1.
Conceptual art
–
Conceptual art, sometimes simply called conceptualism, is art in which the concept or idea involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Some works of art, sometimes called installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. The notion that art should examine its own nature was already a potent aspect of the art critic Clement Greenbergs vision of Modern art during the 1950s. One of the first and most important things they questioned was the assumption that the role of the artist was to create special kinds of material objects. Thus, in describing or defining a work of art as conceptual it is important not to confuse what is referred to as conceptual with an artists intention. The French artist Marcel Duchamp paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them examples of prototypically conceptual works — the readymades. The artistic tradition does not see an object as art because it is not made by an artist or with any intention of being art. This concept, also called Art esthapériste, derived from the infinitesimals of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz - quantities which could not actually exist except conceptually, the current incarnation of the Isouian movement, Excoördism, self-defines as the art of the infinitely large and the infinitely small. In 1961 the term art, coined by the artist Henry Flynt in his article bearing the term as its title. By the mid-1970s they had produced publications, indices, performances, texts, in 1970 Conceptual Art and Conceptual Aspects, the first dedicated conceptual-art exhibition, took place at the New York Cultural Center. Conceptual art emerged as a movement during the 1960s - in part as a reaction against formalism as then articulated by the influential New York art critic Clement Greenberg. According to Greenberg Modern art followed a process of progressive reduction and those elements that ran counter to this nature were to be reduced. The task of painting, for example, was to define precisely what kind of object a painting truly is, later artists continued to share a preference for art to be self-critical, as well as a distaste for illusion. Lawrence Weiner said, Once you know about a work of mine you own it, theres no way I can climb inside somebodys head and remove it. It is sometimes reduced to a set of written instructions describing a work, Language was a central concern for the first wave of conceptual artists of the 1960s and early 1970s. This linguistic turn reinforced and legitimized the direction the artists took. Osborne also notes that the early conceptualists were the first generation of artists to complete degree-based university training in art, osborne later made the observation that contemporary art is post-conceptual in a public lecture delivered at the Fondazione Antonio Ratti, Villa Sucota in Como on July 9,2010. It is a claim made at the level of the ontology of the work of art
Conceptual art
–
Joseph Kosuth,
One and Three Chairs (1965)
Conceptual art
–
Marcel Duchamp,
Fountain, 1917. Photograph by
Alfred Stieglitz
Conceptual art
–
Lawrence Weiner. Bits & Pieces Put Together to Present a Semblance of a Whole, The Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, 2005.
Conceptual art
–
Stuckist artists leave a coffin, marked "The death of conceptual art", outside the
White Cube gallery in
Shoreditch, July 25, 2002.
2.
Performance art
–
Performance art is a performance presented to an audience within a fine art context, traditionally interdisciplinary. Performance may be scripted or unscripted, random or carefully orchestrated. The performance can be live or via media, the performer can be present or absent and it can be any situation that involves four basic elements, time, space, the performers body, or presence in a medium, and a relationship between performer and audience. Performance art can happen anywhere, in any type of venue or setting, the actions of an individual or a group at a particular place and in a particular time constitute the work. Performance art is a contested concept, any single definition of it implies the recognition of rival uses. As concepts like democracy or art, it implies productive disagreement with itself, the meaning of the term in the narrower sense is related to postmodernist traditions in Western culture. The ideal had been an ephemeral and authentic experience for performer, the widely discussed difference, how concepts of visual arts and concepts of performing arts are utilized, can determine the meanings of a performance art presentation. It therefore can include action or spoken word as a communication between the artist and audience, or even ignore expectations of an audience, rather than following a script written beforehand, some kinds of performance art nevertheless can be close to performing arts. Performance artists often challenge the audience to think in new and unconventional ways, break conventions of traditional arts, and break down conventional ideas about what art is. Some artists, e. g. the Viennese Actionists and neo-Dadaists, prefer to use the terms live art, action art, actions, as genres of performance art appear body art, fluxus-performance, happening, action poetry, and intermedia. Performance art activity is not confined to European or American art traditions, notable practitioners can be found in Asia, Performance artists and theorists point to different traditions and histories, ranging from tribal to sporting and ritual or religious events. There are also accounts of Renaissance artists such as itinerant poets putting on performances that could be said to be ancestors of performance art. Western cultural theorists often trace performance art activity back to the beginning of the 20th century, to the Russian constructivists, Futurists, Dada provided a significant progenitor with the unconventional performances of poetry, often at the Cabaret Voltaire, by the likes of Richard Huelsenbeck and Tristan Tzara. Russian Futurist artists could be identified as precursors of performance, such as David Burliuk, abstract expressionism and Action painting preceded the Fluxus movement, Happenings and the emergence of Performance Art. Performance art was anticipated, if not explicitly formulated, by Japans Gutai group of the 1950s, in the late 1960s Earth artists as diverse as Robert Smithson, Dennis Oppenheim, Michael Heizer and Carl Andre created environmental pieces that predict the performance art of the 1970s. Works of conceptual artists in the early 1980s, like Sol LeWitt, who converted mural-style drawing into an act of performance by others, were influenced by Yves Klein and the Earth artists as well. In the 1960s a variety of new works, concepts and the number of artists led to new kinds of performance art. Kaprow had coined the term Happening describing a new artform, at the beginning of the 1960s, a Happening allows the artist to experiment with body motion, recorded sounds, written and spoken texts, and even smells
Performance art
–
Yves Klein and
Dino Buzzati engaged in the ritual transfer of immateriality, January 26, 1962
Performance art
–
Conceptual work by
Yves Klein at Rue Gentil-Bernard, Fontenay-aux-Roses, October 1960, photo by Shunk Kender. Le Saut dans le Vide (Leap into the Void)
Performance art
–
Chris Burden during the performance of his 1974 piece Trans-fixed where he was nailed to the back of a
Volkswagen
Performance art
–
Performance artist
Joseph Beuys in 1978: Jeder Mensch ein Künstler — Auf dem Weg zur Freiheitsgestalt des sozialen Organismus - Every person an artist — On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism
3.
Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition
Dada
–
Cover of the first edition of the publication Dada by
Tristan Tzara;
Zürich, 1917
Dada
–
Francis Picabia, Dame! Illustration for the cover of the periodical Dadaphone, n. 7, Paris, March 1920
Dada
–
Francis Picabia, (left) Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait, 1 July 1915; (center) Portrait d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité, 5 July 1915: (right) J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit, De Zayas! De Zayas! Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont-Euxin, New York, 1915.
Dada
–
Hannah Höch, Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany, 1919, collage of pasted papers, 90×144 cm,
Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
4.
