 1482 Treaty of Arras after his wife Mary had suddenly died, while France retained Artois. In her testament, Mary of Burgundy had bequested the Burgundian heritage to her and Maximilians son and his father, dissatisfied with the terms of the Arras agreement, continued to campaign the seized French territories. Attempts at enlarging personal control by the dukes resulted in revolts among the independent towns, Philip the Good extended his personal control to the southeast, bringing Brussels, Namur, and Liège under his control. He channeled the traditional independence of the cities through such mechanisms as the first Estates-General, the first Estates General of the Burgundian territories met in the City Hall of Bruges on 9 January 1464. Up to 1464, the Duke only maintained ties with each of the provincial States separately, convening an Estates General in which all provincial Estates were represented was part of Philip the Goods policy of centralisation. They were suppressed by Maximilians forces under the command of Duke Albert of Saxony at a battle at Heemskerk, early Netherlandish Painting, Its Origins and Character. Metropolitan Museum, Burgundian Netherlands, Court Life Metropolitan Museum, Burgundian Netherlands, Private Life
4.
Late Middle Ages
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The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history generally comprising the 14th and 15th centuries. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the modern era. Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt, a series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it was before the calamities. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare, France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the Jacquerie and the Peasants Revolt, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict in the Hundred Years War. To add to the problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism. Collectively these events are called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of progress in the arts. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Toward the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began, the rise of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, eroded the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire and cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the expedition of Columbus to the Americas in 1492 and their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations. The changes brought about by these developments have led scholars to view this period as the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of modern history. However, the division is artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society. As a result there was continuity between the ancient age and the modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all, but rather see the period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance. The term Late Middle Ages refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People. Flavio Biondo used a framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire. Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, for 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit
5.
Roman de Fauvel
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The Roman de Fauvel is a 14th-century French allegorical verse romance of satirical bent, generally attributed to Gervais du Bus, a clerk at the French royal chancery. The original narrative of 3,280 octosyllabics is divided into two books, dated to 1310 and 1314 respectively, in 1316–7 Chaillou de Pesstain produced a greatly expanded version. The romance also gave birth to the English expression curry fauvel, the work is reminiscent of a similar tract in the 13th-century Roman de la Rose, though owes more to the animal fabliaux of Reynard the Fox. Some of these pieces are linked to Philippe de Vitry and the nascent musical style referred to as Ars Nova, the poem revolves around the central figure, an ambitious and foolish horse, called Fauvel. The horses name itself is rife with symbolism, Fauvel comes from the color of its coat, which is muddy beige and symbolic of Vanity. The name breaks down to fau-vel, or false veil, and is furthermore an acronym F-A-V-V-E-L taken from the letters of these vices, Flattery, Avarice, Vileness, Variability, Envy. The first book is a rebuke against the clergy and society, tainted by Sin, Fauvel though he is a horse no longer resides in a stable, but is set up in a grand house by the grace of Dame Fortune, the goddess of Fate. He changes his residence to suit his needs, and has a custom manger, in his garderobe he has those from the religious order stroking him to make sure no dung can remain on him. Church and secular leaders far and wide make pilgrimages to see him and these potentates condescend to brush and clean Fauvel from his tonsured head to tail. Fauvel travels to Macrocosmos and asks Dame Fortunes for her hand in marriage and she denies him, but in her stead she proposes he wed Lady Vainglory. Finally, Dame Fortune reveals that Fauvels role in the world is to birth to more iniquitous rulers like himself. In 1316–7 Chaillou de Pesstain augmented this text with additional 3000 verses spanning both books, the manuscript survives that contains Chaillous expanded version in his own hand, and this is the earliest copy of Fauvel to survive. The dozen or so other extant manuscripts are of the form. Chaillous deluxe manuscript is illustrated with 78 miniatures, and inserts 169 musical pieces, the 169 pieces all have lyrics,124 in Latin,45 in French. The genres cover the liturgical and devotional, sacred and profane, monophonic and polyphonic, chant, old, some of these pieces are thought to have been composed by Philippe de Vitry. Much attention has also paid to fr. 146s numerous polyphonic motets, some of which exhibit red notation of newer mensural notational innovations generally described under the umbrella of ars nova, although the text of the Roman de Fauvel is not particularly well known, the music has been frequently performed and recorded. The question of how the work would have been read or staged in the 14th century is the subject of academic debate
6.
Guillaume de Machaut
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Guillaume de Machaut was a medieval French poet and composer. He is one of the earliest composers on whom significant biographical information is available, according to Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, Machaut was the last great poet who was also a composer. Well into the 15th century, Machauts poetry was admired and imitated by other poets. Machaut composed in a range of styles and forms. He is a part of the movement known as the ars nova. Machaut helped develop the motet and secular song forms, Machaut wrote the Messe de Nostre Dame, the earliest known complete setting of the Ordinary of the Mass attributable to a single composer. Guillaume de Machaut was born about 1300, and educated in the region around Reims and his surname most likely derives from the nearby town of Machault,30 km northeast of Reims in the Ardennes region. He was employed as secretary to John I, Count of Luxembourg and King of Bohemia from 1323 to 1346 and he often accompanied King John on his various trips, many of them military expeditions around Europe. He was named the canon of Verdun in 1330, Arras in 1332, by 1340, Machaut was living in Reims, having relinquished his other canonic posts at the request of Pope Benedict XII. Machaut survived the Black Death that devastated Europe, and spent his years living in Reims composing and supervising the creation of his complete-works manuscripts. His poem Le voir dit purports to recount a late love affair with a 19-year-old girl, Péronne dArmentières, when he died in 1377, other composers such as François Andrieu wrote elegies lamenting his death. That the majority of his lyrics are not set to music suggests that he wrote the text before setting some to music. In technical terms, Machaut was a master of elaborate rhyme schemes, Guillaume de Machauts narrative output is dominated by the dit. Machaut is also the author of a chronicle of the chivalric deeds of Peter I of Cyprus. His unusual self-reflective usage of himself as the narrator of his dits gleans some personal philosophical insights as well, at the end of his life, Machaut wrote a poetic treatise on his craft. This reflects on his conception of the organization of poetry into set genres and rhyme schemes, and this preoccupation with ordering his oeuvre is reflected in an index to MS A entitled Vesci lordonance que G. de Machaut veut quil ait en son livre. Machauts poetry had an effect on the works of Eustache Deschamps, Jean Froissart, Christine de Pizan, René dAnjou and Geoffrey Chaucer. The poem below, Puis quen oubli, is his 18th rondeau, Dit de lAlérion aka Dit des quatre oiseaux – A symbolic tale of love, the narrator raises four different birds, but each one flees him, one day the second bird comes back to him
7.
