1.
Arsaces II of Parthia
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Arsaces II, also Artabanus I, of the Arsacid dynasty was King of Parthia between 211 BC and 185 BC. Greek Arsaces appears as Artabanus in Latin sources, and both appear in history books. Due to a confusion of names, the line of succession is equally unclear, artabanuss uncle, Arsaces I, had founded the dynasty around 247 BC. Arsaces I may then have been succeeded by his brother Tiridates I. Subject then to which genealogy is followed, Artabanus succeeded either his uncle Arsaces I or his father Tiridates I, in 209 BC, the Seleucid King Antiochus III recaptured Parthia, which had been previously seized from the Seleucids by the Arsaces I and the Parni around 247 BC. Arsaces II sued for peace following his defeat on the battlefield at Mount Labus, prior to this, Antiochus had already occupied the Parthian capital at Hecatompylos, pushing forward to Tagae near Damghan. Following the defeat of Arsaces II at Mount Labus, Antiochus turned westwards into Hyrcania where he occupied Tambrax, syrinx was then taken by siege. In the terms of peace, Arsaces accepted feudatory status and from then onwards ruled Parthia, Antiochus in turn withdrew his troops westwards, where he would subsequently be embroiled in wars with Rome and so would leave the fledgling Parthian kingdom to its own devices. Arsaces II was succeeded by his son Phriapatius in 185 BC, richard Nelson Frye, The History of Ancient Iran,1984
2.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
3.
Parthia
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Parthia is a historical region located in north-eastern Iran. It was the political and cultural base of the Arsacid dynasty, the name Parthia is a continuation from Latin Parthia, from Old Persian Parthava, which was the Parthian language self-designator signifying of the Parthians who were an Iranian people. In context to its Hellenistic period, Parthia also appears as Parthyaea, Parthia roughly corresponds to a region in northeastern Iran. It was bordered by the Karakum desert in the north, included Kopet Dag mountain range and it bordered Media on the west, Hyrcania on the north west, Margiana on the north east, and Aria on the south east. During Arsacid times, Parthia was united with Hyrcania as one unit. As the region inhabited by Parthians, Parthia first appears as an entity in Achaemenid lists of governorates under their dominion. Prior to this, the people of the region seem to have been subjects of the Medes, according to Greek sources, following the seizure of the Achaemenid throne by Darius I, the Parthians united with the Median king Phraortes to revolt against him. Hystaspes, the Achaemenid governor of the province, managed to suppress the revolt, the first indigenous Iranian mention of Parthia is in the Behistun inscription of Darius I, where Parthia is listed among the governorates in the vicinity of Drangiana. The inscription dates to c.520 BC, the center of the administration may have been at Hecatompylus. This has rightly caused disquiet to modern scholars, following the defeat of Darius III, Phrataphernes surrendered his governorate to Alexander when the Macedonian arrived there in the summer of 330 BC. Phrataphernes was reappointed governor by Alexander, following the death of Alexander, in the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC, Parthia became a Seleucid governorate under Nicanor. Phrataphernes, the governor, became governor of Hyrcania. In 320 BC, at the Partition of Triparadisus, Parthia was reassigned to Philip, a few years later, the province was invaded by Peithon, governor of Media Magna, who then attempted to make his brother Eudamus governor. Peithon and Eudamus were driven back, and Parthia remained a governorate in its own right, in 316 BC, Stasander, a vassal of Seleucus I Nicator and governor of Bactria was appointed governor of Parthia. For the next 60 years, various Seleucids would be appointed governors of the province. In 247 BC, following the death of Antiochus II, Ptolemy III seized control of the Seleucid capital at Antioch, taking advantage of the uncertain political situation, Andragoras, the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting his own coins. Meanwhile, a man called Arsaces, of Scythian or Bactrian origin, elected leader of the Parni, a short while later the Parni seized the rest of Parthia from Andragoras, killing him in the process. Arsaces II sued for peace and accepted vassal status, and it was not until Arsaces IIs grandson Phraates I, from their base in Parthia, the Arsacid dynasts eventually extended their dominion to include most of Greater Iran
4.
Phriapatius
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Phriapatius or Priapatius /ˌpraɪəˈpeɪʃəs/, sometimes called Phriapites /ˌfraɪˈæpᵻtiːz/, was the king of the Parthian Empire from 185 BC to 170 BC. He was the grandson of Tiridates I, the brother of Arsaces I and he ruled in the period following the invasion of Parthia by the Seleucid King Antiochus III. He was the father of three Parthian kings, Phraates I, who was his successor, Mithridates I, and Artabanus I
5.
Phraates II
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Phraates II, was king of the Parthian Empire from 132 BC to 126 BC. He is mostly known for his attempt to reconquer Babylon and he was the son of Mithridates I. Because he was very young when he came to the throne. In 130 BC the Parthian empire was attacked from the west, Antiochus VII Sidetes, ruler of the Seleucid Empire attacked in the west to reconquer territory lost earlier. After three battles he reclaimed Babylonia and Media, after this he offered a peace, by which he would regain Mesopotamia and large parts of Iran. The Parthian realm would be restricted to its territories and would pay a heavy tribute. Phraates II could not accept these demands, so he refused the offer. Thus when Phraates II attacked the Seleucid army in its winter quarters, Antiochus VII was defeated and killed or committed suicide, ending Seleucid rule east of the Euphrates. Phraates II succeeded in capturing Seleucus, the son of the king and he allowed Antiochus VII a royal funeral and returned the body to Syria in a silver coffin. Phraates II also had Demetrius II Nicator, who had held by the Parthians as a hostage for several years. Through this the Parthian king hoped to gain influence in Syria. Phraates II even married one of the daughters, whose name is not recorded. Syria, which was now the Seleucid rump state, lacked military power, but on the eastern front, the nomadic Saka and Tochari destroyed the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, penetrated to the borders of the realm in 129 BC, and threatened the Parthians kingdom. The king had to rush to the front, installing Himeros as governor of Babylon. Phraates II marched east, his army including a force of captured Seleucid soldiers from the army of the late Antiochus VII Sidetes. These ultimately refused to fight for the Parthian king, and he was defeated and killed in battle, traditionally, it is assumed that Phraates uncle, Artabanus I succeeded him as King. However, cuneiform and numismatic evidence suggests that his uncle, Bacasis. Phraates Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History 42.1
6.