Stuckism
–
Stuckism is an international art movement founded in 1999 by Billy Childish and Charles Thomson to promote figurative painting as opposed to conceptual art. By July 2012 the initial group of 13 British artists had expanded to 233 groups in 52 countries, Childish and Thomson have issued several manifestos. The first one was The Stuckists, consisting of 20 points starting with Stuckism is a quest for authenticity, in another manifesto they define themselves as anti-anti-art which is against anti-art and for art. After exhibiting in galleries in Shoreditch, London, the Stuckists first show in a major public museum was held in 2004 at the Walker Art Gallery. The group has demonstrated annually at Tate Britain against the Turner Prize since 2000 and they have also come out in opposition to the Charles Saatchi-patronised Young British Artists. The name Stuckism was coined in January 1999 by Charles Thomson in response to a poem read to him several times by Billy Childish, in it, Childish recites that his former girlfriend, Tracey Emin had said he was stuck. With his art, poetry and music, in 1979, Thomson, Childish, Bill Lewis and Ming were members of The Medway Poets performance group, to which Absolon and Sanchia Lewis had earlier contributed. Peter Waites Rochester Pottery staged a series of solo painting shows, in 1982, TVS broadcast a documentary on the poets. That year, Emin, then a student, and Childish started a relationship, her writing was edited by Bill Lewis, printed by Thomson. Group members published dozens of works, the poetry group dispersed after two years, reconvening in 1987 to record The Medway Poets LP. Clark, Howard and Machine became involved over the following years, Thomson got to know Williams, who was a local art student and whose girlfriend was a friend of Emin, Thomson also met Everall. During the foundation of the group, Ming brought in his girlfriend, Guru, the most contentious statement in the manifesto is, Artists who dont paint arent artists. The second and third manifestos, An Open Letter to Sir Nicholas Serota and Remodernism respectively, were sent to the director of the Tate and he sent a brief reply, Thank you for your open letter dated 6 March. You will not be surprised to learn that I have no comment to make on your letter, in the Remodernism manifesto, the Stuckists declared that they aimed to replace postmodernism with remodernism, a period of renewed spiritual values in art, culture and society. In Anti-anti-art, the Stuckists outlined their opposition to what is known as anti-art, Stuckists claim that conceptual art is justified by the work of Marcel Duchamp, but that Duchamps work is anti-art by intent and effect. Manifestos have been written by other Stuckists, including the Students for Stuckism group, an Underage Stuckists group was founded in 2006 with a manifesto for teenagers written by two 16-year-olds, Liv Soul and Rebekah Maybury, on MySpace. The first Stuckist show was Stuck, Stuck. in September 1999 in Joe Cromptons in Shoreditch Gallery 108, followed by The Resignation of Sir Nicholas Serota. In 2000 they staged The Real Turner Prize Show at the time as the Tate Gallerys Turner Prize exhibition
Stuckism
–
Sexton Ming,
Tracey Emin,
Charles Thomson,
Billy Childish and musician Russell Wilkinson at the Rochester Adult Education Centre to record
The Medway Poets LP, 11 December 1987.
Stuckism
–
Stuckism International
Stuckism
–
The first Stuckists group of 13 artists at the Real Turner Prize Show, Pure Gallery, Shoreditch, London, in October 2000
Stuckism
–
Stuck! Stuck! Stuck!, the first Stuckist show, 1999.
5.
Vandalism
–
Vandalism is action involving deliberate destruction of or damage to public or private property. The term includes criminal damage such as graffiti and defacement directed towards any property without permission of the owner, the term finds its roots in an Enlightenment view that the Germanic Vandals were a uniquely destructive people. The Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths, however, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term Vandalisme was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois, the term was quickly adopted across Europe. Historically, vandalism has been justified by painter Gustave Courbet as destruction of monuments symbolizing war, therefore, it is often done as an expression of contempt, creativity, or both. Gustave Courbets attempt, during the 1871 Paris Commune, to dismantle the Vendôme column, Nietzsche himself would meditate after the Commune on the fight against culture, taking as example the intentional burning of the Tuileries Palace on May 23,1871. The criminal fight against culture is only the side of a criminal culture wrote Klossowski after quoting Nietzsche. Private citizens commit vandalism when they damage or deface the property of others or the commons. Some vandalism may qualify as culture jamming or sniggling, it is thought by some to be artistic in nature even though carried out illegally or without the property owners permission, examples include at least some graffiti art, billboard liberation and possibly crop circles. Graffiti on public property is common in inner cities as part of a gang culture. More serious forms of vandalism that may take place during public unrest such as rioting can involve the destruction of public. In elections, opposing candidates supporters may engage in political vandalism - the act of defacing opponents political posters, bumper stickers, billboards, and other street marketing material. Also activists may use the tactic of property destruction as means of protest, e. g. by smashing the windows of banks, shops and government institutions, Vandalism is also a common tactic of black blocs. Opportunistic vandalism of this nature may also be filmed, the mentality of which can be akin to happy slapping, greed can motivate vandalism as can some political ideologies, wish to draw attention to problems, frustration, even playfulness. Youngsters, the most common vandals, frequently experience low status, Vandalism enables powerless people to attack those above them, take control and frighten others. Unpunished vandalism can provide relief which reinforces the behaviour, Vandalism by one person can lead to imitation. Criminological research into vandalism has found that it serves many purposes for those who engage in it, sociologist Stanley Cohen describes six different types of vandalism, Acquisitive vandalism
Vandalism
–
A glass cage with a
draisine that belongs to a private railway history museum in
Münster-Gremmendorf
Vandalism
–
The Vandals sacking Rome
Vandalism
–
Fireworks vandalism of a bus stop in
Rotterdam
Vandalism
–
An example of vandalism on a street sign
6.
Detroit
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Detroit is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Michigan, the fourth-largest city in the Midwest and the largest city on the United States–Canada border. It is the seat of Wayne County, the most populous county in the state, the municipality of Detroit had a 2015 estimated population of 677,116, making it the 21st-most populous city in the United States. Roughly one-half of Michigans population lives in Metro Detroit alone, the Detroit–Windsor area, a commercial link straddling the Canada–U. S. Border, has a population of about 5.7 million. Detroit is a port on the Detroit River, a strait that connects the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States, the City of Detroit anchors the second-largest economic region in the Midwest, behind Chicago, and the thirteenth-largest in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor are connected through a tunnel and various bridges, Detroit was founded on July 24,1701 by the French explorer and adventurer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and a party of settlers. During the 19th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region, with expansion of the American automobile industry in the early 20th century, the Detroit area emerged as a significant metropolitan region within the United States. The city became the fourth-largest in the country for a period, in the 1950s and 1960s, suburban expansion continued with construction of a regional freeway system. A great portion of Detroits public transport was abandoned in favour of becoming a city in the post-war period. Due to industrial restructuring and loss of jobs in the auto industry, between 2000 and 2010 the citys population fell by 25 percent, changing its ranking from the nations 10th-largest city to 18th. In 2010, the city had a population of 713,777 and this resulted from suburbanization, corruption, industrial restructuring and the decline of Detroits auto industry. In 2013, the state of Michigan declared an emergency for the city. Detroit has experienced urban decay as its population and jobs have shifted to its suburbs or elsewhere, conservation efforts managed to save many architectural pieces since the 2000s and allowed several large-scale revitalisations. More recently, the population of Downtown Detroit, Midtown Detroit, paleo-Indian people inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago. In the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi, for the next hundred years, virtually no British, colonist, or French action was contemplated without consultation with, or consideration of the Iroquois likely response. When the French and Indian War evicted the Kingdom of France from Canada, the 1798 raids and resultant 1799 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country to westward emigration, which began almost immediately, and by 1800 white settlers were pouring westwards. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400, by 1778, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec
Detroit
–
From top to bottom, left to right:
Downtown Detroit skyline and the
Detroit River,
Fox Theatre,
Dorothy H. Turkel House in
Palmer Woods,
Belle Isle Conservatory,
The Spirit of Detroit,
Fisher Building,
Eastern Market,
Old Main at
Wayne State University,
Ambassador Bridge, and the
Detroit Institute of Arts
Detroit
–
Ste. Anne de Détroit, founded in 1701 by French colonists, is the second-oldest continuously operating
Catholic parish in the United States. The present church was completed in 1887.
Detroit
–
A 4
p.m. change of work shift at the Ford Motor Company assembly plant in
Highland Park, Michigan, 1910s
Detroit
–
Looking south down
Woodward Avenue, with the Detroit skyline in the distance, July 1942
7.