Polyphony
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Within the context of the Western musical tradition, the term polyphony is usually used to refer to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Baroque forms such as fugue, which might be called polyphonic, are usually described instead as contrapuntal. In all cases the conception was probably what Margaret Bent calls dyadic counterpoint, with part being written generally against one other part. The term polyphony is also used more broadly, to describe any musical texture that is not monophonic. Such a perspective considers homophony as a sub-type of polyphony, traditional polyphony has a wide, if uneven, distribution among the peoples of the world. Most polyphonic regions of the world are in sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and it is believed that the origins of polyphony in traditional music vastly predate the emergence of polyphony in European professional music. Currently there are two approaches to the problem of the origins of vocal polyphony, the Cultural Model. Although the exact origins of polyphony in the Western church traditions are unknown,900, are usually considered the oldest extant written examples of polyphony. These treatises provided examples of two-voice note-against-note embellishments of chants using parallel octaves, fifths, rather than being fixed works, they indicated ways of improvising polyphony during performance. 1000, is the oldest extant example of notated polyphony for chant performance, European polyphony rose out of melismatic organum, the earliest harmonization of the chant. Twelfth-century composers, such as Léonin and Pérotin developed the organum that was introduced centuries earlier, the lyrics of love poems might be sung above sacred texts in the form of a trope, or the sacred text might be placed within a familiar secular melody. The oldest surviving piece of music is the English rota Sumer is icumen in. These musical innovations appeared in a context of societal change. After the first millennium, European monks decided to start translating the works of Greek philosophers into the vernacular, Western Europeans were aware of Plato, Socrates, and Hippocrates during the Middle Ages. However they had largely lost touch with the content of their surviving works because the use of Greek as a language was restricted to the lands of the Eastern Roman Empire. Once these ancient works started being translated thus becoming accessible, the philosophies had a impact on the mind of Western Europe. This sparked a number of innovations in medicine, science, art, European polyphony rose prior to, and during the period of the Western Schism. Avignon, the seat of the antipopes, was a center of secular music-making
8.
Francesco Landini
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Francesco degli Organi, Francesco il Cieco, or Francesco da Firenze, called by later generations Francesco Landini or Landino was an Italian composer, organist, singer, poet and instrument maker. He was one of the most famous and revered composers of the half of the 14th century. Most of the biographical data on him comes from a 1385 book on famous Florentine citizens by chronicler Filippo Villani. The reason is that the surname Landini or Landino has not been linked to the composer in any sources of the 14th century nor in secondary references in the 15th century. The evidence linking Francesco to the Landini family via his presumed father and it can therefore also no longer be maintained that the painter Jacopo del Casentino was his father or that Cristoforo Landino was his great-nephew. Landini was most likely born in Florence, though Cristoforo Landino, blind from childhood, Landini became devoted to music early in life, and mastered many instruments, including the lute, as well as the art of singing, writing poetry, and composition. Despite his young age, Landini was already active in the early 1350s, according to Villani, Landini was given a crown of laurel by the King of Cyprus, who was in Venice for several periods during the 1360s. Landini probably spent some time in northern Italy prior to 1370 and he was employed as organist at the Florentine monastery of Santa Trinità in 1361, and at the church of San Lorenzo from 1365 onward. He was heavily involved in the political and religious controversies of his day, according to Villani, around or shortly after 1375, Andreas hired him as a consultant to help build the organ at the Servite house in Florence. Among the surviving records are the receipts for the wine that the two consumed during the three days it had taken to tune the instrument. Landini also helped build the new organ at SS Annunziata in 1379, and in 1387 he was involved in yet another organ-building project and this book, written in 1389 contains short stories, one of which supposedly was related by Landini himself. His reputation for moving an audience with his music was so powerful that writers noted the sweetness of his melodies was such that hearts burst from their bosoms and he is buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Florence. His tombstone, lost until the 19th century and now displayed in the church. Landini was the foremost exponent of the Italian Trecento style, sometimes called the Italian ars nova. His output was almost exclusively secular, while there are records that he composed sacred music, none of it has survived. What have survived are eighty-nine ballate for two voices, forty-two ballate for three voices, and another nine which exist in two and three-voice versions. In addition to the ballate, a number of madrigals have survived. Landini is assumed to have written his own texts for many of his works and his output, preserved most completely in the Squarcialupi Codex, represents almost a quarter of all surviving 14th-century Italian music
9.
Music of the Trecento
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The Trecento was a period of vigorous activity in Italy in the arts, including painting, architecture, literature, and music. Trecento means three hundred in Italian but is used to refer to the 1300s. However, the greatest flowering of music in the Trecento happened late in the century, very little Italian music remains from the 13th century, so the immediate antecedents of the music of the Trecento must largely be inferred. Some of the poetry of Dante Alighieri was set to music at the time it was written, one of the musicians to set Dantes poetry was his friend Casella, memorialized in Canto II of Purgatorio. Poems of Dante set by others included canzoni and ballate, if they were similar to the other earliest ballate, they would have been monophonic. Marchetto, building on the innovations of Petrus de Cruce, described a system of division of the breve into 2,3,4,6,8,9, or 12 semibreves with dots indicating breaks at the end of a breve. Much of the earliest polyphonic vocal music of the Trecento to survive is found in the Rossi Codex. Though many works of this generation are anonymous, many works are attributed to one Maestro Piero, other composers of the first generation include Vincenzo da Rimini and Jacopo da Bologna, though they may be of the later end of this generation. All of these composers were associated with courts in the north of Italy, especially Milan. The two most common forms of early Trecento secular music were the madrigal and monophonic ballata. While some of their music was still monophonic in the manner of the preceding century, Jacopo wrote one motet which has survived. The center of activity moved south in mid-century, to Florence. Characteristic of the generation of composers, most of them Florentine, was a preference for the ballata. Like the closely related French virelai, the ballata has two sections and the form AbbaA, while Boccaccio mentioned no composers by name, many of the Florentine musicians whose names have come down to us were in their early careers at this time. Landini wrote 141 surviving ballate, but only 12 madrigals, his compositions appear in every corner of the Italian peninsula, other composers of this group besides Landini included Gherardello da Firenze, Lorenzo da Firenze, and Donato da Cascia. Also by this generation of composers, the influence of French music was becoming apparent in the work of the native Italians. Greater independence of voices was characteristic of the music of this generation, and points of imitation are common, in addition, the uppermost voice is often highly ornamented. Landinis music was admired for its lyricism and expressive intensity, his fame has endured for six hundred years
10.