Yuezhi
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After a major defeat by the Xiongnu, during the 2nd century BCE, the Yuezhi split into two groups, the Greater Yuezhi and Lesser Yuezhi. Following their defeat, the Greater Yuezhi initially migrated northwest into the Ili Valley and they were driven from the Ili Valley by the Wusun and migrated southward to Sogdia and later settled in Bactria, where they the defeated the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. The Greater Yuezhi have consequently often been identified with Bactrian peoples mentioned in classical European sources, like the Tókharioi, during the 1st century BCE, one of the five major Greater Yuezhi tribes in Bactria, the Kushanas, began to subsume the other tribes and neighbouring peoples. The subsequent Kushan Empire, at its peak in the 3rd century CE, the Kushanas played an important role in the development of trade on the Silk Road and the introduction of Buddhism to China. Most of the Lesser Yuezhi appear to have migrated southward into Tibet, however, some are reported to have settled among the Qiang people in Qinghai, and to have been involved in the Liangzhou Rebellion. Others are said to have founded the city state of Cumuḍa in the eastern Tarim, a fourth group of Lesser Yuezhi may have become part of the Jie people of Shanxi, who established the 4th Century CE Later Zhao state. The philosophical tract Guanzi is now believed to have been compiled around 26 BCE, based on older texts. In the Guanzi, nomadic pastoralists known as the Yúzhī 禺氏 or Niúzhī 牛氏 and they are described as supplying jade to the Chinese. The export of jade from the Tarim Basin, since at least the late 2nd Millennium BCE, is well-documented archaeologically, for example, hundreds of jade pieces found in the Tomb of Fu Hao originated from the Khotan area, on the southern rim of the Tarim Basin. According to the Guanzi, the Yúzhī/Niúzhī, unlike the neighbouring Xiongnu, in the early 4th Century BCE, the Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven also mentions the Yúzhī 禺知. The Yi Zhou Shu makes separate references to the Yúzhī 禺氏 and Yuèdī 月氐, trading the jade and horses for Chinese silk, the Wūzhī were then selling these goods to other neighbours. The earliest detailed account of the Yuezhi is found in chapter 123 of the Records of the Great Historian by Sima Qian, essentially the same text appears in chapter 61 of the Book of Han, though Sima Qian has added occasional words and phrases to clarify the meaning. Both texts use the Chinese name Yuezhi, written with the characters yuè moon and shì clan, some scholars have argued that Dunhuang should be Dunhong, a mountain in the Tian Shan, and have placed the original homeland of the Yuezhi 1,000 km further west. The Yuezhi were so powerful that the Xiongnu monarch Touman even sent his eldest son Modu as a hostage to the Yuezhi, the Yuezhi often attacked their neighbour the Wusun to acquire slaves and pasture lands. Wusun originally lived together with the Yuezhi in the region between Dunhuang and Qilian Mountain, the Yuezhi attacked the Wusuns, killed their monarch Nandoumi and took his territory. The son of Nandoumi, Kunmo fled to the Xiongnu and was brought up by the Xiongnu monarch, gradually the Xiongnu grew stronger and war broke out between them and the Yuezhi. There were at least four wars between the Yuezhi and Xiongnu according to the Chinese accounts, the first war broke out during the reign of the Xiongnu monarch Touman who suddenly attacked the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi wanted to kill Modu, the son of the Xiongnu king Touman kept as a hostage to them and he subsequently killed his father and became ruler of the Xiongnu
7.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
8.
Mithridates II of Parthia
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Mithridates II was king of Parthian Empire from 121 to 91 BC. He was already known as the Great in antiquity and he is the first Parthian ruler to call himself King of Kings on his coinage and thereby attach himself to the Achaemenids. He also referred to himself on his coinage with the Greek titles Epiphanes, Mithridates II is counted as the greatest of the Parthian kings, under whom the empire reached its greatest extent. Traditionally, it is believed that Mithridates II was the son of his predecessor Artabanus II, however, new cuneiform and numismatic evidence suggests that Mithridates II was the youngest son of Phriapatius and succeeded Artabanus young son, Arsaces X. At the time of his succession, the Parthian Empire was reeling from military pressures in the West and East, several embarrassing defeats at the hands of eastern nomads had sapped the strength and prestige of the kingdom. However, Mithridates proved himself to be a king and was soon able to reincorporate Babylonia into the kingdom. As a sign of victory he had the coinage of Hyspaosines overstruck, the whole of Mesopotamia was taken in a rush and he reached Dura-Europus in 113 BC. Mithridates II then attacked Armenia, then ruled by Artavasdes I and took hostage the Armenian kings son and this was the first time that the Parthians actively interfered in Armenian politics. In the east of the Empire, the situation seemed unsalvagable, invading nomads had destroyed the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and greatly threatened the eastern borders of the empire. However, Mithridates was able to fend off the attacking nomads and he was able to make Sistan, which had come under the direct control of the nomads, a vassal at the very least. In 121 BC the Chinese under Emperor Wu of Han had defeated the Xiongnu in the east and were expanding westwards in force, in Ferghana the Chinese sphere of influence encountered that of the Parthians. A Chinese delegation to the Parthian court is attested for the year 120 BC, in the following year the Silk Road was opened. The Armenian King Tigranes I died in 95 BC and Mithridates put the Armenian heir Tigranes II, soon after this Mithridates II attacked Adiabene, Gordyene and Osrhoene and conquered these city states, bringing the western border of the Parthian realm to the Euphrates. Here the Parthians encountered the Romans for the first time, in 96 BC Mithridates sent a certain Orobazos as an envoy to Sulla. Negotiation followed in which Sulla apparently gained the hand and Orobazos made himself. The actual result of the negotiations is not known, but it can be assumed that the border was set at the Euphrates, by the late 90s BC, Mithridates seems to have faced internal political issues. In 93/2 BC Mithridates nephew, Sinatruces, rebelled in Susiana and he proclaimed himself king and held the region until 88/87 BC, at which point Mithridates son, Gotarzes I, forced him to flee to the Central Asian steppe. Sinatruces later returned to the Parthian throne in 77/76 BC with the aid of Sakae mercenaries, Mithridates did not outlive the usurper and died in 91 BC
9.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
10.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
11.
Parthian Empire
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The Parthian Empire, also known as the Arsacid Empire, was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran and Iraq. Mithridates I of Parthia greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids, at its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now central-eastern Turkey, to eastern Iran. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han Empire of China, became a center of trade and commerce. The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, the court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along the Tigris. The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the Seleucids in the west, however, as Parthia expanded westward, they came into conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia, and eventually the late Roman Republic. Rome and Parthia competed with other to establish the kings of Armenia as their subordinate clients. The Parthians soundly defeated Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, however, Mark Antony led a counterattack against Parthia, although his successes were generally achieved in his absence, under the leadership of his lieutenant Ventidius. Also, various Roman emperors or their appointed generals invaded Mesopotamia in the course of the several Roman-Parthian Wars which ensued during the few centuries. The Romans captured the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon on multiple occasions during these conflicts, native Parthian sources, written in Parthian, Greek and other languages, are scarce when compared to Sassanid and even earlier Achaemenid sources. These include mainly Greek and Roman histories, but also Chinese histories, Parthian artwork is viewed by historians as a valid source for understanding aspects of society and culture that are otherwise absent in textual sources. The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language, in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia, the latter was a northeastern province, first under the Achaemenid, and then the Seleucid empires. Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain, Bivar concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to Andragoras, the appointed satrap who rebelled against them. Hence, Arsaces I backdated his regnal years to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased, however, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe. It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I, Bivar and Katouzian affirm that it was his brother Tiridates I of Parthia, who in turn was succeeded by his son Arsaces II of Parthia in 211 BC. Yet Curtis and Brosius state that Arsaces II was the successor of Arsaces I, with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC. Bivar insists that 138 BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is the first precisely established regnal date of Parthian history, due to these and other discrepancies, Bivar outlines two distinct royal chronologies accepted by historians
12.