Cape Town
–
Cape Town is a coastal city in South Africa. It is the second-most populous urban area in South Africa after Johannesburg and it is also the capital and primate city of the Western Cape province. As the seat of the Parliament of South Africa, it is also the capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality, the city is famous for its harbour, for its natural setting in the Cape Floristic Region, and for such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. As of 2014, it is the 10th most populous city in Africa and it is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, in 2014, Cape Town was named the best place in the world to visit by both the American New York Times and the British Daily Telegraph. Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was first developed by the Dutch East India Company as a station for Dutch ships sailing to East Africa, India. Jan van Riebeecks arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa, Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa, the earliest known remnants in the region were found at Peers Cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as Cape of Good Hope because of the optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India. Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, in the late 16th century, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch and English but mainly Portuguese ships regularly stopped over in Table Bay en route to the Indies. They traded tobacco, copper and iron with the Khoikhoi in exchange for fresh meat, the settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the authorities to import slaves from Indonesia, many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Coloured communities. Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important, the Dutch Republic being transformed in Revolutionary Frances vassal Batavian Republic, Great Britain moved to take control of its colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was returned to the Dutch by treaty in 1803, British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain and it became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. With expansion came calls for independence from Britain, with the Cape attaining its own parliament. Suffrage was established according to the non-racial, but sexist Cape Qualified Franchise, the discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa
Cape Town
–
Clockwise from top: Cape Town CBD,
Strand,
Clifton beach,
Table Mountain,
Port of Cape Town,
Cape Town City Hall
Cape Town
–
Coat of arms
Cape Town
–
Arrival of
Jan van Riebeeck in
Table Bay by
Charles Bell
Cape Town
–
View of Table Bay with ships of the
Dutch East India Company, c. 1683
8.
South Africa
–
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
South Africa
–
Mapungubwe Hill, the site of the former capital of the
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
South Africa
–
Flag
South Africa
–
Arrival of
Jan van Riebeeck, the first European to settle in South Africa, with
Devil's Peak in the background
South Africa
–
Depiction of a
Zulu attack on a Boer camp in February 1838
9.
Old Master
–
In art history, Old Master refers to any painter of skill who worked in Europe before about 1800, or a painting by such an artist. An old master print is a print made by an artist in the same period. The term old master drawing is used in the same way, therefore, beyond a certain level of competence, date rather than quality is the criterion for using the term. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term as A pre-eminent artist of the period before the modern, a pre-eminent western European painter of the 13th to 18th centuries. The term is used to refer to a painting or sculpture made by an Old Master. Les Maitres dautrefois of 1876 by Eugene Fromentin may have helped to popularize the concept, the collection in the Dresden museum essentially stops at the Baroque period. The end date is necessarily vague – for example, Goya is certainly an Old Master, the term might also be used for John Constable or Eugène Delacroix, but usually is not. The term tends to be avoided by art historians as too vague, especially when discussing paintings, although the terms Old Master Prints and it remains current in the art trade. Auction houses still usually divide their sales between, for example, Old Master Paintings, Nineteenth-century paintings and Modern paintings, christies defines the term as ranging from the 14th to the early 19th century. S. Master of Flémalle, Master of Mary of Burgundy, Master of Latin 757, Master of the Brunswick Diptych or Master of Schloss Lichtenstein
Old Master
–
Giorgione's
Sleeping Venus (c. 1510), Dresden,
Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister.
Old Master
–
Still Life with Pie, Silver Ewer and Crab by
Willem Claeszoon Heda (1658) Oil on canvas
Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem
Old Master
–
Portrait of a young woman by
Sandro Botticelli, 1480
Old Master
–
Sistine Chapel ceiling,
Ignudi, Michelangelo, 1509
10.
Eleonora Aguiari
–
Eleonora Aguiari is an Italian installation artist and author, who lives between London and Paris. Her best known work consisted of wrapping a historic statue in London in red tape, eleonora Aguiari was born in Genoa, Italy. From 1987–9 she studied philosophy at the University of Milan, in 1990–7 she founded, and was director of, Zanzibar publishers in Milan, publishing 50 titles. She wrote two books, including Milanoetnica with Marina Gersony and she moved to London in 1998, where she studied at Chelsea College of Art and Design, Central St Martins College of Art and Design and the Royal College of Art. A layer of cling wrap and almost 80 rolls of red tape were applied by 4 people working for 4 days. Aguiari described it as a Zen action up there in the middle of traffic, every detail on the statue is perfect and slightly larger than normal, and said that statuary that symbolizes military past, or imperialism should be covered to make the topics of the past visible. In 2005 she was one of the selected for the first BLOC show, promoted by Bowieart at County Hall. In 2005–6 she showed a sculpture at Bishops Square, Spitalfields, East London and this was a silhouette of the nearby Christ Church Spitalfields and was coloured bright red. Group shows have included Tomato Gallery and Bloomberg Space and her large scale installations include Lamont Road Passage, Chelsea, London, and Fontebianca. Art intervention Conceptual art Installation art Photo of Aguiaris Spitalfields sculpture
Eleonora Aguiari
–
An equestrian statue of Lord Napier wrapped in red tape by Eleonora Aguiari in 2004
11.
Duct tape
–
Duct tape, sometimes called duck tape, is cloth- or scrim-backed pressure-sensitive tape, often coated with polyethylene. There are a variety of constructions using different backings and adhesives, one variation is black gaffer tape, which is designed to be non-reflective and cleanly removed, unlike standard duct tape. Another variation is heat-resistant foil duct tape useful for sealing heating and cooling ducts, Duct tape is generally silvery gray, but also available in other colors and even printed designs. During World War II, Revolite developed a tape made from a rubber-based adhesive applied to a durable duck cloth backing. This tape resisted water and was used as sealing tape on some cases during that period. For instance, in 1902, steel supporting the Manhattan Bridge were first covered in linseed oil then wrapped in duck tape before being laid in place. In the 1910s, certain boots and shoes used canvas duck fabric for the upper or for the insole, in 1936, the US-based Insulated Power Cables Engineers Association specified a wrapping of duck tape as one of many methods used to protect rubber-insulated power cables. In 1942, Gimbels department store offered venetian blinds that were together with vertical strips of duck tape. All of these uses were for plain cotton or linen tape that came without a layer of applied adhesive. Adhesive tapes of various sorts were in use by the 1910s, white adhesive tape made of cloth soaked in rubber and zinc oxide was used in hospitals to bind wounds, but other tapes such as friction tape or electrical tape could be substituted in an emergency. In 1930, the magazine Popular Mechanics described how to make adhesive tape at home using plain cloth tape soaked in a liquid mixture of rosin. In 1923, Richard Gurley Drew working for 3M invented masking tape, in 1925 this became the Scotch brand masking tape. In 1930, Drew developed a transparent tape based on cellophane and this tape was widely used beginning in the Great Depression to repair household items. Author Scott Berkun has written that duct tape is arguably a modification of this success by 3M. However, neither of Drews inventions was based on cloth tape and she wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1943 with the idea to seal the boxes with a fabric tape, which she had tested at her factory. The letter was forwarded to the War Production Board, who put Johnson & Johnson on the job and their new unnamed product was made of thin cotton duck tape coated in waterproof polyethylene with a layer of rubber-based gray adhesive bonded to one side. It was easy to apply and remove, and was adapted to repair military equipment quickly, including vehicles. This tape, colored in army-standard matte olive drab, was nicknamed duck tape by the soldiers, after the war, the duck tape product was sold in hardware stores for household repairs
Duct tape
–
Powdered aluminum pigment gives traditional duct tape its silvery gray color
Duct tape
–
Improvised wheel fender extension with duct tape,
Apollo 17
Duct tape
–
A wallet constructed entirely from tape and envelope windows
Duct tape
–
University of Southern California 's
Tommy Trojan statue wrapped in duct tape prior to a football game
12.