Ars subtilior
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Ars subtilior is a musical style characterized by rhythmic and notational complexity, centered on Paris, Avignon in southern France, also in northern Spain at the end of the fourteenth century. The style also is found in the French Cypriot repertory, primary sources for the ars subtilior are the Chantilly Codex, the Modena Codex, and the Turin Manuscript. Musically, the productions of the ars subtilior are highly refined, complex, difficult to sing, hoppin suggests the superlative ars subtilissima, saying, not until the twentieth century did music again reach the most subtle refinements and rhythmic complexities of the manneristic style. They are almost exclusively secular songs, and have as their subject matter love, war, chivalry, there are even some songs written in praise of public figures. He cites Baude Cordiers perpetual canon Tout par compas, notated on a circular staff, the town on the Rhône had developed into an active cultural center, and produced the most significant surviving body of secular song of the late fourteenth century. The style spread into northern Spain and as far as Cyprus, French, Flemish, Spanish and Italian composers used the style. Manuscripts of works in the ars subtilior occasionally were themselves in unusual and expressive shapes, as well as Baude Cordiers circular canon and the heart-shaped score shown above, Jacob Senlechess La Harpe de melodie is written in the shape of a harp. The main composers of the ars subtilior are Anthonello de Caserta, Johannes Cunelier, Egidius, Galiot, Matheus de Perusio, Philipoctus de Caserta, Jacob Senleches, modernism and Music, An Anthology of Sources. The Development of French Secular Music During the Fourteenth Century, die Anwendung der Diminution in der Handschrift Chantilly 1047. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell
11.
Johannes Tinctoris
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Johannes Tinctoris was a Renaissance composer and music theorist from the Low Countries. He is known to have studied in Orléans, and to have master of the choir there. Tinctoris went to Naples about 1472 and spent most of the rest of his life in Italy, Tinctoris published many volumes of writings on music. While they are not particularly original, borrowing heavily from ancient writers give an impressively detailed record of the technical practices and procedures used by composers of the day. The writings by Tinctoris were influential on composers and other theorists for the remainder of the Renaissance. Tinctoris wrote masses, motets and a few chansons, Tinctoris was also known as a cleric, a poet, a mathematician, and a lawyer, there is even one reference to him as an accomplished painter. From his third book on counterpoint, rule #1 Begin and finish with perfect consonance. It is, however, not wrong if the singer is improvising a counterpoint and ends with imperfect consonance, but in that case, sixth or octave doubling of the bass is not allowed. Rule #2 Follow together with ténor up and down in imperfect and perfect consonances of the same kind, rule #3 If ténor remains on the same note, you can add both perfect and imperfect consonances. Rule #4 The counterpointed part should have a closed form even if ténor makes big leaps. Rule #5 Do not put cadence on a note if it ruins the development of the melody, rule #6 It is forbidden to repeat the same melodic turn above a cantus firmus of equally long notes, unless cantus firmus has a repetition in itself. Rule #7 Avoid two or more consecutive cadences of the pitch even if cantus firmus allows it. Rule #8 In all counterpoint, try to achieve manifoldness and variety by altering measure, tempo, use syncopes, imitations, canons, and pauses. But remember that an ordinary chanson uses fewer different styles than a motet and he devised strict rules for introducing dissonances, limiting them to unstressed beats and syncopations and at cadences. A broad survey of the origins and evolution of music, its theological and metaphysical roots and ramifications, Tinctoris, Johannes, Liber de arte contrapuncti, tr. Oliver Strunk, in Source Readings in Music History. Digitized codex at Somni Hüschen, Heinrich, Johannes Tinctoris, in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ISBN 1-56159-174-2 Palenik, Jeffrey, The early career of Johannes Tinctoris, An examination of the music theorists Northern education and development. Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance
12.
Music history
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Music history, sometimes called historical musicology, is the highly diverse subfield of the broader discipline of musicology that studies music from a historical viewpoint. In theory, music history could refer to the study of the history of any type or genre of music, in practice, these research topics are often categorized as part of ethnomusicology or cultural studies, whether or not they are ethnographically based. The terms music history and historical musicology usually refer to the history of the music of Western elites, sometimes called art music. The methods of history include source studies, paleography, philology, style criticism, historiography, musical analysis. The two types of courses will usually differ in length, breadth, and depth, some examples might be Music during World War I, Medieval and Renaissance instrumental music, Music and Process, Mozarts Don Giovanni. The methods and tools of music history are nearly as many as its subjects, however, a few trends and approaches can be outlined here. Like in any other discipline, most research in music history can be roughly divided into two categories, the establishing of factual and correct data and the interpretation of data. Most historical research does not fall into one category solely, and it should also be noted that the act of establishing factual data can never be fully separate from the act of interpretation. In some cases, where records, scores, and letters have been digitized, one example of a composer for whom archival materials can be examined online is the Arnold Schoenberg Center. Performance practice draws on many of the tools of historical musicology to answer the question of how music was performed in various places at various times in the past. Scholars investigate questions such as which instruments or voices were used to perform a work, what tempos were used. Biographical studies of composers can give a sense of the chronology of compositions, influences on style and works. Thus biography can form one part of the study of the cultural significance, underlying program, or agenda of a work. Sociological studies focus on the function of music in society as well as its meaning for individuals, researchers emphasizing the social importance of music are sometimes called New musicologists. Semiotic studies are most conventionally the province of music rather than historians. However, crucial to the practice of musical semiotics – the interpretation of meaning in a work or style – is its situation in a historical context, the interpretative work of scholars such as Kofi Agawu and Lawrence Kramer fall between the analytic and the music historical. The first studies of Western musical history date back to the middle of the 18th century, martini published a three volume history titled Storia della musica between 1757 and 1781. Martin Gerbert published a two volume history of sacred music titled De cantu de musica sacra in 1774, Gerbert followed this work with a three volume work Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra containing significant writings on sacred music from the 3rd century onwards in 1784
13.
