1.
Secretary of State for the Colonies
–
The Secretary of State for the Colonies or Colonial Secretary was the British Cabinet minister in charge of managing the United Kingdoms various colonial dependencies. The position was first created in 1768 to deal with the increasingly troublesome North American colonies, joint responsibility continued under the Secretary of State for the Colonies, but led to a diminution of the boards status and it became an adjunct to the new Secretarys Department. Following this, colonial duties given to the Home Secretary, then Lord Sydney, following the Treaty of Paris 1783, a new board, named the Committee of Council on Trade and Plantations was established under William Pitt the Younger, by an Order in Council in 1784. In the latter part of the century the United Kingdom also gained control over a number of territories with the status of protectorate. The ministerial responsibility for these territories was initially held by the Foreign Secretary, however, by the early years of the twentieth century the responsibility for each of these territories had been transferred to the Colonial Secretary as well. The League of Nations mandated territories acquired as a result of the Treaty of Versailles became a responsibility of the Colonial Office in the aftermath of the First World War. In 1925 part of the Colonial Office was separated out as the Dominions Office, the new office was responsible for dealing with the Dominions together with a small number of other territories. In the twenty years following the end of the Second World War, in 1968 the Commonwealth Office was subsumed into the Foreign Office, which was renamed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The Colonial Secretary never had responsibility for the provinces and princely states of India, from 1768 until 1966 the Secretary of State was supported by an Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, and latterly by a Minister of State
2.
George Henry Hall, 1st Viscount Hall
–
George Henry Hall, 1st Viscount Hall PC was a British Labour politician. He served as Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1945 and 1946 and as First Lord of the Admiralty between 1946 and 1951, born in Penrhiwceiber, Glamorganshire, Hall started work at the Penrikyber colliery at 12 years of age. He continued to work as a collier until appointed checkweigher in 1911, Hall was elected Member of Parliament for Aberdare in 1922 when he won the seat for Labour, defeating Charles Stanton who had held the seat since a 1915 by-election. Stanton had been a militant trade unionist before the war and had won the seat as a pro-war candidate, Lord Hall died in Leicester in November 1965, aged 83, and was succeeded by his son, William. Leigh Rayments Peerage Pages Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by George Hall
3.
Jim Griffiths
–
James Griffiths CH PC was a Welsh Labour politician, trade union leader and the first ever Secretary of State for Wales. He was born in the strongly Welsh-speaking village of Betws, near Ammanford in Carmarthenshire, the youngest of ten children his father was the local blacksmith. His brother was a notable Welsh poet who took the name of Amanwy after his native valley. Educated at Betws Board School, he left at the age of 13 to work at Ammanford No.1 colliery, Griffiths was a pacifist and while campaigning against the Great War met Winifred Rutley, whom he married in 1918. He continued his education by attending school and became an active socialist. He helped establish a branch of the Independent Labour Party in Ammanford in 1908 and he went on to occupy the powerful post of secretary of the newly formed Ammanford Trades Council between 1916–1919. In 1936, he was elected Labour Member of Parliament for the seat of Llanelli. Three years later he continued his rise through the Labour movement by getting elected to Labours National Executive Committee in 1939, following Labours victory at the 1945 general election, he was made a Privy Counsellor and Minister for National Insurance by Prime Minister Clement Attlee. In this role he was responsible for creating the modern state benefit system and he introduced the Family Allowances Act 1945, a new Industrial Injuries Act, and the National Insurance Act 1948. Along with Aneurin Bevan he was one of the architects of the Welfare State. He became Chairman of the Labour Party between 1948–1949, and in 1950 he became Secretary of State for the Colonies, within two years however the Labour Party was out of office. During the long period in opposition he was deputy leader of the Labour Party, 1955–1959 and he used his relationship with Hugh Gaitskell to commit the Labour Party to a measure of devolution. This was said to sum up the mood of many at the time and he established the Welsh Office and laid the foundations for the role until the 1966 general election when he returned to the backbenches. He was appointed a Companion of Honour, though by now suffering from ill-health he avoided standing down because he feared Labour would lose a by-election in Llanelli. He remained in Parliament until 1970 and was succeeded by Denzil Davies and he published his autobiography, Pages From Memory, the same year. He died in Teddington, Greater London, aged 84, leaving two sons and two daughters and he is buried at the Christian Temple chapel in Ammanford. In a memorial address Jim Callaghan described him as one of the greatest sons of Wales and we honour the memory of Jim Griffiths of Ammanford. I mention his birth place because, despite all his honours and journeyings, it was the place of his birth, deep in the heart of Wales, that essentially shaped his life and actions
4.
Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire
–
Edward William Spencer Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire, KG MBE TD, known as Marquess of Hartington from 1908 to 1938, was a British politician. He was the head of the Devonshire branch of the House of Cavendish and he had careers with the army and in politics and was a senior Freemason. His sudden death, apparently of an attack at the age of fifty-five. He was born in the Parish of St George in the East, Stepney, London, the son of Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire and he was educated at Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge. He was, after his fathers death, the owner of Chatsworth House, the then Marquess of Hartington began service with the Territorial Army as a second lieutenant in the Derbyshire Yeomanry in 1913. Mobilised at the outbreak of the First World War, he was an aide-de-camp on the Personal Staff at the British Expeditionary Forces General Headquarters, in 1916, when promoted captain, he rejoined his regiment, in Egypt, and served in the latter stages of the Dardanelles campaign. He then returned to France, became attached to Military Intelligence, then to the War Office and the British Military Mission in Paris, in 1919 he served on the British peace delegation that attended the signing of the Treaty of Versailles and was awarded the MBE. He also became a knight of the French Legion of Honour and he continued serving after the war with his regiment, which became 24 Armoured Car Company of the Royal Tank Regiment in 1923. He was promoted major in 1932, and became lieutenant colonel in command in 1935 and he was awarded the Territorial Decoration. He was also Honorary Colonel of the 6th Battalion of the Sherwood Foresters from 1917 to 1937, and of its successor and he was subsequently a minister in Winston Churchills wartime government as a Parliamentary Under Secretary of State, for India and Burma and for the Colonies. He also served in Derbyshire local government and he was appointed a JP for the county in 1917, and a Deputy Lieutenant in 1936, ultimately becoming the countys Lord Lieutenant from 1938 until his death. He also served as Mayor of Buxton in 1920-21 and he was Chairman of the Overseas Settlement Board in 1936 and was High Steward of the University of Cambridge and Chancellor of the University of Leeds from 1938 until 1950. He also had company directorships with The Alliance Insurance Company of Britain and he served as President of the Zoological Society of London in 1948. He was a freemason and was Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England from 1947 to 1950, the Dukes sister Lady Dorothy was married to Prime Minister Harold Macmillan. The Dukes younger brother Lord Charles Cavendish was married to dancer Adele Astaire, in 1917 he married Lady Mary Gascoyne-Cecil, granddaughter of Prime Minister Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury. They had five children, William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington, married to Kathleen Kennedy, sister of John F. Kennedy. Andrew Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire, later Marquess of Hartington, married to Michael Lambert Tree On 26 November 1950, he suffered a heart attack and died in Eastbourne in the presence of his general practitioner, Dr John Bodkin Adams, the suspected serial killer. Despite the fact that the duke had not seen a doctor in the 14 days before his death, Adams signed the death certificate stating that the Duke died of natural causes
5.