Arsaces I of Parthia
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Arsaces I was the founder of the Arsacid dynasty of Parthia, and after whom all 30+ monarchs of the Arsacid empire officially named themselves. A celebrated descent from antiquity begins with Arsaces, Arsaces or Ashk has also given name to the city of Ashkabad. The dates of Arsaces birth and death are unknown, as is his real name, most scholars now believe that Arsaces was a chief of the Parni, a Dahae tribe who conquered Parthia shortly before Diodotus’ revolt. It should be noted, however, that there is no agreement among classical sources regarding his origins, in contrast, the circumstances of Arsaces ascent to power are relatively well known. Around 250 BC, Andragoras, the governor of the Seleucid province of Parthia, proclaimed his independence from the Seleucid monarchs, at about the same time, Arsaces was elected leader of the Parni, an eastern Iranian tribe. With the Parni, Arsaces seized Astauene, i. e. northern Parthia, Andragoras was killed during his attempts to recover it, which left the Parni in control over the rest of Parthia as well. A recovery expedition by the Seleucids under Seleucus II did not succeed, and Arsaces, the line of succession is unclear, since his successors adopted the name Arsaces as well, making it difficult to distinguish them from the founder of the dynasty. From legend and secondary accounts, it seems that—at least from 246 BC onwards—Arsaces brother Tiridates I either ruled in Arsaces name or co-ruled with him. Then, after 211 BC, when another Arsaces is seen on coinage, either the brother ruled as Arsaces II, other combinations, e. g. that Tiridates killed his brother, have also been suggested. Arsaces issued coins from silver drachmas to copper dikhakloi, all issues bear some similarity in style to the Seleucid pieces of the same time, although the headdress on the Parthian coinage is notably different. The commonest inscription is ΑΡΣΑΚΟΥ ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΟΡΟΣ, translating as Arsaces the Autocrat, however there are many variations on this
13.
Phraates I
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Phraates I of Parthia, ruler of the Parthian Empire from ca. He subdued the Amardians, mountaineers occupying eastern portion of the Elburz range and he died relatively young, and appointed as his successor not one of his sons, but his brother Mithridates I. The exact date of his ascension is the subject of some confusion and he may have succeeded his father Phriapatius on the throne. However, recent evidence from Nisa suggests that a great-grandson of Arsaces I reigned briefly after Priapatius death in 170, in this reconstruction, this previously unknown Arsaces IV reigned ca. 170-168 BC and was succeeded by Phraates I. The reduction of these fierce mountaineers is likely to have occupied him for years, since their country was exceedingly strong. Syria might scarcely have recovered sufficient military strength to enter upon a new struggle, especially with a remote, therefore, he allowed reduction of the Amardians, probably conceiving that their transfer under Arsacid dominance would neither increase Parthian power nor diminish his own. As Phraates faced no resistance from the Seleucids, when he conquered the Amardians and this was the tract lying immediately to the West of the Caspian Gates, which was traditionally reckoned to Media, forming a distinct district known as Media Rhagiana. It was naturally a very fertile region, being watered by mountain streams originating in Elburz range. Since remote antiquity its capital city was Rhages, situated near the extremity of the strip, probably at the spot now called Kaleh Erij. A full conquest is doubtful, but at a minimum he established lodgment in its eastern extremity, Parthian aggression was checked as long as Rhages remained in Seleucid possession, and Rhagiana along with rest of Media, and the other provinces were safe. While the loss of it to Parthia practically represented the loss of all Rhagiana, which hadnt any other natural protection. Holding this stronghold he imposed a menace to neighboring Rhages, which could scarcely endure against enemy encamped at its doors and we are not informed, however, of any results which followed on the occupation of Charax during the lifetime of Phraates. As his reign was a one, it is probable that he died before there was time for his second important conquest to have any further consequences. Phraates had sufficient warning of his decease to make preparations with respect to a successor. Though he had sons, some of whom were of sufficient age to have ascended the throne, he left his crown to his brother. We shall see, as the proceeds, how Mithridates justified his choice. It also appears that Phraates have borne special affection toward Mithridates and it must have been huge satisfaction to him that he was instantly able by his last act to consult for the good of his country, and to gratify his sentiment on which, evidently, he prided himself
14.
Mithridates I of Parthia
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Mithridates or Mithradates I, was king of the Parthian Empire from 165 BC to 132 BC, succeeding his brother Phraates I. His father was King Phriapatius of Parthia, who died ca.176 BC), Mithridates I made Parthia into a major political power by expanding the empire to the east, south, and west. During his reign the Parthians took Herat, Babylonia, Media and Persia, because of his many conquests and religious tolerance, he has been compared to other Iranian kings such Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Mithridates first expanded Parthias control eastward by defeating King Eucratides of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and this gave Parthia control over Bactrias territory west of the Arius river, the regions of Margiana and Aria. The satrapy Turiva and that of Aspionus were taken away from Eucratides by the Parthians and these victories gave Parthia control of the overland trade routes between east and west. After defeating the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in the east, Mithridates then focused on the Seleucid realm and he invaded Media and occupied Ecbatana in 148 or 147 BC, the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a rebellion there led by Timarchus. This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia, while Mithridates retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa. By this time, Parthian authority extended as far east as the Indus River, Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty. It became the site of the coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids. The Seleucids were unable to retaliate immediately as general Diodotus Tryphon led a rebellion at the capital, Antioch, however, by 140 BC Demetrius II Nicator was able to launch a counter-invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces, there Mithridates treated his captive with great hospitality, he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius. When the two friends were captured, the Parthian king did not punish Kallimander but rewarded him for his fidelity to Demetrius. The second time Demetrius was captured trying to escape, Mithridates humiliated him by giving him a golden set of dice. It was however for reasons that the Parthians treated Demetrius II kindly. He was held captive for ten years while Mithridates was consolidating his conquests, originally, it was thought that Mithridates was killed in battle near Seleucia, fighting the resurgent Seleucid forces under Antiochus VII Sidetes, brother of Demetrius II Nicator. However, recent evidence suggests that Mithridates became increasingly ill after 138 BC, Mithridates Is son, Phraates, succeeded him on his death as King, and would later avenge his father by invading Media and killing Antiochus VII Sidetes. The coins minted during his show the first appearance on Parthian coinage of a Greek-style portrait showing the royal diadem. Mithradates I resumed the striking of coins, which had been suspended ever since Arsaces II of Parthia had been forced to submit to the Seleucid Antiochus III in 206 BC
15.