Rhythmic mode
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In medieval music, the rhythmic modes were set patterns of long and short durations. The rhythmic modes of Notre Dame Polyphony were the first coherent system of notation developed in Western music since antiquity. Composition types which were permeated by the modal rhythm include Notre Dame organum, conductus, in most sources there were six rhythmic modes, as first explained in the anonymous treatise of about 1260, De mensurabili musica. The fourth mode is rarely encountered, an exception being the second clausula of Lux magna in MS Wolfenbüttel 677, the fifth mode normally occurs in groups of three and is used only in the lowest voice, whereas the sixth mode is most often found in an upper part. The reading and performance of the music notated using the rhythmic modes was thus based on context. After recognizing which of the six modes applied to a passage of neumes, in modern editions of medieval music, ligatures are represented by horizontal brackets over the notes contained within it. All the modes adhere to a principle of metre, meaning that each mode would have a number of beat subdivisions divisible by the number 3. Some medieval writers explained this as veneration for the perfection of the Holy Trinity, less speculatively, the flexibility of rhythm possible within the system allows for variety and avoids monotony. Notes could be broken down into units or two rhythmic units of the same mode could be combined into one. An alternative term used by Garlandia for both types of alteration was reduction and these were of two types, the plica and the climacus. The plica was adopted from the liquescent neumes of chant notation, and receives its name from its form which, in modal notation, however, the plica usually occurs as a vertical stroke added to the end of a ligature, making it a ligatura plicata. The plica usually indicates an added breve on a weak beat, the pitch indicated by the plica depends on the pitches of the note it is attached to and the note following it. If both notes are the same, then the tone is the upper or lower neighbor. If the interval between the notes is a third, then the plica tone fills it in as a passing tone. If the two notes are a second apart, or at an interval of a fourth or larger. The climacus is a descending scale figure, written as a single note or a ligature followed by a series of two or more descending lozenges. Anonymous IV called these currentes, probably in reference to the figures found in pre-modal Aquitanian and Parisian polyphony. Franco of Cologne called them coniunctura, the difficulty was compounded in the later half of the 13th century, when the lozenge shape came also to be used for the semibreve
14.
Isorhythm
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Isorhythm is a musical technique using a repeating rhythmic pattern, called a talea, in at least one voice part throughout a composition. Taleae are typically applied to one or more melodic patterns of pitches or colores, isorhythms first appear in French motets of the 13th century such as the Montpellier Codex. Ludwig later extended its use to the 14th century music of Guillaume de Machaut, subsequently, Heinrich Besseler and other musicologists expanded its scope further as an organizing structural element in 14th and early 15th-century compositions—in particular, motets. Some of the earliest works organized around isorhythms are early 14th-century motets by various composers in a manuscript of the Roman de Fauvel. Two of the eras most important composers of isorhythmic motets are Phillipe de Vitry,2, De souspirant/Tous corps qui de bien amer/Suspiro, is an example of typical 14th-century use of isorhythm. Isorhythm is an outgrowth of the rhythmic modes that governed most late medieval polyphony. That mixes mensuration and undergoes diminution by half—became a typical, even a feature of motets in the 14th century. First staff, preexisting Gregorian cantus firmus melody, from the first antiphon for the first nocturn of the commons for Apostles, the cantus firmus of the motet is a perfect fifth higher than the original chant, notes used for the tenor marked in red. Second staff, isorhythmic tenor as notated in mensural notation, numbers 1–3 and brackets indicate three rhythmically identical sequences. Staves 2–5, abbreviated transcription into modern notation, each line represents one full repetition of the tenors melody, including the three talea in each, resulting in a nine-part structure. The three mensuration signs in the line correspond to the change in time signatures,98,68,48. During the decades following and into the 15th century, upper voices became increasingly involved in isorhythmic organization, many compositions became isorhythmic in all voices, a practice known as panisorhythm. In such compositions, the length of the color and talea are often unequal, as an example, if the color includes nine notes and the talea five, the color would have to be repeated five times before the two schemes again realign. Examples can be found in motets and Mass movements by John Dunstable, Johannes Ciconia, a 15th-century Mass by a composer known only as Pycard found in the Old Hall manuscript, demonstrates the high sophistication and complexity of panisorhythmic techniques. The lower parts have a color and talea that unite the composition. The upper parts have four different talea, one for each section of the composition. The rhythmic relationship between upper and lower parts changes as the music progresses, each quarter note in the lower part equals 4 and ½ quarter notes in the upper parts, creating an uneven ratio of 4,9 that causes the parts to lose synchronization. The lower part then steadily contracts in a series of Pythagorean proportions until the parts come back into alignment, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell
15.
Motet
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In western music, a motet is a mainly vocal musical composition, of highly varied form and style, from the late medieval era to the present. The motet was one of the pre-eminent polyphonic forms of Renaissance music, according to Margaret Bent, a piece of music in several parts with words is as precise a definition of the motet as will serve from the 13th to the late 16th century and beyond. In the early 20th century, it was believed the name came from the Latin movere. The Medieval Latin for motet is motectum, and the Italian mottetto was also used, if the word is from Latin, the name describes the movement of the different voices against one another. Today, however, the French etymology is favoured by reference books, in fact, the troped clausulas that were the forerunner of the motet were originally called motelli, soon replaced by the term moteti. The earliest motets arose in the 13th century from the organum tradition exemplified in the Notre Dame school of Léonin and Pérotin, the motet probably arose from clausula sections, usually strophic interludes, in a longer sequence of organum, to which upper voices were added. Usually the clausula represented a sequence in Latin which was sung as a discant over a cantus firmus. The motet took a definite rhythm from the words of the verse, the main exception is the conductus motet, in which the parts proceed in essentially homophonic rhythms. The practice of discant over a cantus firmus marked the beginnings of counterpoint in Western music, from these first motets arose a medieval tradition of secular motets. It is suspected that, for the sake of intelligibility, in performance the cantus firmus, among the trouvères, Robert de Reins La Chievre and Richart de Fournival composed motets. While it grew out of the isorhythmic motet, the Renaissance composers of the motet generally abandoned the use of a repeated figure as a cantus firmus. During this time, however, the use of cantus firmi in works such as the parody mass tended to stretch the cantus firmus out to great lengths compared to the multivoice descant above it. This tended to obscure the rhythm supplied by the cantus firmus that had been apparent in the medieval isorhythmic motet. The cascading, passing chords created by the interplay between multiple voices, and the absence of a strong or obvious beat, are the features that distinguish medieval, the texts of antiphons were frequently used as motet texts. This is the sort of composition that is most familiarly designated by the term motet, in essence, these motets were sacred madrigals. The language of the text was the feature, if it is Latin, it is a motet, if the vernacular. Religious compositions in vernacular languages were often called madrigali spirituali, spiritual madrigals, secular motets continued to be written, however. These motets typically set a Latin text in praise of a monarch, commemorating some public triumph, nevertheless, the themes of courtly love often found in the medieval secular motet were banished from the Renaissance motet
16.