Shipley (UK Parliament constituency)
–
Shipley is a constituency represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since 2005 by Philip Davies, a Conservative. 1885-1918, The Municipal Borough of Bradford, and the parishes of Clayton, Eccleshill, Idle, North Brierley. 1918-1950, The Urban Districts of Baildon, Bingley, Guiseley, Shipley, and Yeadon, and in the Rural District of Wharfedale the civil parishes of Esholt, Hawksworth, 1950-1983, The Urban Districts of Baildon, Bingley, and Shipley. 1983-2010, The City of Bradford wards of Baildon, Bingley, Bingley Rural, Rombalds, Shipley East, 2010-present, The City of Bradford wards of Baildon, Bingley, Bingley Rural, Shipley, Wharfedale, and Windhill and Wrose. This seat was created in the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, until 1923 the seat was almost exclusively represented by elected Liberals and Arthur Creech Jones was Secretary of State for the Colonies during most of the Attlee Ministry. Shipley was for a time the seat of ex-Chairman of the Conservative 1922 Committee. He held the seat for almost 30 years between the 1970 and 1997 general elections, at the 1997 general election, the young Labour candidate Chris Leslie won the seat from Fox, becoming the youngest MP of that parliament. He held the seat at the 2001 election and went on to become a junior minister
6.
Wakefield (UK Parliament constituency)
–
Wakefield is a constituency represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since 2005 by Mary Creagh, a member of the Labour Party. 1918–1950, The County Borough of Wakefield, 1950–1983, The County Borough of Wakefield, the Urban District of Horbury, and part of the Rural District of Wakefield. 1983–1997, The City of Wakefield wards of Horbury, Wakefield Central, Wakefield East, Wakefield North, Wakefield Rural, and Wakefield South. 1997–2010, The City of Wakefield wards of Wakefield Central, Wakefield East, Wakefield North, and Wakefield Rural, 2010–present, The City of Wakefield wards of Horbury and South Ossett, Ossett, Wakefield East, Wakefield North, Wakefield Rural, and Wakefield West. Electors of the area, since five years before the Model Parliament of 1295 until 1826 had entitlement to vote for the two representatives for Yorkshire, the largest county in the country. Parliament legislated for, from an unusual disfranchisement in 1826 of a Cornish rotten borough, from April 1784 until September 1812, one of the two members elected was William Wilberforce, internationally recognised as a leading figure in abolitionism. Wakefield became a county division under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, drawing in, as an extension, in all general elections since 1923 the runner-up candidate has been a Conservative. Prominent frontbenchers Rt Hon Arthur Greenwood was succeeded by Clement Attlee as leader of the Opposition in 1945 and he had been from 1929–1931 the Minister of State for Health under the Second MacDonald ministry. When the wartime coalition government was formed, Winston Churchill appointed him to the British War Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio in 1940, without the vote in favour of fighting on by Greenwood and Clement Attlee, Churchill would not have had the slim majority he needed to do so. The Labour Party nominated him to the Colonial Offices Educational Advisory Committee in 1936, in 1937, he was a founding member of the Trades Union Congress Colonial Affairs Committee, and in 1940 he founded the Fabian Colonial Bureau. Mary Creagh, since October 2010 has been the Shadow Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Wakefield Europort employs approximately 3,000 people, a major rail-motorway hub for Northern England imports and exports with other EU countries. Horbury and Ossett and towns in the low foothills of the Pennines, in the far west of the constituency, there is the National Coal Mining Museum for England, on the site of the old Caphouse Colliery. Endorsed by Coalition Government General Election 1914/15, Another General Election was required to place before the end of 1915. List of Parliamentary constituencies in West Yorkshire Notes References
7.
Arthur Greenwood
–
Arthur Greenwood, CH, PC was a British politician. In 1940, he was instrumental in resolving that Britain would continue fighting Nazi Germany in World War II and he was also noted for problems with alcoholism. Greenwood was born in Hunslet, Leeds, the son of a painter and he was educated at the Yorkshire College, where he took a B. Sc. Greenwood was first elected to the House of Commons at the 1922 general election for the constituency of Nelson and he held the seat until being defeated at the 1931 election, but returned to Parliament the following year, winning a by-election in the Yorkshire constituency of Wakefield. Greenwood continued to represent Wakefield until his death in 1954, in 1929, Greenwood was appointed Minister of Health and sworn into the Privy Council, a position he held until the collapse of the Labour government in August 1931. During his time at the Ministry of Health, Greenwood raised widows pensions, Greenwood became Deputy Leader of the Labour Party under Clement Attlee. Undoubtedly his most famous moment came on 2 September 1939 when, acting for an absent Attlee, preparing to respond, he was interrupted by an angry Conservative backbencher, Leo Amery, who exclaimed Speak for England, Arthur. A flustered Greenwood proceeded to denounce Chamberlains remarks, to the applause of his colleagues, when the wartime coalition government was formed, Winston Churchill appointed him to the War Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio in 1940. Without the vote in favour of fighting on by Greenwood and Clement Attlee, after that his position declined and he resigned in 1943. The same year, he was elected as Treasurer of the Labour Party, until the end of World War II, Greenwood also performed the function of Leader of the Opposition, though he did not receive the salary. During the Attlee government, he served successively as Lord Privy Seal and Paymaster-General, Greenwood was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 14 June 1954. His ashes and memorial lie in Bay 17 of the East Boundary Wall, greenwoods son Anthony Greenwood was an MP from 1946 until 1970, first for Heywood and Radcliffe and later for Rossendale, and a member of Harold Wilsons governments. Works by Arthur Greenwood at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Arthur Greenwood at Internet Archive Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Arthur Greenwood
8.
Labour Party (UK)
–
The Labour Party is a centre-left political party in the United Kingdom. Labour later served in the coalition from 1940 to 1945. Labour was also in government from 1964 to 1970 under Harold Wilson and from 1974 to 1979, first under Wilson and then James Callaghan. The Labour Party was last in government from 1997 to 2010 under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, beginning with a majority of 179. Having won 232 seats in the 2015 general election, the party is the Official Opposition in the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the party also organises in Northern Ireland, but does not contest elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Labour Party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance. In September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party, the first Lib–Lab candidate to stand was George Odger in the Southwark by-election of 1870. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time, among these were the Independent Labour Party, the intellectual and largely middle-class Fabian Society, the Marxist Social Democratic Federation and the Scottish Labour Party. In the 1895 general election, the Independent Labour Party put up 28 candidates, Keir Hardie, the leader of the party, believed that to obtain success in parliamentary elections, it would be necessary to join with other left-wing groups. Hardies roots as a lay preacher contributed to an ethos in the party led to the comment by 1950s General Secretary Morgan Phillips that Socialism in Britain owed more to Methodism than Marx. The motion was passed at all stages by the TUC, the meeting was attended by a broad spectrum of working-class and left-wing organisations—trades unions represented about one third of the membership of the TUC delegates. This created an association called the Labour Representation Committee, meant to coordinate attempts to support MPs sponsored by trade unions and it had no single leader, and in the absence of one, the Independent Labour Party nominee Ramsay MacDonald was elected as Secretary. He had the task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October 1900 Khaki election came too soon for the new party to campaign effectively, only 15 candidatures were sponsored, but two were successful, Keir Hardie in Merthyr Tydfil and Richard Bell in Derby. Support for the LRC was boosted by the 1901 Taff Vale Case, the judgement effectively made strikes illegal since employers could recoup the cost of lost business from the unions. In their first meeting after the election the groups Members of Parliament decided to adopt the name The Labour Party formally, the Fabian Society provided much of the intellectual stimulus for the party. One of the first acts of the new Liberal Government was to reverse the Taff Vale judgement, the Peoples History Museum in Manchester holds the minutes of the first Labour Party meeting in 1906 and has them on display in the Main Galleries. Also within the museum is the Labour History Archive and Study Centre, the governing Liberals were unwilling to repeal this judicial decision with primary legislation
9.