Equestrian statue
–
An equestrian statue is a statue of a rider mounted on a horse, from the Latin eques, meaning knight, deriving from equus, meaning horse. A statue of a horse is strictly an equine statue. A full-sized equestrian statue is a difficult and expensive object for any culture to produce, Equestrian statuary in the West goes back at least as far as Archaic Greece. Found on the Athenian acropolis, the sixth century BC statue known as the Rampin Rider depicts a kouros mounted on horseback, a number of ancient Egyptian, Assyrian and Persian reliefs show mounted figures, usually rulers, though no free standing statues are known. The Chinese Terracotta Army has no mounted riders, though cavalrymen stand beside their mounts, the Regisole was a bronze classical or Late Antique equestrian monument of a ruler, highly influential during the Italian Renaissance but destroyed in 1796 in the wake of the French Revolution. It was originally erected at Ravenna, but removed to Pavia in the Middle Ages, a fragment of an equestrian portrait sculpture of Augustus has also survived. Equestrian statues were not very frequent in the Middle ages, nevertheless, there are some examples, like the Bamberg Horseman, located in Bamberg Cathedral. Another example is the Magdeburg Reiter, in the city of Magdeburg, there are a few roughly half-size statues of Saint George and the Dragon, including the famous ones in Prague and Stockholm. The Scaliger Tombs in Verona include Gothic statues at less than lifesize, a well-known small bronze in Paris may be a contemporary portrait of Charlemagne, although its date and subject are uncertain. Leonardo da Vinci had planned an equestrian monument to the Milanese ruler. The The Wax Horse and Rider is a model for an equestrian statue of Charles dAmboise. Titians equestrian portrait of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor of 1548 applied the form again to a ruler, taccas studio would produce such models for the rulers in France and Spain. His last public commission was the equestrian bronze of Philip IV, begun in 1634. The near life-size equestrian statue of Charles I of England by Hubert Le Sueur of 1633 at Charing Cross in London is the earliest large English example, which was followed by many. The Bronze Horseman is an equestrian statue, on a huge base, of Peter the Great of 1782 by Étienne Maurice Falconet in Saint Petersburg. Mills was the first American sculptor to overcome the challenge of casting a rider on a rearing horse, the resulting sculpture was so popular he repeated it, for Washington, D. C. New Orleans, Louisiana and Nashville, Tennessee, cyrus Edwin Dallin made a specialty of equestrian sculptures of American Indians, his Appeal to the Great Spirit stands before the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The Robert Gould Shaw Monument in Boston, Massachusetts is a famous relief including an equestrian portrait, as the 20th century progressed, the popularity of the equestrian monument declined sharply, as monarchies fell, and the military use of horses virtually vanished
Equestrian statue
–
The
Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius on the
Capitoline Hill was the prototype for
Renaissance equestrian sculptures.
Equestrian statue
–
Khosrow Parviz is standing here. On his left is
Ahura Mazda, on his right is
Anahita, and below is, Khosrau dressed as a mounted Persian knight riding on his favourite horse,
Shabdiz, in the city of,
Kermanshah,
Iran
Equestrian statue
–
This horse head was once part of a large equestrian monument. ca. 40 AD.
Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore.
Equestrian statue
–
Bamberg Horseman (1225–37), Bamberg
13.
Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala
–
Field Marshal Robert Cornelius Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala GCB, GCSI, FRS was an Indian Army officer. He fought in the First Anglo-Sikh War and the Second Anglo-Sikh War before seeing action as chief engineer during the relief of Lucknow in March 1858 during the Indian Mutiny. He subsequently led the expedition to Abyssinia July 1867, defeating the Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia with minimal loss of life among his own forces. He attended the Royal Engineer Establishment at Chatham with the rank of ensign from 7 June 1827 before being promoted to lieutenant on 28 September 1827 and being sent to India in November 1828. After commanding a company at Delhi, he was employed in the works of the Public Works Department until 1836 when he returned to England for leave on account of his poor health. Promoted to captain on 25 January 1841, he was appointed garrison engineer at Sirhind in 1842, Napier served under Sir Hugh Gough during the First Anglo-Sikh War and commanded the Bengal Engineers at the Battle of Mudki in December 1845. He was severely wounded at the Battle of Ferozeshah in December 1845 while storming the Sikh camp and was present at the Battle of Sobraon in February 1846. Promoted to brevet major on 3 April 1846, he was engineer at the siege of the fortress of Kote Kangra in the Punjab by Brigadier-General Wheeler in May 1846. He took part in the Battle of Gujrat in February 1849 and he was promoted to brevet lieutenant-colonel on 7 June 1849 and became chief engineer to the Board of Administration of Punjab Province at the end of the War. In December 1852 Napier took command of a column in the first Hazara expedition and he was promoted to the brevet rank of colonel on 28 November 1854 and the substantive rank of lieutenant colonel on 15 April 1856. Napier was appointed secretary and adjutant general to Sir James Outram. He remained as engineer until the second relief in November 1857. He recovered sufficiently to be present at the capture of Lucknow in March 1858, Napier then joined Sir Hugh Rose as second-in-command for the march on Gwalior and commanded the 2nd Brigade at the Battle of Morar in June 1858. After Gwalior fell, Napier and his 700 men pursued, caught and he was promoted to brevet major-general on 15 February 1861 and to the substantive rank of colonel on 18 February 1861. Napier became the member of the Council of the Governor-General of India in 1861. Napier achieved his greatest fame as an officer when he led the expedition of 1868 against Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia. The Ethiopian ruler was holding a number of Protestant missionaries hostage, in his capital of Magdala. The expedition involved crossing 400 miles of mountainous terrain lacking roads or bridges occupied by people with a known history of hostility towards outsiders
Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala
–
Robert Napier, sitting third from right, with
John Lawrence, Viceroy of India and other council members and secretaries. c. 1864
Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala
–
Field Marshal The Right Honourable The Lord Napier of Magdala
GCB GCSI FRS
Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala
–
"The
British Expedition ". Caricature by
Spy published in
Vanity Fair in 1878.
Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala
–
Sir R. Napier and staff during the
British Expedition to Abyssinia
14.
Royal College of Art
–
The Royal College of Art or RCA is a public research university in London, in the United Kingdom. This was the third year that QS had awarded it the number 1 position for Art & Design. The RCA was founded in Somerset House in 1837 as the Government School of Design or Metropolitan School of Design, richard Burchett became head of the school in 1852. In 1853 it was expanded and moved to Marlborough House, and then, in 1853 or 1857 and it was renamed the Normal Training School of Art in 1857 and the National Art Training School in 1863. During the later 19th century it was primarily a training college, pupils during this period included George Clausen, Christopher Dresser, Luke Fildes, Kate Greenaway. In 1896 or 1897 the school received the name Royal College of Art, teaching of graphic design, industrial design and product design began in the mid-twentieth century. The school expanded further in the 1960s, and in 1967 it received a Royal Charter which gave it the status of an independent university with the power to grant its own degrees, the RCA has two campuses, in South Kensington and in Battersea. The Darwin Building in Kensington Gore dates from the 1960s and is a Grade II listed building and it was designed by a team of RCA staff members, H. T. Cadbury-Brown, Hugh Casson and Robert Goodden. In 1991 the sculpture department moved to a converted factory across the river Thames in Battersea, in the early 2000s the college conceived a substantial second campus being created on the site, with a minibus service linking it to Kensington. Thus, after a redevelopment of the premises by Wright & Wright. A masterplan was commissioned by Haworth Tompkins and phase 1 of their three phase design was completed with the opening of the Sackler Building on 19 November 2009 and its name commemorates a major gift by The Dr Mortimer and Theresa Sackler Foundation. The Dyson Building, named in honour of James Dyson, whose educational charity donated £5m to the development, was opened on 24 September 2012 and it is the home for printmaking and photography, and contains an innovation wing where start-up designers can launch their businesses. The Woo Building was opened on 30 September 2015, completing the Battersea project and it is named in honour of Sir Po-Shing and Lady Helen Woo, who have funded scholarships at the RCA since the 1990s. It accommodates the Ceramics & Glass and Jewellery & Metal programmes, the buildings anodised aluminium gates were designed by alumnus Max Lamb. The RCA offers MA, MPhil and PhD degrees in twenty-four subject areas, divided into six schools, architecture, communication, design, fine art, humanities, and materials. In April 2011 the RCA was ranked first on a list of UK graduate art schools compiled by Modern Painters magazine from a survey of professionals in the art world. In August 2015 it was ranked first on a list of courses in fashion by Business of Fashion. In 2015 the RCA placed first in the art and design subject area in the QS World University Rankings published by Quacquarelli Symonds, in 2016 and 2017 it held onto the position, increasing its overall score from 96. 0/100 to 98. 4/100
Royal College of Art
–
The Darwin Building in
Kensington Gore
Royal College of Art
–
Royal College of Art
15.