Perspective (graphical)
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Perspective in the graphic arts is an approximate representation, on a flat surface, of an image as it is seen by the eye. If viewed from the spot as the windowpane was painted. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the side of the window. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to that viewer, an object is often not scaled evenly, a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening, Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite the viewers eye, represents objects infinitely far away and they have shrunk, in the distance, to the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to the Earths horizon, any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that the drawing has a vanishing point, usually directly opposite the viewers eye. All lines parallel with the line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the standard receding railroad tracks phenomenon, a two-point drawing would have lines parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing, one for each set of lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing. Perspectives consisting of parallel lines are observed most often when drawing architecture. In contrast, natural scenes often do not have any sets of parallel lines, the only method to indicate the relative position of elements in the composition was by overlapping, of which much use is made in works like the Parthenon Marbles. Chinese artists made use of perspective from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique, some authorities suggest that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the Ukiyo-e paintings of Torii Kiyonaga. This was detailed within Aristotles Poetics as skenographia, using flat panels on a stage to give the illusion of depth, the philosophers Anaxagoras and Democritus worked out geometric theories of perspective for use with skenographia. Alcibiades had paintings in his house designed using skenographia, so this art was not confined merely to the stage, Euclids Optics introduced a mathematical theory of perspective, but there is some debate over the extent to which Euclids perspective coincides with the modern mathematical definition
17.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
18.
Virelai
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A virelai is a form of medieval French verse used often in poetry and music. It is one of the three formes fixes and was one of the most common verse forms set to music in Europe from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries. One of the most famous composers of virelai is Guillaume de Machaut, other composers of virelai include Jehannot de lEscurel, one of the earliest, and Guillaume Dufay, one of the latest. A virelai with only a stanza is also known as a bergerette. The virelai as a form of the 14th and early 15th century usually has three stanzas, and a refrain that is stated before the first stanza and again after each. Within each stanza, the structure is that of the bar form, the third section of each stanza shares its rhymes and music with the refrain. Within this overall structure, the number of lines and the scheme is variable. The refrain and abgesang may be of three, four or five each, with rhyme schemes such as ABA, ABAB, AAAB, ABBA, AAAB. The structure often involves an alternation of longer with shorter lines, typically, all three stanzas share the same set of rhymes, which means that the entire poem may be built on just two rhymes, if the stollen sections also share their rhymes with the refrain. Douce Dame Jolie by Guillaume de Machaut is an example of a virelai with rhymes AAAB in the refrain, douce dame jolie, Pour dieu ne pensés mie Que nulle ait signorie Seur moy fors vous seulement. Quadès sans tricherie Chierie Vous ay et humblement Tous les jours de ma vie Servie Sans villain pensement, et je mendie Desperance et daïe, Dont ma joie est fenie, Se pité ne vous en prent. Douce dame jolie, Pour dieu ne pensés mie Que nulle ait signorie Seur moy fors vous seulement, from the 15th century onwards the virelai was no longer regularly set to music but became a purely literary form, and its structural variety proliferated. The 17th-century prosodist Père Mourgues defined what he called the virelai ancien in a way that has little in common with the musical virelais of the 14th and 15th centuries. In the second stanza, the b rhymes are shifted to the verses, and a new c rhyme is introduced for the shorter ones. These forms have occasionally been reproduced in later English poetry, e. g. by John Payne, list of virelais by Guillaume de Machaut
19.
Rondeau (forme fixe)
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A rondeau is a form of medieval and Renaissance French poetry, as well as the corresponding musical chanson form. It is structured around a pattern of repetition of material involving a refrain. The rondeau is believed to have originated in dance songs involving alternating singing of the elements by a group. The older French rondeau or rondel as a song form between the 13th and mid-15th century begins with a statement of its refrain, which consists of two halves. Thus, it can be represented as AB-aAab-AB, where A and B are the repeated refrain parts. If the poem has more than one stanza, it continues with further sequences of aAab-AB, aAab-AB, in the rondeau quatrain, the rhyme scheme is usually ABBA–ab–AB–abba–ABBA, in the rondeau cinquain it is AABBA–aab–AAB–aabba–AABBA. Fait lui avés longuement ceste offence, Ou est celluy qui onc fut ne en France, qui endurast tel mortel deshonneur. Allés, Regrez, … In the medieval manuscripts, the restatement of the refrain is not written out. After the mid-15th century, this came to be regarded no longer as a mere scribal abbreviation. As the form was gradually divorced from the structure and became a purely literary genre. This form is defined as the rondel in modern literary compendia. Another version has the refrains shortened even further, both restatements are reduced to just the first two or three words of the first line, which now stand as short, pithy, non-rhyming lines in the middle and at the end of the poem. If derived from the erstwhile rondeau quatrain, this results in a 12-line structure that is now called the rondeau prime, if derived from the erstwhile 21-line rondeau cinquain, the result is a 15-line form with the rentrements in lines 9 and 15. This 15-line form became the norm in the literary rondeau of the later Renaissance, auprés de leau me fault de soif perir, Je me voy jeune, et en aage fleurir, Et si me monstre estre plein de vieillesse Avant mes jours. Like the other formes fixes, the Rondeau was frequently set to music, the earliest surviving polyphonic rondeaux are by the trouvère Adam de la Halle in the late 13th century. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Guillaume de Machaut, Guillaume Dufay, Hayne van Ghizeghem, early rondeaux are usually found as interpolations in longer narrative poems, and separate monophonic musical settings survive. After the 15th century, the musical form went out of fashion, the musical rondeau is typically a two-part composition, with all the A sections of the poems AB-aAab-AB structure set to one line of music, and all the B parts to another. Although far rarer than the French usage, the Italian equivalent, a single rondello appears in the Rossi Codex
20.