Conscientious objector
–
A conscientious objector is an individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service on the grounds of freedom of thought, conscience, or religion. In general, conscientious objector status is considered only in the context of military conscription and is not applicable to military forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors are assigned to a civilian service as a substitute for conscription or military service. Some conscientious objectors consider themselves pacifist, non-interventionist, non-resistant, non-aggressionist and this was re-affirmed in 1998, when resolution 1998/77 recognized that persons performing military service may develop conscientious objections. A number of organizations around the world celebrate the principle on May 15 as International Conscientious Objectors Day, the term has also been extended to objecting to working for the military–industrial complex due to a crisis of conscience. Historically, many conscientious objectors have been executed, imprisoned, or otherwise penalized when their beliefs led to conflicting with their societys legal system or government. The legal definition and status of conscientious objection has varied over the years, Religious beliefs were a starting point in many nations for legally granting conscientious objector status. An early recognition of conscientious objection was granted by William the Silent to the Dutch Mennonites in 1575 and they could refuse military service in exchange for a monetary payment. Formal legislation to exempt objectors from fighting was first granted in mid-18th century Great Britain following problems with attempting to force Quakers into military service. In the United States, conscientious objection was permitted from the countrys founding, in 1948, the issue of the right to conscience was dealt with by the United Nations General Assembly in Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The proclamation was ratified during the General Assembly on 10 December 1948 by a vote of 48 in favour,0 against and it is The Right to Refuse to Kill. In 1976, the United Nations treaty the International Covenant on Civil and it was based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and was originally created in 1966. Nations that have signed this treaty are bound by it and its Article 18 begins, Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. Some states argue that such limitations would permit them to make conscientious objection during time of war a threat to public safety, even that it is a moral duty to serve the state in its military. In 2006, the Committee has found for the first time a right to conscientious objection under article 18, in 1998, the Human Rights Commission reiterated previous statements and added states should. Refrain from subjecting conscientious objectors. to repeated punishment for failure to perform military service, the Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees states,171. Not every conviction, genuine though it may be, will constitute a sufficient reason for claiming refugee status after desertion or draft-evasion and it is not enough for a person to be in disagreement with his government regarding the political justification for a particular military action. Air Commodore Lionel Charlton, of the British Royal Air Force, in 1923 he selectively refused to serve in the RAF Iraq Command
10.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
11.
Ernest Bevin
–
Ernest Bevin was a British statesman, trade union leader, and Labour politician. He co-founded and served as secretary of the powerful Transport and General Workers Union from 1922–40. He succeeded in maximizing the British labour supply, for both the services and domestic industrial production, with a minimum of strikes and disruption. His most important role came as Foreign Secretary in the post-war Labour Government and he gained American financial support, strongly opposed Communism, and aided in the creation of NATO. Bevins tenure also saw the end of the Mandate of Palestine, Bevin was born in the village of Winsford in Somerset, England, to Diana Bevin who, since 1877, had described herself as a widow. After his mothers death in 1889, the young Bevin lived with his half-sisters family and he had little formal education, having briefly attended two village schools and then Haywards School, Crediton, starting in 1890 and leaving in 1892. He later recalled being asked as a child to read the newspaper aloud for the benefit of adults in his family who were illiterate. At the age of eleven, he went to work as a labourer, then as a driver in Bristol. In 1910 he became secretary of the Bristol branch of the Dockers Union, Bevin was a physically huge man, strong and by the time of his political prominence very heavy. He spoke with a strong West Country accent, so much so that on one occasion listeners at Cabinet had difficulty in deciding whether he was talking about Hugh and Nye or you and I. He had developed his skills from his time as a Baptist lay preacher. Bevin married Florence Townley, daughter of a wine taster at a Bristol wine merchants and they had one child, a daughter, Queenie. Florence Bevin would be appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1952, in 1922 Bevin was one of the founding leaders of the Transport and General Workers Union, which soon became Britains largest trade union. Upon his election as the general secretary, he became one of countrys leading labour leaders. He took part in the British General Strike in 1926, the National Government landslide resulted in Gateshead being lost by a large margin to the Liberal National Thomas Magnay. Bevin was a trade unionist who believed in getting material benefits for his members through direct negotiations, during the late Thirties, for instance, Bevin helped to instigate a successful campaign by the TUC to extend paid holidays to a wider proportion of the workforce. This culminated in the Holidays with Pay Act of 1938, which extended entitlement to paid holidays to about 11 million workers by June 1939, during the 1930s, with the Labour Party split and weakened, Bevin co-operated with the Conservative-dominated government on practical issues. But during this period he became involved in foreign policy
12.
Kikuyu people
–
The Kikuyu are the largest ethnic group in Kenya. They speak the Bantu Kikuyu language as a mother tongue, the term Kikuyu is the Swahili form of the native pronunciation Gĩkũyũ. They are also referred to as the Agĩkũyũ or Nyũmba ya Mũmbi meaning House Of The Potter or Creator, Gĩkũyũ literally means a huge sycamore tree and Agĩkũyũ thus literally refers to the children of the huge sycamore. According to the 2009 Kenya Population & Housing Census, there are an estimated 6,622,576 Gĩkũyũ people in Kenya, mythically, the nation of the Agĩkũyũ came from two original parents who were created by God, namely Gĩkũyũ and Mũmbi. The word Gĩkũyũ means a huge sycomore tree, Ngai refers to the creator who happens to be a life companion to the sycomore, the sacred tree from which the nation originated. The Kikuyu are of a Bantu people and they constitute the single largest ethnic group in Kenya, and are concentrated in the vicinity of Mount Kenya. The exact place that the Kikuyus ancestors migrated from after the initial Bantu expansion from West Africa is uncertain, until the arrival of Europeans, the Agĩkũyũ preserved geographic and political power from almost all external influence for many generations, they had never been subdued. Just before the arrival of the British, Arabs were involved in slave trade, slavery as an institution did not exist amongst the Agĩkũyũ, nor did they make raids for the capture of slaves. The Arabs who tried to venture into Agĩkũyũ land met instant death, relying on a combination of land purchases, blood-brotherhood, intermarriage with other people, and their adoption and absorption, the Agĩkũyũ were in a constant state of territorial expansion. Economically, the Agĩkũyũ were great farmers and shrewd businesspeople, besides farming and business, the Agĩkũyũ were involved in small scale industries with professions such as bridge building, string making, wire drawing, and iron chain making. The Agĩkũyũ had a sense of justice. The Agĩkũyũ nation was divided into nine clans, the members of each clan had a common maternal blood tie, but were not restricted to any particular geographical area, they lived side by side. Some clans had a leader, others did not. However, in case, real political power was exercised by the ruling council of elders. The Gĩkũyũ were – and still are – monotheists believing in an omnipotent God whom they refer to as Ngai, all of the Gĩkũyũ, Embu, and Kamba use this name. Ngai was also known as Mũrungu by the Meru and Embu tribes, the title Mwathani or Mwathi comes from the word gwatha meaning to rule or reign with authority, was and is still used. All sacrifices to Ngai were performed under a tree and if one was not available. The olive tree was a tree for women
13.
Colonial Office
–
It was headed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, known as the Colonial Secretary. In 1768 the separate American or Colonial Department was established, in order to deal with affairs in British North America. With the loss of the American colonies, however, the department was abolished in 1782, responsibility for the remaining colonies was given to the Home Office, and subsequently transferred to the War Office. In 1801 the War Office was renamed the War and Colonial Office under a new Secretary of State for War, in 1825 a new post of Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies was created within this office. It was held by Robert William Hay initially and his successors were James Stephen, Herman Merivale, Frederic Rogers, Robert Herbert and Robert Henry Meade. In 1854 this office was divided two and a new Colonial Office was created to deal specifically with the needs of the colonies. The Colonial Office did not have responsibility for all British possessions overseas, in 1907 the Dominion Division of the Colonial Office was created, and from 1925 separate Secretaries of State for Dominion Affairs were appointed. After the independence of India in 1947, the Dominion Office was merged with the India Office to form the Commonwealth Relations Office, in 1966, the Commonwealth Relations Office re-merged with the Colonial Office, forming the Commonwealth Office. Two years later, this department was merged into the Foreign Office, establishing the modern Foreign. It later became known as the Commonwealth Relations Office Year Book, in addition to the official List published by the Colonial Office, an edited version was also produced by Waterlow and Sons. It can be difficult to distinguish between the two versions in library catalogue descriptions, but it is still edited by Sir W. H. Mercer, K. C. M. G. One of the Crown Agents for the Colonies, but it is printed by Waterlow and Sons and it comes as near to being an Official publication as possible, but well assume that it isnt. British Empire Colonial Service List of British Empire-related topics
14.