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, is the worlds largest museum of decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 4.5 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and these include the Natural History Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Albert Hall. The museum is a public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media. Like other national British museums, entrance to the museum has been free since 2001, the V&A covers 12.5 acres and 145 galleries. Its collection spans 5,000 years of art, from ancient times to the present day, from the cultures of Europe, North America, Asia and North Africa. The museum owns the worlds largest collection of sculpture, with the holdings of Italian Renaissance items being the largest outside Italy. The departments of Asia include art from South Asia, China, Japan, Korea, the East Asian collections are among the best in Europe, with particular strengths in ceramics and metalwork, while the Islamic collection is amongst the largest in the Western world. Overall, it is one of the largest museums in the world, New 17th- and 18th-century European galleries were opened on 9 December 2015. These restored the original Aston Webb interiors and host the European collections 1600–1815, at this stage the collections covered both applied art and science. Several of the exhibits from the Exhibition were purchased to form the nucleus of the collection, by February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to the current site and it was renamed South Kensington Museum. In 1855 the German architect Gottfried Semper, at the request of Cole, produced a design for the museum, but it was rejected by the Board of Trade as too expensive. The site was occupied by Brompton Park House, this was extended including the first refreshment rooms opened in 1857, the official opening by Queen Victoria was on 22 June 1857. In the following year, late night openings were introduced, made possible by the use of gas lighting, in these early years the practical use of the collection was very much emphasised as opposed to that of High Art at the National Gallery and scholarship at the British Museum. George Wallis, the first Keeper of Fine Art Collection, passionately promoted the idea of art education through the museum collections. From the 1860s to the 1880s the scientific collections had been moved from the museum site to various improvised galleries to the west of Exhibition Road. In 1893 the Science Museum had effectively come into existence when a director was appointed. The laying of the stone of the Aston Webb building on 17 May 1899 was the last official public appearance by Queen Victoria. It was during this ceremony that the change of name from the South Kensington Museum to the Victoria, the exhibition which the museum organised to celebrate the centennial of the 1899 renaming, A Grand Design, first toured in North America from 1997, returning to London in 1999
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
Entrance to the Victoria and Albert Museum
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
In 2000,
an 11 metre high, blown glass chandelier by
Dale Chihuly was installed as a focal point in the rotunda at the V&A's main entrance.
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
Henry Cole, the museum's first director
Victoria and Albert Museum
–
Frieze detail from internal courtyard showing Queen Victoria in front of the 1851 Great Exhibition.
16.
Scaffolding
–
Scaffolding is also used in adapted forms for formwork and shoring, grandstand seating, concert stages, access/viewing towers, exhibition stands, ski ramps, half pipes and art projects. There are four types of scaffolding used worldwide today. These are Tube and Coupler components, prefabricated modular system scaffold components, H-frame / facade modular system scaffolds, each type is made from several components which often include, A base jack or plate which is a load-bearing base for the scaffold. The standard, the component with connector joins. The transom, a horizontal cross-section load-bearing component which holds the batten, board, brace diagonal and/or cross section bracing component. Batten or board decking component used to make the working platform, Coupler, a fitting used to join components together. Scaffold tie, used to tie in the scaffold to structures, brackets, used to extend the width of working platforms. Sockets in the walls around the cave paintings at Lascaux, suggest that a scaffold system was used for painting the ceiling. The Berlin Foundry Cup depicts scaffolding in ancient Greece, egyptians, Nubians and Chinese are also recorded as having used scaffolding-like structures to build tall buildings. Early scaffolding was made of wood and secured with rope knots, in days gone by, scaffolding was erected by individual firms with wildly varying standards and sizes. Scaffolding was revolutionized by Daniel Palmer Jones and David Henry Jones, modern day scaffolding standards, practices and processes can be attributed to these men and their companies. With Daniel being the known and patent applicant and holder for many scaffold components still in use today see inventor. He is considered the grandfather of Scaffolding, the history of scaffolding being that of the Jones brothers and their companys Patent Rapid Scaffold Tie Company Ltd, Tubular Scaffolding Company and Scaffolding Great Britain Ltd. David Palmer-Jones patented the Scaffixer, a coupling device far more robust than rope which revolutionized scaffolding construction, in 1913, his company was commissioned for the reconstruction of Buckingham Palace, during which his Scaffixer gained much publicity. Palmer-Jones followed this up with the improved Universal Coupler in 1919 - this soon became the standard coupling and has remained so to this day. With the advancements in metallurgy throughout the early 20th century, saw the introduction of tubular steel water pipes with standardized dimensions, allowing for the industrial interchangeability of parts and improving the structural stability of the scaffold. The use of diagonal bracings also helped to improve stability, especially on tall buildings, the first frame system was brought to market by SGB in 1944 and was used extensively for the postwar reconstruction. The European Standard, BS EN 12811-1, specifies performance requirements and methods of structural and general design for access, requirements given are for scaffold structures that rely on the adjacent structures for stability
Scaffolding
–
Temporary
steel scaffold-constructed platform and stairway (with wooden platform flooring) in use at
New York City 's
Grasmere railway station during 2012-2014 station rehabilitation project.
Scaffolding
–
Bamboo scaffolding used for the construction of the
Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong.
Scaffolding
–
Repairwork on
Buckingham Palace in 1913, under the scaffolding of Patent Rapid.
Scaffolding
–
A
condominium in periodical (every 10-15 years) large scale repairing/maintenance in Japan under regulation. In most cases the entire building is covered by steel scaffolding and mesh for easy work and safety. Typically it continues 3-5 weeks per planned schedule.
17.
English Heritage
–
English Heritage is a registered charity that manages the National Heritage Collection. This comprises over 400 of Englands historic buildings, monuments and sites spanning more than 5,000 years of history, within its portfolio are Stonehenge, Dover Castle, Tintagel Castle and the best preserved parts of Hadrians Wall. English Heritage also manages the London Blue Plaques scheme, which links influential historical figures to particular buildings and it was created to combine the roles of existing bodies that had emerged from a long period of state involvement in heritage protection. The British government gave the new charity an £80 million grant to establish it as an independent trust. Over the centuries, what is now called Heritage has been the responsibility of a series of state departments. There was the Kings Works after the Norman Conquest, the Office of Works, the Office of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues and Works, and the Ministry of Works. Responsibility subsequently transferred to the Ministry of Public Building and Works then to the Department of the Environment and now the Department for Culture, Media, the states legal responsibility for the historic environment goes back to the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882. Central government subsequently developed several systems of protection for different types of assets, introducing listing for buildings after WW2. The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission was formed under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983 on 1 April 1984, soon after, the commission gained the operating name of English Heritage by its first Chairman, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu. A national register of parks and gardens, was set up in 1984. Registration is a consideration in the planning process. In 2010–2011 it recorded 4.3 million unique online user sessions, in 2012 the section responsible for archive collections was renamed the English Heritage Archive. As a result of the National Heritage Act 2002, English Heritage acquired administrative responsibility for historic wrecks, the administration of the listed building system was transferred from DCMS to English Heritage in 2006. It was retained on grounds of performing a function which should remain independent from Government. However the department also suffered from budget cuts during the recession of the 2010s resulting in a deficit of £100 million. In June 2013 the British Government announced plans to provide an £80 million grant to enable English Heritage to become a self-financing charity, the national portfolio of historic properties remain in public ownership, but the new English Heritage will be licensed to manage them. The change occurred on 1 April 2015 with the planning and heritage protection functions remaining an independent, non-departmental public body. The new trust has a licence to operate the properties until 2023, English Heritage is the guardian of over 400 sites and monuments, the most famous of which include Stonehenge, Iron Bridge and Dover Castle
English Heritage
–
English Heritage commemorative plaques conference, 2010. English Heritage began administering the London Blue Plaques in 1986.
English Heritage
–
English Heritage's logo
English Heritage
–
Stonehenge, one of English Heritage's most famous sites
English Heritage
–
Stonehenge visitors' centre. Opened in December 2013, over 2 km west of the monument, just off the A360 road in Wiltshire.
18.