Ballade (forme fixe)
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The ballade is a form of medieval and Renaissance French poetry as well as the corresponding musical chanson form. It was one of the three formes fixes and one of the forms in France most commonly set to music between the late 13th and the 15th centuries. The formes fixes were standard forms in French-texted song of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the ballade is usually in three stanzas, each ending with a refrain. The ballade as a form typically consists of three eight-line stanzas, each with a consistent metre and a particular rhyme scheme. The last line in the stanza is a refrain, the stanzas are often followed by a four-line concluding stanza usually addressed to a prince. The rhyme scheme is therefore usually ababbcbC ababbcbC ababbcbC bcbC, where the capital C is a refrain, the many different rhyming words that are needed makes the form more difficult for English than for French poets. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote in the form and it was revived in the 19th century by English-language poets including Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Algernon Charles Swinburne. Other notable English-language ballade writers are Andrew Lang, Hilaire Belloc, a humorous example is Wendy Copes Proverbial Ballade. In many ballades, the part of the B section may reintroduce melodic material referring back to the end of the A part. An alternative form employed by Machaut, known as duplex or balladelle, has the B part also divided into two repetitions, with the refrain line sung as part of the repetition. A famous exception to the form is Se la face ay pale by Guillaume Dufay. Guillaume de Machaut wrote 42 ballades set to music, a few of them set two or even three poems to music simultaneously, with different texts sung in different voices. Most of the others have a single texted voice with either one or two untexted accompanying voices, one of the most notable writers of ballades in the 15th century was François Villon. There are many variations to the ballade. It is in ways similar to the ode and chant royal. A seven-line ballade, or ballade royal, consists of four stanzas of rhyme royal, a ballade supreme has ten-line stanzas rhyming ababbccdcD, with the envoi ccdcD or ccdccD. An example is Ballade des Pendus by François Villon, there are instances of a double ballade and double-refrain ballade
21.
Avignon
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Avignon is a commune in south-eastern France in the department of Vaucluse on the left bank of the Rhône river. Of the 90,194 inhabitants of the city, about 12,000 live in the ancient town centre enclosed by its medieval ramparts. Between 1309 and 1377, during the Avignon Papacy, seven popes resided in Avignon. Papal control persisted until 1791 when, during the French Revolution, the town is now the capital of the Vaucluse department and one of the few French cities to have preserved its ramparts. The historic centre, which includes the Palais des Papes, the cathedral, the medieval monuments and the annual Festival dAvignon have helped to make the town a major centre for tourism. The commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns, the earliest forms of the name were reported by the Greeks, Аὐενιὼν = Auenion Άουεννίων = Aouennion. The Roman name Avennĭo Cavarum, i. e. Avignon of Cavares accurately shows that Avignon was one of the three cities of the Celtic-Ligurian tribe of Cavares, along with Cavaillon and Orange. The current name dates to a pre-Indo-European or pre-Latin theme ab-ên with the suffix -i-ōn This theme would be a hydronym - i. e. a name linked to the river, but perhaps also an oronym of terrain. The site of Avignon has been occupied since the Neolithic period as shown by excavations at Rocher des Doms and the Balance district. In 1960 and 1961 excavations in the part of the Rocher des Doms directed by Sylvain Gagnière uncovered a small anthropomorphic stele. Carved in Burdigalian sandstone, it has the shape of a tombstone with its face engraved with a stylized human figure with no mouth. On the bottom, shifted slightly to the right is an indentation with eight radiating lines forming a solar representation - a unique discovery for this type of stele. There were also some Chalcolithic objects for adornment and an abundance of Hallstatt pottery shards which could have been native or imported, the name of the city dates back to around the 6th century BC. The first citation of Avignon was made by Artemidorus of Ephesus, although his book, The Journey, is lost it is known from the abstract by Marcian of Heraclea and The Ethnics, a dictionary of names of cities by Stephanus of Byzantium based on that book. He said, The City of Massalia, near the Rhone and this name has two interpretations, city of violent wind or, more likely, lord of the river. Other sources trace its origin to the Gallic mignon and the Celtic definitive article, Avignon was a simple Greek Emporium founded by Phocaeans from Marseille around 539 BC. It was in the 4th century BC that the Massaliotes began to sign treaties of alliance with some cities in the Rhone valley including Avignon and Cavaillon, a century later Avignon was part of the region of Massaliotes or country of Massalia. Fortified on its rock, the city later became and long remained the capital of the Cavares, with the arrival of the Roman legions in 120 BC. the Cavares, allies with the Massaliotes, became Roman
22.