Gotarzes I
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Gotarzes I was the ruler of parts of the Parthian Empire from ca.91 BC to 87 BC. He was the grandson of Phriapatius and came to power during the troubled times around the end of the reign of Mithridates II, numismatic evidence suggest that he began his reign in control of the northern and eastern lands of the Parthian Empire. He seems to have regained the lands from the usurper, Sanatruces, by 88/87 BC and forced him to flee to the Central Asian steppe. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Für Kunde des Morgenlands, xv,63
16.
Orodes I of Parthia
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Orodes I of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from c.85 to 80 BC in succession to Gotarzes I and Mithridates III. He reigned during the Parthian Darkage, which was a period of turmoil and civil war for the Parthian Empire. Coins bearing Orodes likeness were issued from the Median mints of the cities of Ecbatana, the history of Parthia is quite obscure during this period, but Orodes reign seems to have ended, as it had begun, in civil war with an unknown claimant. The name of his successor, Arsaces XVI, is unknown, and it is only with the beginning of the reign of Sanatruces, c.77 BC. Orodes is mentioned as king of kings of the Arsacid dynasty in a Babylonian report of the eclipse of 11 April 80 BC
17.
Sanatruces of Parthia
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King Sanatruces of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from c. 93/2 BC to 88/87 BC during his first reign and c.77 to 70 BC during his second reign and he was a member of the Arsacid house, who proclaimed himself king in Susiana and attempted to usurp the throne of Mithridates II. Ultimately, Gotarzes I forced him to flee to the Central Asian steppe, sinatroces, king of Parthia, was restored to his country in his eightieth year by the Sacauracian Scyths, assumed the throne and held it seven years. He died c.70 BC and was succeeded by his son Phraates III, another Sanatruces, the son of Mithridates IV is mentioned as an ephemeral Parthian king in 115 AD by John Malalas, in his Chronographia. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Lucian, Macrobii,15, Phlegon of Tralles, The Olympiads, preserved in Photius, Bibliotheca,97
18.
Phraates III
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Phraates III of Parthia succeeded his father Sanatruces and ruled the Parthian Empire from 70 to 57 BC. Naturally, Phraates declined to assist Mithradates VI of Pontus and Tigranes against the Romans, instead, he supported his son-in-law, the younger Tigranes, when he rebelled against his father, and invaded Armenia in 65 BC in alliance with Pompey, who abandoned Mesopotamia to the Parthians. About 57 BC Phraates was murdered by his two sons, Orodes II and Mithridates III, Phraates This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Phraates. Dio Cassius, Appian, Plutarch, Livy Media
19.
Mithridates III of Parthia
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Mithridates III of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire c. Mithridates was a son of Phraates III, whom he murdered in 57 BC, Orodes became king of Parthia and made Mithridates king of Media, a Parthian client state. On account of his cruelty, Orodes turned on his brother, Mithridates was forced to flee from Media to Roman Syria. He took refuge with Aulus Gabinius, the Roman proconsul and governor of Syria, Mithridates then returned to invade Parthia with Gabinius in support. The Roman proconsul marched with Mithridates to the Euphrates, but turned back to another ruler, Ptolemy XII Auletes of Egypt. Despite losing his Roman support, Mithridates advanced into Mesopotamia and managed to conquer Babylonia and he ousted Orodes and briefly restored his reign as king in 55 BC, minting coins in Seleucia until 54 BC. However, king Mithridates was besieged by Orodes general, Surena, in Seleucia, Mithridates was taken prisoner and executed in 54 BC by Orodes. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum, xlii Dio Cassius
20.
Orodes II of Parthia
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Orodes II of Parthia, was the king of the Parthian Empire from 57 BC to 37 BC. Orodes was a son of Phraates III, whom he murdered in 57 BC and he married a Greek Princess from the Kingdom of Commagene, called Laodice who was a daughter of King Antiochus I Theos of Commagene and Queen Isias Philostorgos of Commagene. Orodes brother Mithridates was made king of Media, but, soon afterwards, Mithridates was disposed by Orodes, Mithridates then returned to invade the Parthia, restoring his reign as king briefly in 55 BC. However, king Mithridates was besieged by Orodes general, Surena, in Seleucia on the Tigris, after a resistance, Mithridates was captured. Orodes himself had invaded Armenia and forced King Artavasdes, the son of Tigranes the Great to submit, the victory at Carrhae secured for the Parthians the countries east of the Euphrates. Then, the year they invaded Syria, but with little success, for Surena. Even coins with the portrait of Pacorus were briefly minted, however, Orodes II and his son reconciled to each other and coins with the portrait of Pacorus were stopped minting. The Parthian satrap who was behind the plot was probably shortly executed, in Judea, the Parthian commander Barzapharnes deposed king Hyrcanus II and appointed the latters nephew Antigonus as king in his place. In 39 BC, a Roman counterattack under Ventidius in Asia Minor defeated Labienus, Orodes son Pacorus was himself later killed by Ventidius in 38 BC. Orodes, who was afflicted by the death of his gallant son, appointed his son Phraates IV successor. Plutarch relates that Orodes understood Greek very well
21.