Attlee ministry
–
Clement Attlee formed the Attlee ministry in the United Kingdom in 1945, succeeding Winston Churchill as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. It won a victory in 1945, enacting much of the Post-war consensus policies, especially the welfare state. It worked to reduce the severity of economic austerity, gave independence to India and it was narrowly re-elected in 1950, and narrowly defeated by the Conservatives in 1951. The Labour Party came to power in the United Kingdom after its victory in the July 1945 general elections. Party leader Clement Attlee became Prime Minister replacing Winston Churchill in late July, Ernest Bevin was Foreign Secretary until shortly before his death in April 1951. Hugh Dalton became Chancellor of the Exchequer, but had to resign in 1947, the most notable of the few female members of the government was Ellen Wilkinson, who was Minister for Education until her early death in 1947. It was an age of austerity, as wartime rationing was continued despite the Allied Forces victory, living conditions were poor, instead of expansion, it was a matter of replacing the national wealth destroyed or used up during the war. The Great Depression did not return, and full employment was created, returning veterans were successfully reabsorbed into the postwar society. The Attlee government nationalised about 20% of the economy, including coal, railways, road transport, the Bank of England, civil aviation, cable and wireless, electricity and gas, and steel. However, there was no money for investment to modernise these industries, the National Insurance Act of 1946 provided sickness and unemployment benefits for adults, plus retirement pensions. The National Assistance Act of 1948 provided a safety net for anyone not otherwise covered, since there was little money for detailed planning, the government adopted Keynesianism, which allowed for planning in the sense of overall control of the national deficit and surplus. In foreign affairs, the government was active in the United Nations and negotiated a $5,000,000,000 loan from the United States and it eagerly joined the Marshall Plan in 1948. It could no longer afford to support the Greek government and encouraged the U. S. to take its place through the Truman Doctrine in 1947 and it took an active role in joining the United States in the Cold War and forming NATO. It gave independence to India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Burma, 1945-51 The Labour Party comes to power with a program for nationalising weak sectors of the economy. 1946 Coal industry under the National Coal Board,1946 Bank of England 1946 National Health Service created taking over hospitals and making medical services free. 1947 British Electricity Authority and area electricity boards,1948 National rail, inland water transport, some road haulage, some road passenger transport and Thomas Cook & Son under the British Transport Commission. Separate elements operated as British Railways, British Road Services,1949 Local authority gas supply undertakings in England, Scotland and Wales 1951 Iron and Steel Industry. This was a publicly funded system, which offered treatment free of charge for all
15.
United Kingdom general election, 1950
–
The 1950 United Kingdom general election was the first ever general election to be held after a full term of a Labour government. The election was held on 23 February 1950, Labour called another general election in 1951. Eleven new English seats were created and six abolished, and there were over 170 major alterations to constituencies across the country, turnout increased to 83. 9%, the highest turnout in a UK general election under universal suffrage. It was also the first election to be covered on TV, both the Conservative and Labour parties entered the campaign positively. The campaign essentially focused on the possible future nationalisation of other sectors and industries, which was supported by the Labour party, the Liberals essentially viewed the struggle between the two parties on this issue as a class struggle. The Liberal Party fielded 475 candidates, more than at any election since 1929, Liberal leader Clement Davies felt that the party had been at a disadvantage at the 1945 election when they ran fewer candidates than needed to form a government. Davies arranged for the cost of running extra candidates to be offset by the party taking out insurance with Lloyds of London against more than 50 candidates losing their deposits. In the event, a total of 319 Liberal candidates lost their deposits, a number until 2015. All parties shown MPs elected in the United Kingdom general election,1950 F. W. S. Craig, British Electoral Facts, 1832–1987 Nicholas, the British general election of 1950. United Kingdom election results - summary results 1885-1979 This is the Road, The Conservative, let Us Win Through Together, A Declaration of Labour Policy for the Consideration of the Nation -1950 Labour Party manifesto. No Easy Way, Britains Problems and the Liberal Answers -1950 Liberal Party manifesto
16.
Bristol
–
Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
17.
Civil Service (United Kingdom)
–
As in other states that employ the Westminster political system, Her Majestys Home Civil Service forms an inseparable part of the British government. The executive decisions of government ministers are implemented by HM Civil Service, Civil servants are employees of the Crown and not of the British parliament. Civil servants also have traditional and statutory responsibilities which to some extent protect them from being used for the political advantage of the party in power. Senior civil servants may be called to account to Parliament, as at the end of March 2016 there were 418,343 civil servants in the Home Civil Service, this is down 3. 6% on the previous year. There are two other administratively separate civil services in the United Kingdom, one is for Northern Ireland, the other is the foreign service. The heads of these services are members of the Permanent Secretaries Management Group, the Offices of State grew in England, and later the United Kingdom. Initially, as in countries, they were little more than secretariats for their leaders. In the 18th century, in response to the growth of the British Empire and economic changes, institutions such as the Office of Works, each had its own system and staff were appointed by purchase or patronage. By the 19th century, it increasingly clear that these arrangements were not working. In 1806, the Honourable East India Company established a college, the purpose of this college was to train administrators, it was established on recommendation of officials in China who had seen the imperial examination system. The civil service, based on similar to the Chinese system, was advocated by a number of Englishmen over the next several decades. The report was well-timed, because bureaucratic chaos in the Crimean War promptly caused a clamour for the change, a Civil Service Commission was accordingly set up in 1855 to oversee open recruitment and end patronage, and most of the other Northcote-Trevelyan recommendations were implemented over some years. This system was endorsed by Commissions chaired by Playfair, Ridley, MacDonnell, Tomlin. The Northcote-Trevelyan model remained essentially stable for a hundred years and this was a tribute to its success in removing corruption, delivering public services, and responding effectively to political change. Following the Second World War, however, demands for change again grew, the times were, moreover, ones of keen respect for technocracy, with the mass mobilisation of war having worked effectively, and the French National Plan apparently delivering economic success. Lord Fultons committee reported in 1968 and his 158 recommendations included the introduction of a unified grading system for all categories of staff, a Civil Service College and a central policy planning unit. The new Department was set up by Prime Minister Harold Wilsons Labour Government in 1968 and named the Civil Service Department, the first Minister was Cabinet Minister Lord Shackleton, also Leader of the House of Lords and Lord Privy Seal. The first Permanent Secretary was Sir William Armstrong, who moved over from his post as Permanent Secretary at the Treasury, after the 1970 General Election, new Conservative Prime Minister Ted Heath appointed Lord Jellicoe in Lord Shackletons place
18.