Aragon
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Aragon is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces, Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel, the current Statute of Autonomy declares Aragon a nationality of Spain. Aragons northern province of Huesca borders France and is positioned in the middle of the Pyrenees, within Spain, the community is flanked by Catalonia to the east, Valencia and Castile–La Mancha to the south, and Castile and León, La Rioja, and Navarre to the west. Aragon is home to many rivers—most notably, the river Ebro, Spains largest river in volume and it is also home to the Aneto, the highest mountain in the Pyrenees. As of 2015, the population of Aragon was 1,317,847, with more than half of it living in Zaragoza. As of 2015, half of Aragons population,50. 45%, Huesca is the only other city in the region with a population greater than 50,000. The majority of Aragonese citizens,71. 8%, live in the province of Zaragoza,17. 1% in Huesca and 11. 1% in Teruel, the population density of the region is the second lowest in Spain, only 26, 8/km2, after Castilla La Mancha. Only four cities have more than 20,000 inhabitants, Zaragoza 700,000, Huesca 50,000, Teruel 35,000 and Calatayud 20,000. Spanish is the language in most of Aragon, and it is the only official language, understood. The strip-shaped Catalan-speaking area in Aragon is often called La Franja, with such a low population density large areas of Aragon remain wild and relatively untouched. It is a land of natural contrasts, both in climate and geologically, from the green valleys and snow-capped peaks of the Pyrenees to the dry plains. Aragons Pyrenees include splendid and varied mountain landscapes with soaring peaks, deep canyons, dense forests and its rugged peaks include the Aneto, the highest in the range, the misty Monte Perdido, Perdiguero, Cotiella and many others. The park is one of the last sanctuaries of birds of prey in the range. Many beautiful mountain butterflies and flowers can be seen in the summer, the principal valleys in the mountains include those of Hecho, Canfranc, Tena, Benasque and others. The green valleys hide pretty villages with nice Romanesque churches and typical Pyrenean houses with flowers on the balconies, the oldest Romanesque cathedral in Spain is located in the medieval town of Jaca in the very northern part of Huesca Province. In the Pyrenean foothills, or pre-Pyrenees, the Mallos de Riglos are a natural rock formation. Ancient castles nestle on lonely hills, the most famous being the magnificent Loarre Castle, further south, the Ebro valley, irrigated by the river Ebro, is a rich and fertile agricultural area covered with vast fields of wheat, barley and other fruit and vegetable crops. Many beautiful and little-known settlements, castles and Roman ruins dot the landscape here, some of the most notable towns here include Calatayud, Daroca, Sos del Rey Catolico, Caspe and others
23.
Cyprus
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Cyprus, officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean and the third largest and third most populous island in the Mediterranean. It is located south of Turkey, west of Syria and Lebanon, northwest of Israel and Palestine, north of Egypt, the earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia. Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC, Cyprus was placed under British administration based on Cyprus Convention in 1878 and formally annexed by Britain in 1914. While Turkish Cypriots made up 18% of the population, the partition of Cyprus and creation of a Turkish state in the north became a policy of Turkish Cypriot leaders, following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960. On 15 July 1974, a coup détat was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta in an attempt at enosis and these events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute. The Cyprus Republic has de jure sovereignty over the island of Cyprus, as well as its territorial sea and exclusive economic area, another nearly 4% of the islands area is covered by the UN buffer zone. The international community considers the part of the island as territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces. The occupation is viewed as illegal under law, amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union. Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean, on 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone. The earliest attested reference to Cyprus is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek
24.
Ensemble Organum
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Ensemble Organum is a group performing early music, co-founded in 1982 by Marcel Pérès and is based in France. Its members have changed, but have included at one time or another, Josep Cabré, Josep Benet, Gérard Lesne, Antoine Sicot and they have often collaborated with Lycourgos Angelopoulos and are influenced by Orthodox music. The group mainly focuses on the performance of music from the Middle Ages, including Beneventan, Old Roman, Gallican, Carolingian, however, the repertoire includes renaissance polyphony as well as more recent works. The ensemble was based at Sénanque Abbey and Royaumont Abbey. Since 2001 it has shared facilities in the precinct of Moissac Abbey with the Centre itinérant de recherche sur les musiques anciennes, in addition to musical performance, the ensemble also works with musicologists and historians on musical research from this period. The following recordings were released by Harmonia Mundi. Polyphonie aquitaine du XIIe siècle, St
25.
Hilliard Ensemble
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The Hilliard Ensemble was a British male vocal quartet originally devoted to the performance of early music. The group was named after the Elizabethan miniaturist painter Nicholas Hilliard, founded in 1974, the group disbanded in 2014. The group was founded by Paul Hillier, Errol Girdlestone, Paul Elliott, since 1990 the core members were David James, Rogers Covey-Crump, John Potter, and Gordon Jones, with one change, in 1998 John Potter was replaced by Steven Harrold. The Hilliard Ensemble, under Paul Hillier, had a discography with EMIs Reflexe early music series during the 1980s. The ensemble has since recorded mainly for the ECM label, in 1994, when popular interest in Gregorian chant was at its height, the ensemble released the CD Officium, an unprecedented collaboration with the Norwegian saxophonist Jan Garbarek. The disc became one of ECMs biggest-selling releases, reaching the pop charts in several European countries, officiums sequel, the 2-CD set Mnemosyne, followed in 1999. The third album, Officium Novum, was released in 2010 and their recordings have also been included in Craig Wrights Listening to Music textbook for music students and music appreciation. In 2005 the ensemble took part in the Rheingau Musik Festivals composers portrait of Arvo Pärt, in September 2010, The Hilliard Ensemble joined the London Philharmonic Orchestra and Choir for the world premiere of Matteo DAmicos Flight from Byzantium at the Royal Festival Hall, London. They also performed three pieces by Guillaume Dufay, Moribus et genere, Vergene bella and Lamentatio sanctae matris ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae. On 15 November 2010 the group appeared at Church of St. Paul the Apostle in New York to perform Kjartan Sveinssons Cage a Swallow Can’t You but You Can’t Swallow a Cage. The Hilliard Ensemble decided to disband after 41 years and gave their final concert on 20 December 2014 at Londons Wigmore Hall
26.
Paul Hillier
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Paul Douglas Hillier is a conductor, music director and baritone. He specializes in music and contemporary art music, especially that by composers Steve Reich. He studied at the Guildhall School of Music, beginning his career while a vicar-scholar at St Pauls Cathedral. His concert debut was in 1974 in Londons Purcell Room, born in Dorchester, England in 1949, Hillier co-founded the Hilliard Ensemble along with fellow vicar-scholar Paul Elliott and counter-tenor David James. Hillier remained the director of the ensemble until 1990, when he founded Theatre of Voices, in addition to early music, this group explores more contemporary repertoire. With the Chicago-based His Majesties Clerkes Hillier recorded early American repertoire such as the works of William Billings on the 1992 album A Land of Pure Delight, the Pro Arte Singers joined the Theatre of Voices in a couple of recordings. In 2001, he became the Artistic Director and Principal Conductor of the Estonian Philharmonic Chamber Choir, since 2003, Hillier has been Chief Conductor of Ars Nova. In 2008, was appointed Artistic Director and Chief Conductor of the National Chamber Choir of Ireland, Hillier has recorded a number of solo albums, some with harpist Andrew Lawrence-King, on the Harmonia Mundi, ECM, EMI, Finlandia and Hyperion labels. Starting in 1980, Hillier has held a variety of academic appointments over the years, the Catch Book, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-343649-3, a collection of catches edited by Hillier. A Josquin Anthology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-353218-2, a collection of pieces by Renaissance composer Josquin des Prez, edited by Ross Duffin. Writing on Music, 1965–2000, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-511171-0, Arvo Pärt, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-816616-8, The first English-language biography of Estonian composer Arvo Pärt. English Romantic Partsongs, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-343650-7, a collection of songs edited by Hillier,300 Years of English Partsongs, Glees, Rounds, Catches, Partsongs 1600-1900, Faber & Faber, ISBN 0-571-10045-7, a collection of music edited by Hillier. Hilliard Ensemble Estonian Philharmonic Chamber Choir Official website Paul Hillier on Bach-Cantatas Paul Hillier on Harmonia Mundi Classical Archives interview at the Wayback Machine
27.