Pacorus I
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Pacorus I was a Parthian prince, who was the son of king Orodes II and queen Laodice. It is possible that Pacorus was co-ruler with his father for at least part of his fathers reign and his wife was an unnamed Armenian princess, who was one of the daughters of King Tigranes the Great of Armenia and his wife, Queen Cleopatra of Pontus. Pacorus is first mentioned in 51 BC, then probably about 12 years old, however, because of the young age of Pacorus, the Parthian operations were probably led by the Parthian commander Osakes. According to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, the Parthian army besieged Antioch, during this event, Osakes was killed during a Roman counter-attack under the Roman general Gaius Cassius Longinus, which made the Parthian troops under Pacorus retreat back to their homeland. Even coins with the portrait of Pacorus were briefly minted, however, Pacorus and his father reconciled to each other and coins with the portrait of Pacorus were stopped minting. The Parthian satrap who was behind the plot was probably shortly executed, in 42 BC, Quintus Labienus, a Roman rebel, began serving the Parthians. Later in 40 BC, the Parthians under Pacorus and Labienus invaded the Roman territories, the Parthian army crossed the Euphrates and attacked Apamea. The attack on Apamea failed but Labienus was able to entice the Roman garrisons around Syria to rally to his cause, the combined Romano-Parthian army then proceeded to defeat Mark Antonys governor L. Decidius Saxa in a pitched battle and took Apamea. After the Roman defeat at Apamea, the Parthians split their army, Pacorus turned south and conquered the Levant from the Phoenician coast through Palestine. Labienus turned north to follow Saxa, whom he defeated and killed in Cilicia, in Judea, Pacorus deputy Barzapharnes deposed king Hyrcanus II and appointed the latters nephew Antigonus as king in his place. In 39 BC, a Roman counterattack under Publius Ventidius Bassus in Asia Minor defeated Labienus, after the disastrous campaign in Asia minor, the Parthians launched another invasion into Syria in 38 BC, led by Pacorus. Ventidius, in order to time, leaked disinformation to Pacorus implying that he should cross the Euphrates River at their usual ford. Pacorus did not trust this information and decided to cross the river much farther downstream, when the Parthians got to the town, which sat on a small hill, they encountered Roman legions confidently formed in battle order on the slopes. The Parthians rushed to attack - whether this order came from Pacorus or was a charge is unknown. In any case, Ventidius ordered his troops, who had the advantage of high ground, the horse-archers were forced into close-quartered combat against the legionaries and suffered heavily for it, for they were unsuited for such combat. The Parthian cavalrys will eventually broke and panic spread, many of the horse archers being driven down the slope where they crashed into their fellows in their desperation to escape, the horse-archers eventually fled or fell. Parthian heavy cavalry, which was stationed at the bottom of the hill, was enveloped and surrounded by the legionaries, instead of immediately attacking with the legionaries, Ventidius made use of his slingers to rain down projectiles on the Parthian heavy cavalry, which included Pacorus himself. After the barrage was lifted the legionaries moved in and were able to identify Pacorus because of his standard
22.
Phraates IV
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Phraates IV of Parthia, ruled the Parthian Empire from 37–2 BC. He was appointed successor to the throne in 37 BC, after the death of his brother Pacorus I and he soon murdered his father and all his thirty brothers. Phraates was attacked in 36 BC by the Roman general Mark Antony, who marched through Armenia into Media Atropatene, and was defeated and lost the greater part of his army. Antony, believing himself betrayed by Artavasdes, king of Armenia, invaded his kingdom in 34 BC, took him prisoner, and concluded a treaty with another Artavasdes, king of Media Atropatene. But when the war with Octavian broke out, Antony could not maintain his conquests, Phraates recovered Media Atropatene and drove Artaxias, but by his many cruelties Phraates had roused the indignation of his subjects, who raised Tiridates II to the throne in 32 BC. Phraates was restored by the Scythians, and Tiridates fled into Syria, soon afterwards Phraates, whose greatest enemies were his own family, sent five of his sons as hostages to Augustus, thus acknowledging his dependence on Rome. This plan he adopted on the advice of an Italian woman, about 2 BC he was murdered by Musa and her son. Phraates This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum, xlii Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiquities,18. 39-52
23.
Musa of Parthia
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Musa was Queen of the Parthian Empire from c.2 BC to 4 AD. She is called as Thermusa by Josephus and is known as Thea Urania. She was a Roman concubine given by the Roman Emperor Augustus to King Phraates IV of Parthia, around the same time, Augustus recovered the eagle standards lost by Marcus Licinius Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Phraates IV made her his wife, her son Phraates V, commonly called Phraataces. She persuaded Phraates IV to send his sons to Rome as hostages. With all rivals out of the way, she and Phraataces poisoned the king and they appear together on their coins, and were apparently co-rulers. Josephus alleges that Musa then married Phraates V, and, this being unacceptable to the Parthians, they rose up and overthrew them and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, xviii, 2–4, royal Egyptian Genealogy, Ptolemaic Dynasty, Cleopatra Selene Emma Strugnell, Thea Musa, Roman Queen of Parthia. In, Iranica Antiqua 43,2008, S. 275–298
24.
Phraates V
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Phraates V, known by the diminutive Phraataces, ruled the Parthian Empire from 2 BC to AD4. He was the son of Phraates IV of Parthia and Musa of Parthia. Under Phraates V a war threatened to break out with Rome about the supremacy in Armenia and Media, soon afterwards Phraates V and his mother were slain by the Parthians, sometime around AD4. Josephus alleges that Phraates V married his mother Musa, and, josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, xviii,2. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
25.
Orodes III of Parthia
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Orodes III was raised to the throne of the Parthian Empire around AD4 by the magnates after the death of Phraates V. He was killed after a short reign on account of his extreme cruelty, after his death, Phraates Vs brother Vonones I tried to assume the throne, but a civil war with Artabanus III followed. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, xviii
26.
Vonones I
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Vonones I of Parthia ruled the Parthian Empire from about 8 to 12 AD. He was the eldest son of Phraates IV of Parthia and was sent to Rome as a hostage in the 20s BC as surety for a treaty his father made with Augustus. After the assassination of Orodes III in about 6 AD, the Parthians applied to Augustus for a new King from the house of Arsaces. Augustus sent them Vonones I, but he could not maintain himself as King, he had been educated as a Roman, another member of the Arsacid house, Artabanus III, who was living among the Dahan nomads in the east of Parthia, was invited to the throne. In a civil war he defeated and expelled Vonones I, the coins of Vonones I date from 8 to 12 AD and bear the inscription King Vonones, conqueror of Artabanus commemorating a temporary victory over his rival. Those of Artabanus II begin in the year 10, in about the year 12 Vonones I fled into Armenia and became King there. Artabanus II demanded his deposition, and as Augustus did not wish to begin a war with the Parthians he moved Vonones I into Syria, later he was moved to Cilicia, and when he tried to escape in about 19 AD, he was killed by his guards. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, xviii,2,4, tacitus, Annals, ii,4,58,68
27.