City of Westminster
–
The City of Westminster is an Inner London borough which also holds city status. It occupies much of the area of Greater London including most of the West End. It is to the west of and adjoining the ancient City of London, directly to the east of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and it was created with the 1965 establishment of Greater London. Upon creation, Westminster was awarded city status, which had previously held by the smaller Metropolitan Borough of Westminster. Aside from a number of parks and open spaces, the population density of the district is high. Many sites commonly associated with London are in the borough, including St. Jamess Palace, Buckingham Palace, the Houses of Parliament, much of the borough is residential, and in 2008 it was estimated to have a population of 236,000. The local authority is Westminster City Council, the current Westminster coat of arms were given to the city by an official grant on September 2,1964. Westminster had other arms before, which had an identical to the chief in the present arms. The symbols in the two thirds of the shield stand for former municipalities now merged with the city, Paddington. The original arms had a portcullis as the charge, which now forms the crest. The origins of the City of Westminster pre-date the Norman Conquest of England, in the mid-11th Century king Edward the Confessor began the construction of an abbey at Westminster, only the foundations of which survive today. For centuries Westminster and the City of London were geographically quite distinct, Westminster briefly became a city in 1540 when Henry VIII created the short-lived Diocese of Westminster. Following the dissolution of Westminster Abbey, a court of burgesses was formed in 1585 to govern the Westminster area, Jamess, Strand, Westminster, Pimlico, Belgravia, and Hyde Park. The Westminster Metropolitan Borough was itself the result of an amalgamation which took place in 1900. Sir John Hunt O. B. E was the First Town Clerk of the City of Westminster, the boundaries of the City of Westminster today, as well as those of the other London boroughs, have remained more or less unchanged since the Act of 1963. On 22 March 2017, a terrorist attack took place on Westminster Bridge, Bridge Street and Old Palace Yard, five people - three pedestrians, one police officer, and the attacker - died as a result of the incident. More than 50 people were injured, an investigation is ongoing by the Metropolitan Police. The city is divided into 20 wards, each electing three councillors, Westminster City Council is currently composed of 44 Conservative Party members and 16 Labour Party members
City of Westminster
–
Coat of arms of the City of Westminster at Westminster City Hall
City of Westminster
–
BP head office in
St. James's, City of Westminster
City of Westminster
–
The Economist Building, St James's Street
City of Westminster
–
Piccadilly Circus
19.
Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea
–
The Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea was a Metropolitan borough of the County of London between 1900 and 1965. It was created by the London Government Act 1899 from most of the ancient parish of Chelsea and it was amalgamated in 1965 under the London Government Act 1963, with the Metropolitan Borough of Kensington to form the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. The ancient parish, was dedicated to All Saints. It was in the Diocese of London, the population recorded in the Census was, Chelsea Vestry 1801–1899 Metropolitan Borough 1900–1961 The borough was granted a coat of arms by the College of Arms on 28 February 1903. The winged bull is the symbol of St Luke, patron saint of Chelsea, the motto was Nisi dominus frustra or It is vain without the Lord. 1 or Stanley, No.2 or Church, No.3 or Hans Town, in 1894 as its population had increased the incorporated vestry was re-divided into five wards, Stanley, Church & Cheyne, Hans Town, Royal Hospital and Kensal Town. The metropolitan borough was divided into five wards for elections, Cheyne, Church, Hans Town, Royal Hospital. The borough council was controlled by the Municipal Reform Party, which was allied to the Conservative Party, in that year, the Municipal Reform label was discarded, and the Conservative party governed the borough until the boroughs abolition in 1965. The Chelsea Town Hall, a building containing frescos, remains in use. It is situated on Kings Road, at the corner of Chelsea Manor Street, for elections to parliament, the borough formed a single constituency. By 1950, the decline in population meant that the Chelsea constituency also included the Brompton area of the Metropolitan Borough of Kensington, a Vision of Britain Robert Donald, ed. London, Chelsea. Municipal Year Book of the United Kingdom for 1907
Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea
–
Chelsea within the County of London
20.
Kensington
–
Kensington is an affluent district within the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in West London. Its commercial heart is Kensington High Street, the affluent and densely populated area contains the major museum district of South Kensington, which has the Royal Albert Hall for music and nearby Royal College of Music. The area is home to many of Londons European embassies, the first mention of the area is in the Domesday Book of 1086, where it was written in Latin as Chenesitone, which has been interpreted to have originally been Kenesignetun in Anglo-Saxon. A variation may be Kesyngton, in 1396 and he in turn granted the tenancy of Kensington to his vassal Aubrey de Vere I, who was holding the manor in 1086, according to Domesday Book. The bishops heir, Robert de Mowbray, rebelled against William Rufus, Aubrey de Vere I had his tenure converted to a tenancy in-chief, holding Kensington after 1095 directly of the crown. He granted land and church there to Abingdon Abbey at the deathbed request of his young eldest son, Geoffrey. As the Veres became the earls of Oxford, their estate at Kensington came to be known as Earls Court, while the Abingdon lands were called Abbots Kensington and the church St Mary Abbots. The original Kensington Barracks, built at Kensington Gate in the late 18th century, were demolished in 1858, the focus of the area is Kensington High Street, a busy commercial centre with many shops, typically upmarket. The street was declared Londons second best shopping street in February 2005 thanks to its range, however, since October 2008 the street has faced competition from the Westfield shopping centre in nearby White City. Kensingtons second group of buildings is at South Kensington, where several streets of small to medium-sized shops. This is also the end of Exhibition Road, the thoroughfare that serves the areas museums. To the west, a border is kept along the line of the Counter Creek marked by the West London railway line, in the north east, the large Royal Park of Kensington Gardens is a green buffer. The other main area in Kensington is Holland Park, just north of Kensington High Street. Kensington is, in general, an affluent area, a trait that it now shares with its neighbour to the south. In early 2007, houses sold in Upper Phillimore Gardens for in excess of £20 million, Kensington is also very densely populated, it forms part of the most densely populated local government district in the United Kingdom. This high density is not formed from high-rise buildings, instead, unlike northern extremities of the Borough, Kensington lacks high-rise buildings except for the Holiday Inns London Kensington Forum Hotel in Cromwell Road, which is a 27-storey building. The Olympia exhibition hall is just over the border in West Kensington. Kensington is part of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, the head office of newspaper group DMGT is located in Northcliffe House in Kensington, which is the office part of the large Barkers building
Kensington
–
Kensington
Kensington
–
A picture of Kensington taken by scientist Sir Norman Lockyer in 1909 from a helium balloon. (This is a mirrored image of Kensington)
Kensington
–
Kensington Gardens in the summer
Kensington
–
Northcliffe House, head office of the
Daily Mail and General Trust
21.
Charles Saatchi
–
Charles Saatchi is a British businessman and the co-founder with his brother Maurice of advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi. The brothers led the business – the worlds largest advertising agency in the 1980s – until they were forced out in 1995, in the same year, the brothers formed a new agency called M&C Saatchi. Saatchi is also known for his art collection and for owning Saatchi Gallery, Charles Saatchi is the second of four sons born to Nathan Saatchi and Daisy Ezer, a wealthy Iraqi Jewish family in Baghdad, Iraq. The name Saatchi ساعتچی, which means watchmaker, originates from Persian, ساعتچي This name has a long history in Iran and its bearers are mostly Jewish. Famous for owning antique shops, watch shops, gold and jewellery, Saatchis brothers are David, Maurice and Philip. In 1947 his father, a merchant, anticipated the flight that tens of thousands of Iraqi Jews would soon make to avoid persecution and relocated his family to Finchley. Nathan Saatchi purchased two mills in north London and after a time rebuilt a thriving business. Eventually the family would settle into a house in Hampstead Lane. Saatchi attended Christs College, a school in north London. During this time, he developed an obsession with US pop culture, including the music of Elvis Presley, Little Richard and he has described as life-changing the experience of viewing a Jackson Pollock painting at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. He then progressed to study at the London College of Communication, in 1965, Saatchi undertook his first advertising role as a copywriter in the London office of Benton & Bowles, where he met Doris Lockhart. Saatchi paired up with art director Ross Cramer and they worked as a team at Collett Dickenson Pearce, in addition to offering consulting with ad agencies they also took on some clients directly. In 1969, at age 26, Saatchi purchased his first work of art by Sol LeWitt, Saatchi initially patronised the Lisson Gallery in Marylebone, London, which specialised in American minimalist works. He later purchased a show by Robert Mangold. In the early 1980s, Saatchi purchased a 30,000 sq ft cement-floored and steel-girded warehouse at 98A Boundary Road in the residential London suburb of St. Johns Wood. The building was transformed by architect Max Gordon into the Saatchi Gallery, at one point the Saatchi collection contained 11 works by Donald Judd,21 by Sol LeWitt,23 by Anselm Kiefer,17 Andy Warhols and 27 by Julian Schnabel. His taste has mutated from American abstraction and minimalism to the Young British Artists, at the YBAs 1990 Gambler exhibition, Saatchi bought Damian Hirsts first major animal installation, A Thousand Years. In 1991, he acquired major artworks by Hirst and Marc Quinn, in 2009, he published the book My Name Is Charles Saatchi And I Am An Artoholic
Charles Saatchi
–
The Saatchi Gallery's new premises in Chelsea, which opened in October 2008.