War Office
–
The name War Office is also given to the former home of the department, the War Office building located at the junction of Horse Guards Avenue and Whitehall in central London. During August 2013 it was announced that the former War Office building would be sold on the open market. The War Office developed from the Council of War, an ad hoc grouping of the King and his military commanders which managed the Kingdom of Englands frequent wars. It was equivalent to the Admiralty, responsible for the Royal Navy, and the Air Ministry, the department had several London homes until it settled at Horse Guards in Whitehall during 1722, where it was to remain until 1858. The first War Office Secretary at War is usually said to have been William Blathwayt and it was, however, a fairly minor government job which dealt with the minutiae of administration rather than grand strategy. Issues of strategic policy during wartime were managed by the Northern and Southern Departments, from 1704 to 1855, the job of Secretary was possessed by a minister of the second rank, although he was occasionally part of the Cabinet. Many of his responsibilities were transferred to the Secretary of State for War after the creation of more senior post during 1794. The job of Secretary at War was merged with that of the Secretary of State for War during 1855, during 1855 the Board of Ordnance was abolished as a result of its perceived poor performance during the Crimean War. This powerful independent body, dating from the 15th century, had directed by the Master-General of the Ordnance. The disastrous campaigns of the Crimean War resulted in the consolidation of all duties during 1855 as subordinate to the Secretary of State for War. He was not, however, solely responsible for the Army and this was reduced in theory by the reforms introduced by Edward Cardwell during 1870, which subordinated the Commander-in-Chief to the Secretary for War. His resistance to reform caused military efficiency to lag well behind that of Britains rivals, the management of the War Office was hampered by persistent disputes between the civilian and military parts of the organisation. The government of H. H. Asquith attempted to resolve this during the First World War by appointing Lord Kitchener as Secretary for War, making him the first, however, this was thought unsatisfactory, during his tenure, the Imperial General Staff was virtually dismantled. Its role was replaced effectively by the Committee of Imperial Defence, the War Office decreased greatly in importance after the First World War, a fact illustrated by the drastic reductions of its staff numbers during the inter-war period. On 1 April 1920, it employed 7,434 civilian staff and its responsibilities and funding were also reduced. During 1936, the government of Stanley Baldwin appointed a Minister for Co-ordination of Defence, when Winston Churchill became Prime Minister during 1940, he bypassed the War Office altogether and appointed himself Minister of Defence. Clement Attlee continued this arrangement when he came to power during 1945, during 1964, the present form of the Ministry of Defence was established, unifying the War Office, Admiralty, and Air Ministry. The records of the War Office are kept by The National Archives with the code WO and it contains about 1,000 rooms across seven floors, linked by 2½ miles of corridors
19.
Liberal Party (UK)
–
The Liberal Party was a liberal political party which was one of the two major parties in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th century. The party arose from an alliance of Whigs and free-trade Peelites and Radicals favourable to the ideals of the American, by the end of the nineteenth century, it had formed four governments under William Gladstone. Despite splitting over the issue of Irish Home Rule, the party returned to power in 1906 with a landslide victory, by the end of the 1920s, the Labour Party had replaced the Liberals as the Conservatives main rival. The party went into decline and by the 1950s won no more than six seats at general elections, apart from notable by-election victories, the partys fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party in 1981. At the 1983 General Election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, at the 1987 General Election, its vote fell below 23% and the Liberal and Social Democratic parties merged in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats. A splinter group reconstituted the Liberal Party in 1989 and it was formed by party members opposed to the merger who saw the Lib Dems diluting Liberal ideals. Prominent intellectuals associated with the Liberal Party include the philosopher John Stuart Mill, the economist John Maynard Keynes, the Liberal Party grew out of the Whigs, who had their origins in an aristocratic faction in the reign of Charles II, and the early 19th century Radicals. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown, although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of democracy for its own sake. The great figures of reformist Whiggery were Charles James Fox and his disciple, after decades in opposition, the Whigs returned to power under Grey in 1830 and carried the First Reform Act in 1832. The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggism, but it brought about the Whigs demise. As early as 1839 Russell had adopted the name of Liberals, the leading Radicals were John Bright and Richard Cobden, who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England, avoidance of war and foreign alliances, for a century, free trade remained the one cause which could unite all Liberals. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston, and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen to hold office for most of the 1850s and 1860s, a leading Peelite was William Ewart Gladstone, who was a reforming Chancellor of the Exchequer in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal Party is traditionally traced to 1859 and this was brought about by Palmerstons death in 1865 and Russells retirement in 1868. After a brief Conservative government Gladstone won a victory at the 1868 election. The establishment of the party as a membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877. John Stuart Mill was a Liberal MP from 1865 to 1868, for the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. William Ewart Gladstone served as prime minister four times, called the Grand Old Man later in life, Gladstone was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class
20.
Methodism
–
Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
21.
Dulwich (UK Parliament constituency)
–
Dulwich was a borough constituency in the Dulwich area of South London, which returned one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The constituency was created by the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 for the 1885 general election, the constituency was abolished by the Boundary Commission in 1997, when most of its former territory became part of the Dulwich and West Norwood constituency. The constituency of Dulwich was created by the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, Lambeth had been a solidly Liberal constituency. Dulwich was one of three seats in the new borough of Camberwell. As a suburban London constituency, Dulwich tended to favour the Conservatives, after that it became a marginal seat, with Labour winning slightly more times than the Conservatives. 1885-1918, The wards of Camberwell and Dulwich, and the hamlet of Penge, 1918-1950, The Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell wards of Alleyn, College, Hamlet, Ruskin, and St Johns. Penge was transferred to the new Bromley constituency, 1950-1974, The Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell wards of Alleyn, College, Hamlet, Lyndhurst, Nunhead, Ruskin, Rye, Rye Lane, and St Johns. 1974-1997, The London Borough of Southwark wards of Alleyn, Bellenden, College, Lyndhurst, Ruskin, Rye, The Lane, in the 1886 general election, John Morgan Howard was elected unopposed
22.
Independent Labour Party
–
The Independent Labour Party was a socialist political party in Britain established in 1893, in Bradford, West Yorkshire, England. The ILP was affiliated to the Labour Party from 1906 to 1932, the organisations three parliamentary representatives defected to the Labour Party in 1947 and the organisation rejoined the Labour Party as Independent Labour Publications in 1975. As the 19th century came to a close, working-class representation in political office became a concern for many Britons. Many who sought the election of working men and their advocates to the Parliament of the United Kingdom saw the Liberal Party as the vehicle for achieving this aim. As early as 1869 a Labour Representation League had been established to register, many trade unions themselves became concerned with gaining parliamentary representation to advance their legislative aims. From the 1870s a series of working-class candidates financially supported by unions were accepted and supported by the Liberal Party. The federation of British unions, the Trades Union Congress, formed its own electoral committee in 1886 to further advance its electoral goals, within two years of its foundation in 1884 the gradualist Fabian Society officially committed itself to a policy of permeation of the Liberal Party. A number of so-called Lib-Lab candidates were subsequently elected Members of Parliament by this alliance of trade unions, the idea of working with the middle-class Liberal Party to achieve working-class representation in parliament was not universally accepted, however. The orthodox British Marxists established their own party, the Social Democratic Federation in 1881, working with SDF members such as Henry Hyde Champion and Tom Mann he was instrumental in the foundation of the Scottish Labour Party in 1888. In 1890 the United States imposed a tariff on foreign cloth which led to a cut in wages throughout the British textile industry. This initiative was replicated by others in Colne Valley, Slaithwaite, such developments showed that working-class support for separation from the Liberal Party was growing in strength. Further arguments for the formation of a new party were to be found in Robert Blatchfords newspaper The Clarion, founded in 1891, the latter collected some 3500 names of those in favour of creating a party of labour independent from the existing political organisations. Hardie owed nothing to the Liberal Party for his election, at a TUC meeting in September 1892 a call was issued for a meeting of advocates of independent labour organisation. An arrangements committee was established and a called for the following January. This conference was chaired by William Henry Drew and was held in Bradford 14–16 January 1893 and it proved to be the foundation conference of the Independent Labour Party and MP Keir Hardie was elected its first chairman. German Socialist leader Edward Bernstein was briefly permitted to address the gathering to pass along the best wishes for success from the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the conference also established the basic organisational structure of the new party. Annual Conferences, composed of delegates from each unit of the organisation, were declared the supreme. A Secretary was to be elected, to serve under the control of a central body known as the National Administrative Committee
23.