Artabanus III of Parthia
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Artabanus III of Parthia, flourished second half of 1st century BC – AD 38) was a Prince of Iranian and Greek ancestry. Artabanus III served as a King of Media Atropatene and later as King of Parthia, Artabanus III was a son born to an unnamed Arsacid Parthian Princess who was a relation to the King Vonones I of Parthia and her husband, the Median Atropatenian Prince, Darius. His known grandparents which were his paternal ones were the Monarchs Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene and his wife, Artabanus III had a younger brother who also served as King of Media Atropatene and Parthia, Vonones II. Artabanus III was the namesake of the previous ruling Parthian monarchs of this name, a daughter of Artabanus III was married to Mithridates, the Parthian general who attacked Asineus and Anileus and the Babylonian Jews on the Sabbath. Although Artabanus III was born and raised in the Parthian Empire, however this may refer to Artabanus III’s exile in a period when Rome dominated the Kingdoms of the Caucasus area. He served as King from 6 until 10 and little is known about his reign, in AD10, Artabanus III abdicated his throne of Media Atropatene to become King of Parthia. His kingship of Media Atropatene was succeeded by his brother Vonones II, Artabanus III ruled the Parthian Empire from around 10 to 38. He was raised to the throne by the Parthian grandees, who would not acknowledge Vonones I, the war between Vonones I and Artabanus III was long and doubtful. On a coin Vonones I, mentions victory over Artabanus III, at last Artabanus III defeated his rival completely and occupied the Parthian capital Ctesiphon. Vonones I fled to Armenia, where he was acknowledged as King, when Artabanus III invaded Armenia, Vonones I fled to Syria. The Roman emperor Tiberius thought it was prudent to support him no longer, Tiberius nephew and first heir Germanicus, whom he sent to the East, concluded a treaty with Artabanus III, in which he was recognized as King and friend of the Romans. Armenia was given in AD18 to Artaxias III, Artabanus III like all Parthian Princes was much troubled by the opposition of the grandees. He is said to have been very cruel in consequence of his education among the Dahae nomads, to strengthen his power he killed all the Arsacid princes whom he could reach. Rebellions of the subject nations may have occurred also, in AD35, he tried a new way to conquer Armenia and to establish his son Arsaces I as King there. A war with Rome seemed inevitable and that party among the Parthian magnates which was hostile to Artabanus III applied to Tiberius for a king of the race of Phraates IV. Tiberius sent Phraates IVs grandson, Tiridates III and ordered Lucius Vitellius the Elder to restore the Roman authority in the East, by very dexterous military and diplomatic operations Vitellius succeeded completely. Artabanus III was deserted by his followers and fled to the East, Tiridates III who was proclaimed King, could no longer maintain himself, because he appeared to be a vassal of the Romans. Artabanus III returned from Hyrcania with an army of Scythian auxiliaries and was again acknowledged by the Parthians
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Vardanes I
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Vardanes I of Parthia was a Prince of Iranian and Greek ancestry. He ruled the Parthian Empire as King from about 40 until 45 CE and he succeeded his father Artabanus III, but had to continually fight against his brother Gotarzes II, a rival claimant to the throne. His coins show that he was in possession of the throne from about 40 to 45. In 43, he forced the city of Seleucia to submit to the Parthians again after a rebellion of seven years. Ctesiphon, the residence of the kings on the bank of the Tigris, opposite to Seleucia, naturally profited by this war and he also prepared for a war against the Roman Empire, with the aim of reconquering Armenia, but ultimately decided against facing the Roman legions. In a new war with Gotarzes II, he gained a success against the eastern nomads. According to Tacitus, Vardanes I was expelled temporarily from the throne by Gotarzes II, once he resumed power, he led a victorious campaign against the Dahae army of Gotarzes II, as far as the Sindes River. Vardanes I is praised by Tacitus as a young and highly gifted ruler of great energy, in about 47 he was assassinated while hunting and Gotarzes II became King again. Vardanes I is mentioned in Life of Apollonius of Tyana as a benefactor to Apollonius of Tyana, but he said he would be very grateful, if he could give a welcome to Apollonius and send him on wherever he wished to go. And he had gold to the guide, so that in case he found Apollonius in want thereof, he might give it him. – Book II,17 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, xx,3,4 Tacitus, Annals, xi,9,10 Life of Apollonius Tyana, II,17 Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, xxiii,6,23 J. Vardanes
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Gotarzes II of Parthia
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Gotarzes II of Parthia was a Prince of Iranian ancestry. He ruled the Parthian Empire as King intermittently between about 40 to 51 and he was one of the sons of Artabanus III. When his father died in 38 and his brother Vardanes I succeeded to the throne, little is known on the early life of Gotarzes II, prior to becoming King of Parthia. Although Gotarzes II was a son of Artabanus III, it is unknown if he was a biological or adoptive son of his. Josephus calls Gotarzes II as a brother of Vologases I, Tacitus does not explicitly describe Gotarzes II as a son of Artabanus III. However he considers him as a Parthian Usurper who was responsible for the murder of his brother, Artabanus, the Roman sources are obscure on his background however surviving evidence reveals a lot more about the origins of Gotarzes II. An inscription on a relief that was discovered by Rawlinson Sarpul-I-Zohab on a main road in Iranian Kurdistan, introduces him as Gotarzes. When Gotarzes II served as Parthian King, he called himself as a son of Artabanus III, as known from a surviving coin calling him, Arsaces, king of kings, called Gotarzes, son of Artabanos. Gotarzes II made himself detested by his cruelty, among other murders he even slew his brother Artabanus. When Vardanes I regained the throne, Gotarzes II fled to Hyrcania, the war between the two kings was at last ended by a treaty, as both were afraid of the conspiracies of their nobles. Gotarzes II returned to Hyrcania and when Vardanes I was killed in about 47, Gotarzes II then added to his coins the usual Parthian titles, king of kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious, the friend of the Hellenes, without mentioning his proper name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury induced the hostile party to apply to the Roman emperor Claudius to fetch from Rome an Arsacid prince Meherdates, Meherdates crossed the Euphrates in 49, but was beaten and taken prisoner by Gotarzes II, who cut off his ears. Soon afterwards Gotarzes II died, according to Tacitus of an illness and his last coin is dated from June 51. Gotarzes II was succeeded briefly by his uncle Vonones II and then by his cousin Vologases I, Gortazes II is unfavorably portrayed in Robert Graves novel Claudius the God. Gortazes is presented as a cruel tyrant, the gravest of insults lobbied by Claudius against Gortazes is that he was idolized by Caligula, and was a close advisor of the mad Roman Emperor. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, xx, 3-4 Tacitus, Annals, xi,8,9, xii,10 This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. A. Verstandig, History of the Parthian Empire, The Scream History Edition,2001 Ptolemaic Genealogy, Tryphaena
30.
Vonones II
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Vonones II of Parthia was a Parthian prince who served as a King of Media Atropatene and briefly as King of the Parthian Empire. Vonones II was the second son of an unnamed Arsacid Parthian Princess who was a relation to the King Vonones I of Parthia and her husband. His known grandparents which were his paternal ones were the Monarchs Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene and his wife, Vonones II had an elder brother the Parthian King Artabanus III. Vonones II was the namesake of his maternal relative Vonones I, as he was born, prior to his Parthian Kingship from about 11 until 51, Vonones II served as a King of Media Atropatene. Little is known on his reign as King of Media Atropatene, after the death of his nephew Gotarzes II, Vonones II was raised to the Parthian Kingship in 51. The Kingship of Vonones II was brief, after a few months of him being appointed as King of Parthia, Vonones II died and was succeeded by his son, Vologases I. Tacitus described Vonones II as “he knew neither success nor failure which have deserved to be remembered to him and it was a short and inglorious reign”. From a Greek concubine, Vonones II had 5 sons who held the thrones of Parthia and Armenia who were Pacorus II, Vologases I, Osroes I, Tiridates I and his sons were born and raised during his Kingship of Media Atropatene. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, xx,3,4, tacitus, Annals This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
31.