Charles Saatchi
–
Charles Saatchi by
Paul Harvey
22.
Reuters
–
Reuters /ˈrɔɪtərz/ is an international news agency headquartered in London, England. It is a division of Thomson Reuters, until 2008, the Reuters news agency formed part of an independent company, Reuters Group plc, which was also a provider of financial market data. Since the acquisition of Reuters Group by the Thomson Corporation in 2008, Reuters transmits news in English, French, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Urdu, and Chinese. The Reuter agency was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in Britain at the London Royal Exchange, Paul Reuter worked at a book-publishing firm in Berlin and was involved in distributing radical pamphlets at the beginning of the Revolutions in 1848. Upon moving to England, he founded Reuters Telegram Company in 1851, headquartered in London, the company initially covered commercial news, serving banks, brokerage houses, and business firms. The first newspaper client to subscribe was the London Morning Advertiser in 1858, Reuters agency built a reputation in Europe and the rest of the world as the first to report news scoops from abroad. Reuters was the first to report Abraham Lincolns assassination in Europe, for instance, in 1872, Reuters expanded into the far east, followed by South America in 1874. Both expansions were made possible by advances in overland telegraphs and undersea cables, in 1883, Reuters began transmitting messages electrically to London newspapers. In 1923, Reuters began using radio to transmit news internationally, in 1925, The Press Association of Great Britain acquired a majority interest in Reuters, and full owners some years later. During the world wars, The Guardian reported that Reuters came under pressure from the British government to national interests. In 1941 Reuters deflected the pressure by restructuring itself as a private company, the new owners formed the Reuters Trust. In 1941, the PA sold half of Reuters to the Newspaper Proprieters Association, the Reuters Trust Principles were put in place to maintain the companys independence. At that point, Reuters had become one of the major news agencies. In 1961, Reuters scooped news of the erection of the Berlin Wall, in 1981, Reuters began making electronic transactions on its computer network, and afterwards developed a number of electronic brokerage and trading services. Reuters was floated as a company in 1984, when Reuters Trust was listed on the stock exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange. Reuters published the first story of the Berlin Wall being breached in 1989, share price grew during the dotcom boom, then fell after the banking troubles in 2001. In 2002, Brittanica wrote that most news throughout the world came from three major agencies, the Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse, Reuters merged with Thomson Corporation in Canada in 2008, forming Thomson Reuters. In 2009, Thomson Reuters withdrew from the LSE and the NASDAQ, instead listing its shares on the Toronto Stock Exchange, the last surviving member of the Reuters family founders, Marguerite, Baroness de Reuter, died at age 96 on 25 January 2009
Reuters
–
Reuters Building, Canary Wharf, London
Reuters
–
Reuters building entrance in
New York City
23.
Nordic Heritage Museum
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The Nordic Heritage Museum is a museum dedicated to the heritage of Seattles Nordic immigrants, Danish, Finnish, Icelandic, Norwegian and Swedish Americans. It was founded in 1980 and is in the Ballard neighborhood of Seattle, the museum serves as a community gathering place and shares Nordic culture by exhibiting art and objects, preserving collections, and providing educational and cultural experiences. Before it became the Nordic Heritage Museum in 1980, the red building was originally the Daniel Webster Elementary School from 1907 to 1979. Fundraising and architecture plans are underway for a new building in downtown Ballard, the founder and long-time director Marianne Forssblad retired in 2007. Eric Nelson followed her as director and Janet Rauscher became chief curator in 2008. In 2012, Lizette Gradén became the chief curator, the museum published the NHM Historical Journal on a quarterly basis until 2011. In 2013 the museum published its first edition of the annual magazine Nordic Kultur, the museum has also published books including Voices of Ballard and Beyond, Stories of Immigrants and Their Descendants in the Pacific Northwest published in 2012. The Nordic Heritage Museum contains two libraries, the Walter Johnson Memorial Library was founded in 1980. As of 2011 it held 15500 books and it specializes in books published in Danish, Finnish, Icelandic, Norwegian, and Swedish. Its special collection includes the Gordon Tracie Music Library and the Vanishing Generations Oral History Project, the Gordon Ekvall Tracie Music Library was founded in 1995. As of 2011 it contained 3000 audio/visual materials,4000 music scores,2500 books and it focuses on folk customs, traditional dance, traditional music, folk art, and folk attire for Nordic cultures. Its special collections include the Gordon Ekvall Tracie History Collection, the Nordiska Folkdancers Collection, there is also a temporary gallery space. C. Viking Days began in 1984 as Tivoli Days and was held each July, in 2008 the two-day events name was changed to Viking Days and in 2011 the event moved to mid August. The event features food and craft vendors, Scandinavian music, in 2014, Viking Days will be held on August 16 &17. Yulefest predates the museum itself, and is held the Saturday and Sunday before Thanksgiving each year and this event is a Nordic Christmas celebration with craft vendors, Nordic food and music, and Christmas traditions on display. In 2014, Yulefest will be held on November 22 &23
Nordic Heritage Museum
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The entrance to the Nordic Heritage Museum with a sculpture by Finnish artist Eino Romppanen
Nordic Heritage Museum
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Exhibits at the museum
Nordic Heritage Museum
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Viking ship at Viking Days 2012
Nordic Heritage Museum
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Ship and Viking encampment at Viking Days
24.
Seattle Art Museum
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The Seattle Art Museum is an art museum located in Seattle, Washington, USA. Admission to the park is always free. Admission to the facilities is free on the first Thursday of each month. And even the normal admission is suggested, meaning that the museum would like visitors to pay the complete admission, the SAM collection has grown from 1,926 pieces in 1933 to nearly 25,000 as of 2008. Its original museum provided an area of 25,000 square feet, paid staff have increased from 7 to 303, and the museum library has grown from approximately 1,400 books to 33,252. SAM traces its origins to the Seattle Fine Arts Society and the Washington Arts Association, in 1931 the group renamed itself as the Art Institute of Seattle. The Art Institute housed its collection in Henry House, the home, on Capitol Hill, of the collector and founder of the Henry Art Gallery. Richard E. Fuller, president of the Seattle Fine Arts Society, was the figure of SAM in its early years. During the Great Depression, he and his mother, Margaret MacTavish Fuller, the city provided the land and received ownership of the building. Carl F. Gould of the architectural firm Bebb and Gould designed an Art Deco/Art Moderne building for the museum, the Art Institute collection formed the core of the original SAM collection, the Fullers soon donated additional pieces. The Art Institute was responsible for managing art activities when the museum first opened, Fuller served as museum director into the 1970s, never taking a salary. SAM joined with the National Council on the Arts, Richard Fuller, and it was the NEAs first commission in Seattle. In 1983–1984, the received a donation of half of a downtown city block. They eventually decided that this block was not a suitable site, that land was sold for private development as the Newmark Building. On December 5,1991, SAM reopened in a $62 million downtown facility designed by Robert Venturi, the next year, one of Jonathan Borofskys Hammering Man sculptures was installed outside the museum as part of Seattle City Lights One Percent for Art program. Hammering Man was used in an art installation on Labor day in 1993 when Jason Sprinkle and other local artists attached a 700 lb ball. In 1994 the Volunteer Park facility reopened as the Seattle Asian Art Museum, in 2007 the Olympic Sculpture Park opened to the public, culminating an 8-year process. Among the museums exhibitions were a 1954 exhibition of 25 European paintings and sculptures from the Samuel H. Kress Foundation
Seattle Art Museum
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Entrance of the Seattle Art Museum
Seattle Art Museum
Seattle Art Museum
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The "Art Ladder": the main staircase of the 1991 Venturi building, now integrated into the expanded SAM as a free public space.