Pacifism
–
Pacifism is opposition to war, militarism, or violence. The word pacifism was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud, a related term is ahimsa, which is a core philosophy in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. While modern connotations are recent, having been explicated since the 19th century, in Christianity, Jesus Christs injunction to love your enemies and asking for forgiveness for his crucifiers for they know not what they do have been interpreted as calling for pacifism. In modern times, interest was revived by Leo Tolstoy in his late works, Mohandas Gandhi propounded the practice of steadfast nonviolent opposition which he called satyagraha, instrumental in its role in the Indian Independence Movement. Its effectiveness served as inspiration to Martin Luther King Jr. James Lawson, James Bevel, Thich Nhat Hanh and many others in the Civil Rights Movement. Pacifism was widely associated with the much publicized image of Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989 with the Tank Man, historians of pacifism Peter Brock and Thomas Paul Socknat define pacifism in the sense generally accepted in English-speaking areas as an unconditional rejection of all forms of warfare. Philosopher Jenny Teichman defines the form of pacifism as anti-warism. Teichmans beliefs have been summarized by Brian Orend as, a pacifist rejects war and believes there are no moral grounds which can justify resorting to war. War, for the pacifist, is always wrong, in a sense the philosophy is based on the idea that the ends do not justify the means. Pacifism may be based on moral principles or pragmatism, principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found, some pacifists follow principles of nonviolence, believing that nonviolent action is morally superior and/or most effective. Some however, support physical violence for emergency defence of self or others, by no means is all nonviolent resistance based on a fundamental rejection of all violence in all circumstances. Many leaders and participants in such movements, while recognizing the importance of using non-violent methods in particular circumstances, have not been absolute pacifists, sometimes, as with the civil rights movements march from Selma to Montgomery in 1965, they have called for armed protection. The interconnections between civil resistance and factors of force are numerous and complex, the principle is described as difficult to abide by consistently, due to violence not being available as a tool to aid a person who is being harmed or killed. It is further claimed that such a pacifist could logically argue that violence leads to undesirable results than non-violence. Although all pacifists are opposed to war between states, there have been occasions where pacifists have supported military conflict in the case of civil war or revolution. Following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, French pacifist René Gérin urged support for the Spanish Republic, Gérin argued that the Spanish Nationalists were comparable to an individual enemy and the Republics war effort was equivalent to the action of a domestic police force suppressing crime. Advocacy of pacifism can be found far back in history and literature, during the Warring States period, the pacifist Mohist School opposed aggressive war between the feudal states
24.
Conscription
–
Conscription, or drafting, is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the country. As of the early 21st century, many no longer conscript soldiers. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities, many states that have abolished conscription therefore still reserve the power to resume it during wartime or times of crisis. Around the reign of Hammurabi, the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called Ilkum, under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se, various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded, in other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them, with the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi. The levies raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors, although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in everyones interest to send the men home for harvest-time, the bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour. Medieval levy in Poland was known as the pospolite ruszenie, the system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkish slave-soldiers by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim in the 820s and 830s. In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, the new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme
25.
Transport and General Workers' Union
–
It was founded in 1922, and its first general secretary was Ernest Bevin. In 2007, it merged with Amicus to form Unite the Union, at the time of its creation in 1922, the TGWU was the largest and most ambitious amalgamation brought about within trade unionism. Its structure combined regional organisation, based on Districts and Areas, with committee organisation by occupation, Trade groups were not closely linked to trades, but were elected by activists. Officials of the union were grouped by region, and could be asked to each or any trade group. From the 1960s it was known as ACTS but also sometimes as the ACTSS. The Greenock Sugar Porters Union, Dundee Flax and Jute Stowers Society, National Union of British Fishermen, the Amalgamated Carters, Lurrymen and Motormens Union merged with the Transport and General Workers Union in 1922. It had previously had an arrangement with the United Vehicle Workers. Lurry was a spelling of lorry, and the spelling lorrymen is also seen in the unions documents. Several specialised and other unions voted later to merge with the TGWU, including The Workers Union in 1929, for a full list, see the list of TGWU amalgamations. The Transport and General Workers Union spearheaded the campaign for the registration of Gangmasters in the UK, the ballot of both unions membership during February and early March 2007, also approved the merger. The result of the ballot was announced on 8 March 2007,86.4 per cent of T&G members and 70.1 per cent of Amicus members voted to support the merger, from a turnout of 27%. The press release announced that the union had the working title New Union. However, on 2 April 2007, The Times reported that the name Unite had been chosen
26.
London County Council election, 1922
–
An election to the County Council of London took place on 2 March 1922. It was the eleventh election of the whole council. There were sixty dual member constituencies and one four member constituency, the council was elected by First Past the Post with each elector having two votes in the dual member seats. The Coalition was numerically dominated by the Unionists who were still 7 months away from overthrowing Lloyd George, ten days later, the electors of Camberwell North re-elected him to the County Council. Although the Municipal Reform party had a majority, in line with national politics. Some Progressive Party members were offered chairmanships of committees and this coalition had continued after the war ended, but both parties, along with the Labour Party, fought the 1922 elections on separate platforms. The leader of the Municipal Reform Party did not defend his seat, there was no county wide electoral agreements between any of the parties, though clearly there had been some locally agreed situations. There were very few constituencies where all three parties stood two candidates, in the past, the Progressive Party had encompassed the Labour Party, with candidates running in harness. That situation had recently ended when former Progressive Party councillor Harry Gosling became leader of the Labour Party, in its place there were a few Progressive candidates running in harness with Municipal Reform candidates. Among Labours candidates were members of the recently formed Communist Party, Labour had mixed results, managing to more or less hold their own. The leader of the Progressive Party, John Scott Lidgett, was unseated at Rotherhithe. The big winners were the Municipal Reform party, who made a number of gains at the expense of the Progressives, naylor had contested the seat in 1919 as a Municipal Reform candidate. The council also appointed 20 aldermen, to serve for a 6-year term, allen had previously sat as a councillor from 1899-1913. 30 January 1923, Mrs Anna Maria Mathew to serve until 1925 in place of her husband Charles James Mathew,23 October 1923, Maj. Harry Barnes to serve until 1925 in place of Henry de Rosenbach Walker, died 31 July 1923. 5 February 1924, Henry Thomas McAuliffe to serve until 1925 in place of Viscount Hill,18 March 1924, Alfred Baker to serve until 1925 in place of George Masterman Gillett resigned 11 March 1924. Baker had previously sat as a councillor from 1919-1922,25 November 1924, Hon. Gilbert Johnstone to serve until 1925 in place of Sir Cyril Jackson died 3 September 1924. Johnstone had previously sat as a councillor from 1907-1910 and 1911-1917
27.
Peckham (UK Parliament constituency)
–
Peckham was a borough constituency in South London which returned one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Elections were held using the first-past-the-post voting system and it was created for the 1885 general election and abolished for the 1997 general election, when it was replaced by the new constituency of Camberwell and Peckham. The constituency was, by the time of its abolition, a safe Labour seat and it was held for the last thirteen years of its existence by Harriet Harman, who went on to become the deputy leader of the Labour Party. 1885-1918, The wards of North Peckham and South Peckham, 1918-1950, The Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell wards of Clifton, Goldsmith, Nunhead, Rye Lane, St Marys, and The Rye. 1950-1974, The Metropolitan Borough of Camberwell wards of Addington, Clifton, Coburg, Goldsmith, Marlborough, North Peckham, St Georges, St Giles, St Marys, The West, and Town Hall. 1974-1983, The London Borough of Southwark wards of Brunswick, Burgess, Consort, Faraday, Friary, Newington, 1983-1997, The London Borough of Southwark wards of Barset, Brunswick, Consort, Faraday, Friary, Liddle, Newington, and St Giles. Endorsed by Coalition Government Southwark local elections List of Parliamentary constituencies in Greater London British Parliamentary Election Results 1885-1918, compiled and edited by F. W. S
28.