Vologases I of Parthia
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Vologases I of Parthia sometimes called Vologaeses or Vologeses or following Parthian usage, Walagash was king of the Parthian Empire from about 51 until his death in 78. Vologases I was a Prince of Iranian and Greek ancestry and he was one of the sons born to Vonones II from a Greek concubine, he succeeded his father in 51. When he ascended the Parthian throne, he appointed his brother Pacorus II as king of Atropatene, in 52, Vologases I invaded Armenia, conquering Artaxata and proclaiming his younger brother Tiridates I as king. This action violated the treaty that had signed by the Roman emperor Augustus and Parthian king Phraates IV which gave the Romans the explicit right to appoint. Vologases I considered the throne of Armenia to have once the property of his ancestors. Rhadamistus escaped along with his wife Zenobia who was pregnant, unable to continue fleeing, she asked her husband to end her life rather than be captured. Rhadamistus stabbed her with a Median dagger and flung her body into the river Araxes, Zenobia was not fatally injured and was recovered by shepherds who sent her to Tiridates. Tiridates I received her kindly and treated her as a member of the monarchy, rhadamistus himself returned to Iberia and was soon put to death by his father Parasmanes I of Iberia for having plotted against the royal power. Unhappy with the growing Parthian influence at their doorstep, Roman Emperor Nero sent General Corbulo with an army to the east in order to restore Roman client kings. A Hasmonean named Aristobulus was given Lesser Armenia and Sohaemus of Emesa received Armenia Sophene, supported by his brother, Tiridates I sent flying columns to raid the Romans far and wide. Corbulo retaliated using the tactics and the use of the Moschoi tribes who raided outlying regions of Armenia. Tiridates I fled from the capital, and Corbulo burned Artaxata to the ground, by this time the majority of Armenians had abandoned resistance and accepted the prince favored by Rome. Nero gave the crown to the last royal descendant of the Kings of Cappadocia, the grandson of Glaphyra and Alexander of Judea and his son, named Gaius Julius Alexander, married Iotapa, the daughter of Antiochus IV of Commagene and was made King of Cilicia. Nero was hailed vigorously in public for this victory and Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward. A guard of 1000 legionary soldiers, three auxiliary cohorts and two wings of horses were allotted to Tigranes in order to defend the country, border districts were bestowed to Roman allies that assisted Corbulo including Polemon, Parasmanes, Aristobolus and Antiochus. Vologases I was infuriated by the fact that an alien now sat on the Armenian throne, Tigranes invaded the Kingdom of Adiabene and deposed its King Monobazes in 61, who was a vassal of Parthians. Vologases I considered this an act of aggression from Rome and started a campaign to restore Tiridates I to the Armenian throne and he placed under the command of spahbed Moneses a well-disciplined force of cataphracts along with Adiabenian auxiliaries and ordered him to expel Tigranes from Armenia. Having quelled the Hyrcanian revolt, Vologases I gathered the strength of his dominions and he also dispatched a message to Nero, urging him to send a second commander with the explicit purpose of defending Armenia as Syria was now also in peril
32.
Vardanes II
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Vardanes II of Parthia was the son of Vologases I and briefly ruler of part of the Parthian Empire. Nothing more about him is known and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Vardanes
33.
Pacorus II
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Pacorus II was king of the Parthian Empire from 78 to 105. Pacorus II was the son of Vonones II and a Greek concubine, thus making him of mixed Iranian, Pacorus II was born and raised during his father’s kingship of Atropatene. Pacorus II was the namesake of his relative, a previous ruling Parthian King Pacorus I, when Pacorus IIs father died in 51, his brother Vologases I succeeded his father as Parthian King. Vologases I had given Pacorus II their paternal dominion the Kingdom of Atropatene to rule as King. He ruled as King of Atropatene from 51 until 78 and little is known on his reign, except that a group of Alans in 72 invaded his kingdom and forced him to flee into the mountains. The Alans, after having gained a lot of booty by plundering Atropatene and neighboring countries such as Armenia, after the death of Vologases I, Pacorus II revolted against his nephew Vologases II who was his father’s successor. After Pacorus II defeated Vologases II, he had him deposed and he also had close contact with the Dacian ruler Decebalus, and was in 86 even given a Greek slave named Callidromus as a gift by Decebalus. In 101, Pacorus II sent an embassy to the Han Dynasty of China, on his numerous coins he always calls himself Arsaces Pacorus. This mention of his name, together with the royal name Arsaces. Three of them we know from coins, in addition to Vologases II, they included Artabanus IV, 80–90 and Vologases III, from about 105. Pacorus II died about 105, he was succeeded by his brother Osroes I, by an unknown wife Pacorus II had three sons, Axidares, Parthamasiris who served as Kings of Armenia and Meredates who served as King of Characene in the mid second century. The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids, Continuation of conflict with Rome over Armenia. In William Bayne Fisher, Ilya Gershevitch, Ehsan Yarshater, R. N. Frye, J. A. Boyle, Peter Jackson, Laurence Lockhart, Peter Avery, Gavin Hambly, a Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, xxiii,6,23 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Pacorus
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Vologases III of Parthia
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Vologases III was a Parthian Prince who claimed the throne of the Parthian Empire about 105, in the last days of Pacorus II of Parthia and reigned over the eastern portion of the kingdom to 147. Vologases III was the son of Vologases II of Parthia, during his Parthian rule, he was also the Roman Client King of Armenia from 117/8 until 144 and from his Armenian Kingship is known as Vologases I or Vagharsh I. Preoccupied by conflicts with the Romans, particularly the invasion by Roman emperor Trajan, after Vologases IIIs death, the Parthian realm was finally reunited by Vologases IV of Parthia, the son of his rival Mithridates IV. In 144, Vologases IIIs Armenian kingship was given to Sohaemus for unknown reasons, Vologases III was the father of princess Ghadana, who later married Pharasmanes II of Iberia and became Queen of Caucasian Iberia. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Osroes I
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Osroes I was a prince of Iranian and Greek ancestry. He ruled the Parthian Empire from 109 to 129, with an interruption from 116 to 117. He succeeded his brother Pacorus II, for the whole of his reign he contended with the rival King Vologases III based in the East of Parthia. Osroes I was one of the born to Vonones II by a Greek concubine. He invaded Armenia and placed first his nephew Axidares and then his brother Parthamasiris on the Armenian throne, in 113 Trajan invaded Parthia, marching first on Armenia. In 114 Parthamasiris surrendered and was killed, Trajan annexed Armenia to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into Parthia itself, taking the cities of Babylon, Seleucia and he deposed Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler, the son of Osroes I, Parthamaspates on the throne. Later in 116, he crossed the Khuzestan Mountains into Persia, following the death of Trajan and Roman withdrawal from the area, Osroes I easily defeated Parthamaspates and reclaimed the Persian throne. Hadrian acknowledged this fait accompli, recognized Osroes I, Parthamaspates King of Osroene and it seems that the conflict with Rome had weakened Osroes I and strengthened his rival Vologases III—from about 121 there are few coins of the former and many of the latter. Osroes I was succeeded by his brother Mithridates IV, who continued the struggle against Vologases III, aelius Spartianus, Vita Hadrian, v,13. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Parthamaspates of Parthia