Sequentia (music group)
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Sequentia is an early music ensemble, founded in 1977 by Benjamin Bagby and Barbara Thornton. The group specializes mainly in Medieval music, Sequentia focuses particularly on music with texts, specifically chants and other stories with music, such as the Icelandic Edda. They are interested in the interplay between drama and music, and sometimes do partially staged performances, such as that of Hildegard of Bingens Ordo Virtutum, Bagby and Thornton have both been active in original research on the projects they perform. Originally formed in Basel in 1977, the moved to Cologne, Germany. The group would work from Cologne for more than twenty years, in 2002, the only long-term members of Sequentia have been Benjamin Bagby, Barbara Thornton, Norbert Rodenkirchen, and Katarina Livljanic after Thorntons death. Margriet Tindemans was a member for the first nine years of the groups existence, tenor Wolodymyr Smishkewych has sung with several projects since 2000. The rest of the members are hired according to the needs of the particular project and they mainly record on the Deutsche Harmonia Mundi label. Ludi Sancti Nicolai Spielmann und Kleriker Trouvères, Music for St. James the apostle. Codex Calixtinus, 12th century II, Codex Las Huelgas III, Songs for King Alfonso X of Castile and Léon Frauenlob. Heinrich von Meissen The Bordesholm Lament of the Virgin Mary Oswald von Wolkenstein, Songs Dante, christmas Music from Aquitanien Monasteries Aquitania. Christmas Musik from Aquitanien Monasteries Hildegard von Bingen, Complete Edition Symphoniae, spiritual Songs Canticles of Ecstasy Voice of the Blood O Jerusalem Ordo Virtutum Saints Celestial Hierarchy Edda. Myths from Medieval Iceland The Rheingold Curse Lost Songs of a Rhineland Harper Chant Wars Fragments for the End of Time / Endzeitfragmente List of early music ensembles Bagby, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. Sequentia official site Sequentia discography Benjamin Bagbys Beowulf
28.
Christopher Page
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For the Scottish botanist, see Christopher Nigel Page. He has written books regarding medieval music. He is currently a Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, where he is Professor of Medieval Music and Literature, Christopher Page, Fellow of the British Academy, was educated at Sir George Monoux Grammar School in London and Balliol College, Oxford. He was formerly a Junior Research Fellow at Jesus College, Oxford and he is the founder and director of Gothic Voices, an early music vocal ensemble, which has recorded 25 discs for Hyperion Records, many winning awards. The ensemble has performed in countries, including, France, Germany, Portugal. London dates included twice-yearly sell-out concerts at Londons Wigmore Hall, the ensemble gave its first Promenade Concert in 1989. The groups work has been chronicled most recently in Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, The Modern Invention of Medieval Music and Richard Taruskin, Text and Act. Between 1989 and 1997, he was presenter of BBC Radio 3s Early Music programme, Spirit of the Age, and he has been chairman of the National Early Music Association and of the Plainsong and Medieval Music Society. He serves on the boards of the journals Early Music and Plainsong. Christopher Page was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 2008 and he is currently working on a major reference work, Music in Medieval Literature, Readings from the Fall of Rome to Gothic Europe, for Cambridge University Press, and a monograph on the Tudor Guitar. He is a member of the Consortium for Guitar Research at Sidney Sussex College Cambridge. In 2014 he was appointed Professor of Music at Gresham College, in this role he will deliver series of free public lectures within London. His first year of lectures will be on Men, Women and he plays historical guitars, principally the four-course renaissance guitar and the early Romantic guitar. Page’s musician’s-eye view of the evolution of western Christendom is one of those books, official homepage of Christopher Page at Cambridge retrieved 28th Dec 2010 http, //www. hyperion-records. co. uk/artist_page. asp. name=page
29.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
30.
Chantilly Codex
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The Chantilly Codex is a manuscript of medieval music containing pieces from the style known as the Ars subtilior. It is held in the museum at the Château de Chantilly in Chantilly, most of the compositions in the Chantilly Codex date from ca. There are 112 pieces total, mostly by French composers, the codex contains examples of many of the most popular courtly dance styles of its time, such as ballades, rondeaus, virelais, and isorhythmic motets. Some of the motets are rhythmically complex, and are written in intricately exact musical notation. Two pieces by Baude Cordier were added at a later date at the front of the manuscript. The piece Belle, Bonne, Sage is a play on words on the Cor in Cordier, most of the 112 pieces are found in Willi Apel, ed. French Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century The following recordings include selections from the 112 pieces, Ensemble Organum. Codex Chantilly, Airs de cour du XIVe siècle, Ensemble P. A. N. Ars Magis Subtiliter, Secular Music of the Chantilly Codex. Medieval Ensemble of London Florilegium Series, LP recording DSDL704, Reissued 2007 on L’Oiseau-Lyre CD4759119. The Motets of the Manuscripts Chantilly, Musée condé,564 and Modena, Biblioteca Estense, unusual Phenomena in the Transmission of Late Fourteenth-Century Polyphonic Music. Musica disciplina 38 Musik im kirchlichen, höfischen und städtischen Leben vom 13, sources, MS, VII, French polyphony 1300–1420 in Grove Music Online, Haggh, Barbara. The Norton Introduction to Music History, Ars Subtilior and the Patronage of French Princes. Early Music History, Studies in Medieval and Early Modern Music 22, the Chantilly codex, The Manuscript, Its Music, Its Scholarly Reception. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina,2001, the Chantilly Codex, Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