Ruhr
–
The Ruhr, or the Ruhr district, Ruhr region, Ruhr area or Ruhr valley, is a polycentric urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With a population density of 2, 800/km² and a population of eight and a million, it is the largest urban agglomeration in Germany. It consists of large, industrial cities bordered by the rivers Ruhr to the south, Rhine to the west. In the southwest it borders the Bergisches Land and it is considered part of the larger Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region of more than 12 million people, which is among the largest in Europe. The most populous cities are Dortmund, Essen and Duisburg, the Ruhr area has no administrative center, each city in the area has its own administration, although there exists the supracommunal Regionalverband Ruhr institution in Essen. Since the 19th century, these districts have grown together into a complex with a vast industrial landscape. For 2010, the Ruhr region was one of the European Capitals of Culture, the urban landscape of the Ruhr extends from the Lower Rhine Basin east to the Westphalian Plain and south to the hills of the Rhenish Massif. Through the centre of the Ruhr runs a segment of the belt that extends across Germany from west to east. Historically, this belt has underlain some of Germanys richest agricultural regions. Geologically, the region is defined by coal-bearing layers from the upper Carboniferous period, the coal seams reach the surface in a strip along the River Ruhr and dip downward from the river to the north. Beneath the River Lippe, the coal seams lie at a depth of 600 to 800 metres, the thickness of the coal layers ranges from one to three metres. This geological feature played a role in the development of coal mining in the Ruhr. According to the Regionalverband Ruhr,37. 6% of the area is built up. A total of 40. 7% of the land remains in agricultural use. Forests account for 17. 6%, and bodies of water and other types of land use occupy the rest, the inclusion of four mainly rural districts in the otherwise mainly industrial Ruhr helps to explain the large proportion of agricultural and forested land. In addition, the city boroughs of the Ruhr region have outlying districts with a rural character, seen on a map, the Ruhr could be considered a single city, since—at least in the north-south dimension—there are no visible breaks between the individual city boroughs. Thus the Ruhr is described as an urban area, which shares a similar history of urban. Instead, the city boroughs and urban districts of the Ruhr grew independently of one another during the Industrial Revolution
29.
Ruskin College
–
This article is about the English educational institution. For the American college of the name, see Trenton. Ruskin College, originally known as Ruskin Hall, Oxford, is an independent educational institution in Oxford and it is named after the essayist and social critic John Ruskin and specialises in providing educational opportunities for adults with few or no qualifications. The second aim, the element of the mission, is evidenced by the fact that the most frequent thing former students say about Ruskin is that it changed their lives. Students, whether or not they themselves are resident, benefit from studying in a setting with a sense of academic community. The college is also transformational because it sees education as a vehicle for social change. Ruskin tends towards a curriculum that has social relevance, students who want to make a difference in the world. Ruskin College – originally known as Ruskin Hall, Oxford – was established in 1899 specifically to provide opportunities for working-class men. It was deliberately placed in Oxford, the city in which its young American founders, beard and Walter Vrooman, had studied, because the city symbolised the educational privilege and standards to which ordinary people could never previously have aspired. It was Walter Vroomans then wife, Amne, who supported the foundation of the college. The school was envisioned as a mechanism by which working-class reformers could educate themselves efficiently at nominal cost, tuition, lodging, and board was priced at 12-1/2 shillings per week, with a parallel correspondence course alternatively offered for 1 shilling per week plus a 1 shilling entrance fee. Courses were offered in economy, sociology, the history of the labor movement, principles of politics, English literature, psychology. The school was administered by a General Council, which included elected representatives from the Parliamentary Committee of the Trade Union Congress, during the World War I, some of the two hundred Belgian refugees who came to Oxford were lodged in the college. Ruskin College became, in turn, a symbol of workers education, Ruskin College was a secular sister-school to and model for Plater College until Platers closing in 2005. In 1908, a group of Ruskin students, dissatisfied with its policy which they viewed as too pro-establishment and imbued with elements of social control. The students revolt was supported by the Principal, Dennis Hird, a £17m redevelopment programme of the college’s Old Headington site was completed in 2012, and the headquarters of the college has moved there from the more central original site in Walton St. The MacColl/Seeger archive has its own dedicated room within the new library, all other buildings on the site have been refurbished, the grounds have been improved and the walled garden, with its listed crinkle crankle wall has been brought back into use by local volunteers. A cafeteria is open to the public, student enrolments at Ruskin in 2005–2006 reached their highest ever number in the college’s history
30.
United Kingdom general election, 1929
–
The 1929 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday,30 May 1929, and resulted in a hung parliament. It was the second of four elections under the secret ballot. In 1929 that party was Ramsay MacDonalds Labour, which won the most seats in the Commons for the first time ever, the Liberals led by David Lloyd George regained some of the ground they had lost in the 1924 election, and held the balance of power. The election was referred to as the Flapper Election in that it was the first election in which women aged 21 or over were allowed to vote. The election was fought against a background of rising unemployment with the memory of the 1926 General Strike still fresh in voters minds, by 1929 the Cabinet was being described by many as old and exhausted. The Liberals campaigned on a programme of public works under the title We Can Conquer Unemployment. The Conservatives campaigned on the theme of Safety First, for a full list of the results by constituency, Constituency election results in the United Kingdom general election,1929. All comparisons are with the 1924 election, in some cases the change is due to the MP defecting to the gaining party. Such circumstances are marked with a *, in other circumstances the change is due to the seat having been won by the gaining party in a by-election in the intervening years, and then retained in 1929. Such circumstances are marked with a †, 1previous MP had defected to the Conservatives by the 1929 election 2previous MP had defected to the Liberals by the 1929 election F. W. S. Craig, British Electoral Facts, 1832-1987 Howell, David. MacDonald’s Party, Labour Identities and Crisis, 1922–1939 Redvaldsen, David, today is the Dawn, The Labour Party and the 1929 General Election, Parliamentary History 29#3 pp 395-415. Safety First, Baldwin, the Conservative Party and the 1929 General Election, Historical Journal 25, 385–409
31.
Heywood and Radcliffe (UK Parliament constituency)
–
Heywood and Radcliffe was a county constituency centred on the towns of Heywood and Radcliffe in South Lancashire. It returned one Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, under the Representation of the People Act 1918, the constituency was created by merging the Heywood constituency and part of the Radcliffe-cum-Farnworth constituency for the 1918 general election. It was abolished for the 1950 general election, endorsed by the Coalition Government General Election 1939/40 Another General Election was required to take place before the end of 1940. Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs – Constituencies beginning with H
32.