Seattle Art Museum
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Seattle Art Museum expansion
25.
Taipei
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Taipei, officially known as Taipei City, is the capital city and a special municipality of the Republic of China. Sitting at the tip of the island, Taipei City is an enclave of the municipality of New Taipei City. It is about 25 km southwest of the port city Keelung. Since 1949, Taipei has been the capital of the ROC after losing the mainland to the Communists in the Chinese Civil War, the name Taipei can refer either to the whole metropolitan area or the city proper. Taipei is the political, economic, educational, and cultural center of Taiwan, considered to be a global city, Taipei is part of a major high-tech industrial area. Railways, high-speed rail, highways, airports, and bus lines connect Taipei with all parts of the island, the city is served by two airports – Taipei Songshan and Taiwan Taoyuan. Its natural features such as Maokong, Yangmingshan, and hot springs are also known to international visitors. As the capital city, Taipei is sometimes used as a synecdoche for Taiwan, prior to the significant influx of Han Chinese immigrants, the region of Taipei Basin was mainly inhabited by the Ketagalan plains aborigines. The number of Han immigrants gradually increased in the early 18th century under Qing Dynasty rule after the government began permitting development in the area, in 1875, the northern part of the island was incorporated into the new Taipeh Prefecture. The Qing dynasty of China made Taipeh the temporary capital of Fujian-Taiwan Province in 1886 when Taiwan was separated from Fujian Province, Taipeh was formally made the provincial capital in 1894. Japan acquired Taiwan in 1895 under the Treaty of Shimonoseki after the First Sino-Japanese War, Taiwan became a colony of Imperial Japan with Taihoku as its capital, in which the city was administered under Taihoku Prefecture. Taiwans Japanese rulers embarked on a program of advanced urban planning that featured extensive railroad links. A number of Taipei landmarks and cultural institutions date from this period, following the Japanese surrender of 1945, control of Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China. In 1990 Taipei provided the backdrop for the Wild Lily student rallies that moved Taiwanese society from one-party rule to multi-party democracy, the city is today home to Taiwans democratically elected national government. The region known as the Taipei Basin was home to Ketagalan tribes before the eighteenth century, Han Chinese mainly from Fujian Province of Qing dynasty China began to settle in the Taipei Basin in 1709. In 1875, the part of Taiwan was separated from Taiwan Prefecture. From 1875 until the beginning of Japanese rule in 1895, Taipei was part of Tamsui County of Taipeh Prefecture, in 1885, work commenced to create an independent Taiwan Province, and Taipei City was temporarily made the provincial capital. Taipei officially became the capital of Taiwan in 1894, all that remains from the Qing era is the north gate
Taipei
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Clockwise from top: Taipei skyline,
Grand Hotel, Far Eastern Plaza,
National Palace Museum,
Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall,
Jiantan Station
Taipei
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The city of Taipei, as seen from
Maokong.
Taipei
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Satellite image of Taipei City
Taipei
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Old street in Taipei in 2013
26.
Taiwan
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Taiwan, officially the Republic of China, is a state in East Asia. Neighbours include China to the west, Japan to the northeast, Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations, and the one with the largest economy. The island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty, following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROCs loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, in the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with universal suffrage, Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, health care, public education, economic freedom, the PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC, the PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible. There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, the former name Formosa dates from 1542, when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means beautiful island. The name Formosa eventually replaced all others in European literature and was in use in English in the early 20th century. This name was adopted into the Chinese vernacular as the name of the sandbar. The modern word Taiwan is derived from this usage, which is seen in forms in Chinese historical records. Use of the current Chinese name was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture, through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as Taiwan. The official name of the state is the Republic of China and it was a member of the United Nations representing China until 1971, when it lost its seat to the Peoples Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become known as Taiwan. In some contexts, especially ones from the ROC government
Taiwan
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A young
Tsou man
Taiwan
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Flag
Taiwan
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Overview of
Fort Zeelandia, painted around 1635
Taiwan
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Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the
Tapani Incident from the
Tainan jail to court, 1915.
27.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
New York City
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Clockwise, from top:
Midtown Manhattan,
Times Square, the
Unisphere in
Queens, the
Brooklyn Bridge,
Lower Manhattan with
One World Trade Center,
Central Park, the
headquarters of the United Nations, and the
Statue of Liberty
New York City
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New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual
Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year
England took control and renamed it "New York".
New York City
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The
Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the
American Revolution, took place in
Brooklyn in 1776.
New York City
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Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.
28.
Central Park
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Central Park is an urban park in Manhattan, New York City. Central Park is the most visited park in the United States, with 40 million visitors in 2013. The park was established in 1857 on 778 acres of city-owned land, construction began the same year and the parks first area was opened to the public in the winter of 1858. Construction continued during the American Civil War farther north, and was expanded to its current size of 843 acres in 1873, Central Park was designated a National Historic Landmark by the U. S. Department of the Interior in 1962. The Conservancy is a organization that contributes 75 percent of Central Parks $65 million annual budget and is responsible for all basic care of the 843-acre park. Between 1821 and 1855, New York City nearly quadrupled in population, as the city expanded northward up Manhattan, people were drawn to the few existing open spaces, mainly cemeteries, to get away from the noise and chaotic life in the city. Since Central Park was not part of the original Commissioners Plan of 1811, John Randel, Jr. surveyed the grounds. The only remaining surveying bolt from his survey is still visible, it is embedded in a rock just north of the present Dairy and the 65th Street Transverse, the bolt marks the location where West 65th Street would have intersected Sixth Avenue. The state appointed a Central Park Commission to oversee the development of the park, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known as the Greensward Plan, which was selected as the winning design. The Greensward Plan called for some 36 bridges, all designed by Vaux, ranging from rugged spans of Manhattan schist or granite, to lacy Neo-Gothic cast iron, several influences came together in the design. Landscaped cemeteries, such as Mount Auburn and Green-Wood had set examples of idyllic, naturalistic landscapes, the most influential innovations in the Central Park design were the separate circulation systems for pedestrians, horseback riders, and pleasure vehicles. The crosstown commercial traffic was entirely concealed in sunken roadways, screened with densely planted shrub belts so as to maintain a rustic ambiance, before the construction of the park could start, the area had to be cleared of its inhabitants. Most lived in villages, such as Harsenville, the Piggery District, or Seneca Village, or in the school. Approximately 1,600 residents were evicted under the rule of eminent domain during 1857, Seneca Village and parts of the other communities were razed to make room for the park. During the parks construction, Olmsted fought constant battles with the park commissioners, between 1860 and 1873, most of the major hurdles to construction were overcome and the park was substantially completed. The work was documented with technical drawings and photographs. More gunpowder was used to clear the area than was used at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War, the parks commissioners assigned a name to each of the original 18 gates in 1862. The names were chosen to represent the diversity of New York Citys trades, for example, Mariners Gate for the entrance at 85th Street
Central Park
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The Pond and Hallett Nature Sanctuary in the park's southeast corner
Central Park
Central Park
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John Randel 's survey bolt, still visible in Central Park
Central Park
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One of 36 bridges in the park
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