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Parthamaspates, was the Roman client king of the Parthian Empire and later of Osroene. He was the son of the Parthian emperor Osroes I, after spending much of his life in Roman exile, he accompanied the Roman Emperor Trajan on the latters campaign to conquer Parthia. Trajan originally planned to annex Parthia as part of the Roman Empire, following Roman withdrawal from the area, Osroes easily defeated Parthamaspates and reclaimed the Parthian throne. After his defeat in Parthia, Parthamaspates again fled to the Romans who then, as a consolation, granted him the co-rule of Osroene and he was king of Osroene together with Yalur from 118 to 122, and afterwards sole ruler to 123. Clément Huart & Louis Delaporte, LIran antique, Élam et Perse et la civilisation iranienne, Albin Michel, « LÉvolution de lHumanité », Paris,1943, p.327
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Sanatruces II of Parthia
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Sanatruces II of Parthia, the son of Mithridates IV, was a pretender to the throne of the Parthian Empire during the disputed reign of his uncle Osroes I. Trajan then marched southward to the Persian Gulf, defeated them, after the Romans withdrew, Osroes drove out Parthamaspates and reclaimed the Parthian throne. Mithridates IV eventually succeeded Osroes about 129 and reigned to about 140, Sanatruces, whom he had appointed his successor, predeceased him, also falling in a battle with the Romans. Thus the pairs earlier reign during the campaign of 116 proved Sanatruces sole taste of kingship. His fathers longtime rival Vologases III took over Mithridates realm, but another son of Mithridates, Vologases IV, aelius Spartianus, Vita Hadrian, v,13
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Mithridates IV of Parthia
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Mithridates IV of Parthia was a Prince of Iranian and Greek ancestry. He ruled as King of the Parthian Empire from 129 to 140, mithridates IV was the youngest son born to Vonones II from a Greek concubine and was one of the brothers of Osroes I of Parthia. During the invasion of Mesopotamia by the Roman emperor Trajan in 116, he and his son Sanatruces II of Parthia, after the death of Osroes I in 129 he assumed the throne and continued the struggle with the rival King Vologases III of Parthia. He died in an attack on Commagene in 140, mithridates IV had appointed his son Sanatruces II as his successor, but Sanatruces II fell in a battle with the Romans. Another son, Vologases IV of Parthia, took the throne after the death of Vologases III in 147 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
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Vologases IV
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Vologases IV of Parthia was the ruler of the Parthian Empire from 147 to 191. He was the son of Mithridates IV of Parthia, Vologases, during his early reign, united the two halves of the empire which had been split between his father and Vologases III of Parthia. He also reconquered the kingdom of Characene which seems to have been independent since the Roman invasion of the Parthian empire under Trajan, Vologases IV may be the king Volgash of the Zoroastrian tradition, who began the gathering of the writings of Zoroaster. Conflicts with Rome began in about 155 with a dispute, as usual, in 162–166 the Parthians attacked the Roman Empire under Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. In this war the city of Seleucia on the Tigris was destroyed, the Roman legions advanced as far as Media. Vologases IV made peace but was forced to cede western Mesopotamia to the Romans, the end of his reign was marred by the revolt of Osroes II of Parthia, who appears to have set himself up in Media as a rival King in hope of succeeding Vologases IV. In the event the son of Vologases IV, Vologases V of the Arsacid cadet branch dynasty, ruling Armenia, won the succession and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Augustan History, Marcus Aurelius,8, Verus,8
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Osroes II
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Osroes II of Parthia, was a claimant of the throne of the Parthian Empire c. He is unknown to history except for the coins he issued, the date of his reign suggests that he rebelled against Vologases IV but was unable to maintain himself against Vologases V. His coins were issued by the mint at Ecbatana, suggesting that he controlled Media
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Vologases V
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Vologases V of Parthia, known in Armenian sources as Vologases II, was king of Arsacid Armenia from to 180 to 191, and king of the Parthian Empire from 191 to 208. He was the son of Vologases IV, during his early life, he became the ruler of Armenia, succeeding Sohaemus. During his rule in Armenia, he managed in 189 to impose his son Rev I on the Iberian throne, Vologases, after the death of his father, ascended the Parthian throne, and appointed his son Khosrov I as the ruler of Armenia. Vologases V was attacked by the Roman emperor Septimius Severus in 195, Severus advanced into Mesopotamia, occupied Nisibis and plundered the Parthian capital Ctesiphon in 199, capturing many Parthians and selling them into slavery. He attempted in vain to conquer the Arabic fortress at Hatra, in 202, peace was restored with the Roman Empire in effective control the whole of Mesopotamia. Vologases V later died in 208, and was succeeded by his elder son Vologases VI, but a younger son Artabanus V rebelled, continuité des élites à Byzance durant les siècles obscurs. Les princes caucasiens et lEmpire du VIe au IXe siècle |Continuité des élites à Byzance durant les siècles obscurs, les princes caucasiens et lEmpire du VIe au IXe siècle,2006. Les dynasties de la Caucasie chrétienne de l’Antiquité jusqu’au XIXe siècle, Tables généalogiques et chronologiques, the Third-Century Armenian Arsacids, A chronological and Genealogical Commentary, Revue des Études Arméniennes #6 pages 233-281. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
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Vologases VI
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Vologases VI of Parthia succeeded his father Vologases V of Parthia to the throne of the Parthian Empire in 208. When Vologases VI ascended the Parthian throne, his brother Artabanus V, who claimed the throne for himself, rebelled against him, Vologases apparently soon lost control over the largest part of the Empire, and only managed to retain Babylonia. Meanwhile, Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian Empire, had defeated and killed Artabanus V in 224, over the next few years, Ardashir I further expanded his new empire, and must have driven out or defeated Vologases VI soon after 228. Vologases VI had a son named Vachagan I, who during a date was the ruler of Caucasian Albania. A. D. H. Bivar, The political History of Iran under the Arsacids, in, Ehsan Yarshater, The Cambridge History of Iran. Thames and Hudson, London 1967, p.53,171,173 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Artabanus s.v. Artabanus I. (sic)". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 660.