Czechoslovakia
–
From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. From 1948 to 1990, Czechoslovakia was part of the Soviet bloc with a command economy and its economic status was formalized in membership of Comecon from 1949, and its defense status in the Warsaw Pact of May 1955. A period of liberalization in 1968, known as the Prague Spring, was forcibly ended when the Soviet Union, assisted by several other Warsaw Pact countries. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the two states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Form of state 1918–1938, A democratic republic, 1938–1939, After annexation of Sudetenland by Nazi Germany in 1938, the region gradually turned into a state with loosened connections among the Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian parts. A large strip of southern Slovakia and Carpatho-Ukraine was annexed by Hungary, 1939–1945, The region was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic. A government-in-exile continued to exist in London, supported by the United Kingdom, United States and its Allies, after the German invasion of Russia, Czechoslovakia adhered to the Declaration by United Nations and was a founding member of the United Nations. 1946–1948, The country was governed by a government with communist ministers, including the prime minister. Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the Soviet Union, 1948–1989, The country became a socialist state under Soviet domination with a centrally planned economy. In 1960, the country became a socialist republic, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It was a state of the Soviet Union. 1989–1990, The federal republic consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic, 1990–1992, Following the Velvet Revolution, the state was renamed the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, consisting of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Neighbours Austria 1918–1938, 1945–1992 Germany Hungary Poland Romania 1918–1938 Soviet Union 1945–1991 Ukraine 1991–1992 Topography The country was of irregular terrain. The western area was part of the north-central European uplands, the eastern region was composed of the northern reaches of the Carpathian Mountains and lands of the Danube River basin. Climate The weather is mild winters and mild summers, influenced by the Atlantic Ocean from the west, Baltic Sea from the north, and Mediterranean Sea from the south. The area was long a part of the Austro Hungarian Empire until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I, the new state was founded by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, who served as its first president from 14 November 1918 to 14 December 1935. He was succeeded by his ally, Edvard Beneš. The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century
33.
Munich Agreement
–
The agreement was signed in the early hours of 30 September 1938 after being negotiated at a conference held in Munich, Germany, among the major powers of Europe, excluding the Soviet Union. Today, it is regarded as a failed act of appeasement toward Germany. The purpose of the conference was to discuss the future of the Sudetenland in the face of demands made by Adolf Hitler. The agreement was signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Sudetenland was of immense strategic importance to Czechoslovakia, as most of its border defenses, and banks were situated there, as well as heavy industrial districts. Part of the borderland was invaded and annexed by Poland, the phrase Munich Betrayal is also used because the military alliance Czechoslovakia had with France and Britain proved useless and also known because of the phrase About us, without us. This phrase is most hurtful for people of Czechoslovakia, Today the document is typically referred to simply as the Munich Pact. In Germany the Sudeten crisis led to the so-called Oster Conspiracy, from 1918 to 1938, after the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, more than 3 million ethnic Germans were living in the Czech part of the newly created state of Czechoslovakia. Sudeten German pro-Nazi leader Konrad Henlein founded the Sudeten German Party that served as the branch of the Nazi Party for the Sudetenland. By 1935, the SdP was the second largest political party in Czechoslovakia as German votes concentrated on this party while Czech, on 24 April, the SdP issued a series of demands upon the government of Czechoslovakia, that were known as the Carlsbad Program. Among the demands, Henlein demanded autonomy for Germans living in Czechoslovakia, the Czechoslovakian government responded by saying that it was willing to provide more minority rights to the German minority but it refused to grant them autonomy. As the previous appeasement of Hitler had shown, the governments of both France and Britain were intent on avoiding war, the French government did not wish to face Germany alone and took its lead from the British government of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. Chamberlain considered the Sudeten German grievances justified and believed Hitlers intentions were limited, both Britain and France, therefore, advised Czechoslovakia to concede to Germanys demands. Beneš resisted and on 19 May initiated a partial mobilization in response to possible German invasion, while recognizing that this would still be insufficient for a full-scale naval war with Britain, Hitler hoped it would be a sufficient deterrent. Ten days later, Hitler signed a directive for war against Czechoslovakia. On 22 May, Juliusz Łukasiewicz, the Polish ambassador to France, told the French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet that if France moved against Germany in defense of Czechoslovakia, Łukasiewicz also told Bonnet that Poland would oppose any attempt by Soviet forces to defend Czechoslovakia from Germany. Daladier told Jakob Surits, the Soviet ambassador to France, Not only can we not count on Polish support but we have no faith that Poland will not strike us in the back. Hitlers adjutant, Fritz Wiedemann, recalled after the war that he was shocked by Hitlers new plans to attack Britain. In the meantime, the British government demanded that Beneš request a mediator, Not wishing to sever his governments ties with Western Europe, Beneš reluctantly accepted
34.
National Government (1931)
–
The First National ministry was formed by Ramsay MacDonald in 1931, and existed from 24 August 1931 until the reconstruction of the government, following the general election in October 1931. This ministry was the first national government coalition, of which there would be four and it was composed of members from National Labour, the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, and the Liberal National Party. The outgoing Labour cabinet, which was a minority government, was unable to agree upon proposals to cut public expenditure, the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald submitted his resignation to King George V on 24 August 1931. The King persuaded MacDonald that it was his duty to form a new government to address the financial crisis, the Liberal Party was split into three factions. The mainstream party led by Sir Herbert Samuel, who had been the Deputy Leader of the party before the formation of the National Government, the Liberal National group led by Sir John Simon had accepted the Conservative policy of protectionism. These two Liberal factions were supporters of the National Ministry, the third group of Lloyd George or Independent Liberals were opposed to the ministry. The new Ministry was formed on 24 August 1931 when MacDonald was re-appointed Prime Minister, a smaller than usual cabinet was appointed the following day. The First National Ministry had not originally intended to fight a general election. The Samuelite Liberal Party was opposed to an election but found it could not prevent one. Parliament was dissolved on 8 October 1931, the United Kingdom general election,1931 took place on 27 October 1931 leading to a landslide victory for candidates supporting the National government. MacDonald reconstructed his government on 5 November 1931, creating the Second National Ministry. H,1931 Political Crisis ISBN 0-566-05138-9 Howell, David. MacDonalds Party, Labour Identities and Crisis, 1922-1931, Baldwin, The Unexpected Prime Minister Jenkins, Roy. Baldwin excerpt and text search Mowat, Charles Loch, britain between the Wars, 1918-1945 PP 413–79 Raymond, John, ed. The Baldwin Age, essays by scholars 252 pages, online Smart, english History 1914-1945 pp 321–88 Thorpe, Andrew. British Politics, the Economy and the Empire, 1926-1932, ISBN 0-521-36137-0 Cawood, Ian, Liberal-Conservative Coalitions - ‘a farce and a fraud’
35.
United Kingdom general election, 1935
–
The United Kingdom general election held on Thursday,14 November 1935 resulted in a large, albeit reduced, majority for the National Government now led by Conservative Stanley Baldwin. The greatest number of members, as before, were Conservatives, the National Labour vote collapsed, and even the party leader Ramsay MacDonald lost his seat. The Liberals continued their slow political collapse and lost further ground, the Scottish National Party contested their first election, and the Communist Party gained their first parliamentary seat in almost ten years, West Fife. The major election issues were the continuing unemployment problems and the role of the League of Nations, no general elections were held during the Second World War until Allied victory was assured, hence the 1935 House sat until 1945. As a result, this parliament would see two leadership changes, neville Chamberlain took over from Baldwin as Prime Minister and Leader of the Conservative Party in 1937. Conservatives include the Ulster and Scottish Unionists, all comparisons are with the 1931 election. In some cases the change is due to the MP defecting to the gaining party, such circumstances are marked with a *. In other circumstances the change is due to the seat having been won by the party in a by-election in the intervening years. Such circumstances are marked with a †, 1sitting MP had defected to National Liberals 2sitting MP had defected to Liberals These are available on the Political Science Resources Elections Database, a link to which is given below. F. W. S. Craig, British Electoral Facts, 1832-1987 Fry, a Reconsideration of the British General Election of 1935 and the Electoral Revolution of 1945, History 76#246 pp 43–55. Baldwin Thwarts the Opposition, The British General Election of 1935, mPs elected in the United Kingdom general election,19351935 Conservative manifesto 1935 Labour manifesto 1935 Liberal manifesto
36.
George V
–
George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
