1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company
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The railroad operated from 1896 as a consolidation of several smaller railroads. OR&N was initially operated as an independent carrier, but Union Pacific purchased a majority stake of the line in 1898, the line became a subsidiary of UP titled the Oregon–Washington Railroad and Navigation Company in 1910. In 1936, Union Pacific formally absorbed the system, which became UPs gateway to the Pacific Northwest, the OR&N was made up of several railroads, Oregon Railway and Navigation Company traces its roots back as far as 1860. It was incorporated in 1879 in Portland, Oregon and operated between Portland and eastern Washington and Oregon until 1896, when it was reorganized into the Oregon Railroad, the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company was the core 643 miles of the OR&N. Its route eventually became the backbone of Union Pacific Railroads mainline from Utah to the Pacific Northwest, Columbia and Palouse Railroad was incorporated in 1882 and built 145 miles of track. The track ran from Connell, Washington, where it interchanged with the Northern Pacific Railway and ran east through Hooper, La Crosse, Winona, at Colfax, one line ran northeast to Farmington, Washington, located on the Idaho state line. The other line ran southeast from Colfax to Moscow, Idaho, the railroad was a non-operating subsidiary of the OR&N in 1888 and was eventually sold to the OR&N in 1910. Walla Walla and Columbia River Railroad was a wood-railed narrow-gauge railroad incorporated in 1868 at Walla Walla, Washington and built 46 miles of track from Wallula, the track went east from Wallula to Touchet, Frenchtown and Whitman. At Whitman, the line continued east to Walla Walla and a branch that was built in 1879 went south to Blue Mountain, the first 33 miles took 6 years to build. In 1881 the railroad came under the control of the OR&N, in 1910, the Walla Walla and Columbia River Railroad was consolidated into the OR&N. Mill Creek Flume and Manufacturing was incorporated in 1880 as a narrow gauge lumber carrier operating 13 miles of track between Walla Walla and Dixie, in 1903 the Mill Creek Flume and Manufacturing Company was purchased by the OR&N and renamed the Mill Creek Railroad. The track was standardized in 1905, after the track was standardized, the OR&N sold the Mill Creek Railroad and it was merged into the Washington and Columbia River Railway which became part of the Northern Pacific Railway in 1907. Oregon Railway Extensions Company was incorporated in 1888 at Portland and built 69 miles of track with two branches, one branch ran from La Grande, Oregon where it interchanged with the OR&N and then ran northeast to Elgin. The other branch ran from Winona, Washington, to Seltice via St. John, Sunset, Thornton, the railroad was a non-operating subsidiary of the OR&N. In 1896 it was sold at foreclosure to the OR&N. Washington, the Washington and Idaho Railroad operated 154 miles of track. The Oregon Railway and Navigation Companys purchase of the Oregon Steam Navigation Company in 1880 gave it a route on the south side of the Columbia River. The company then pursued expansion of its Columbia River route, surveying from where the Oregon Steam Navigation tracks ended at Celilo, by 1882 the route along the Columbia River was complete. Starting in 1880, one of the competitors of the Oregon Railway, the company purchased right-of-way in 1882 from Alfred B
3.
White Star Line
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The Oceanic Steam Navigation Company or White Star Line of Boston Packers, more commonly known as just White Star Line, was a prominent British shipping company. Founded in 1845, the line operated a fleet of ships that sailed between Britain and Australia. Today it is most famous for their innovative vessel Oceanic of 1870, in 1934, White Star merged with its chief rival, Cunard Line, which operated as Cunard-White Star Line until 1950. Cunard Line then operated as an entity until 2005 and is now part of Carnival Corporation & plc. As a lasting reminder of the White Star Line, modern Cunard ships use the term White Star Service to describe the level of customer care expected of the company. The first company bearing the name White Star Line was founded in Liverpool, England, by John Pilkington and it focused on the UK–Australia trade, which increased following the discovery of gold in Australia. The fleet initially consisted of the sailing ships RMS Tayleur, Blue Jacket, White Star, Red Jacket, Ellen, Ben Nevis, Emma, Mermaid. Tayleur, the largest ship of its day, wrecked on its voyage to Australia at Lambay Island, near Ireland. In 1863, the company acquired its first steamship, Royal Standard, the original White Star Line merged with two other small lines, The Black Ball Line and The Eagle Line, to form a conglomerate, the Liverpool, Melbourne and Oriental Steam Navigation Company Limited. This did not prosper and White Star broke away, White Star concentrated on Liverpool to New York City services. Heavy investment in new ships was financed by borrowing, but the companys bank, White Star was left with an incredible debt of £527,000, and was forced into bankruptcy. Ismay established the headquarters at Albion House, Liverpool. Ismay was approached by Gustav Christian Schwabe, a prominent Liverpool merchant, and his nephew, Schwabe offered to finance the new line if Ismay had his ships built by Wolffs company, Harland and Wolff. Ismay agreed, and a partnership with Harland and Wolff was established, the shipbuilders received their first orders on 30 July 1869. The agreement was that Harland and Wolff would build the ships at cost plus a fixed percentage, in 1870, William Imrie joined the managing company. As the first ship was being commissioned, Ismay formed the Oceanic Steam Navigation Company to operate the steamers under construction, White Star began with six ships of the Oceanic class, Oceanic, Atlantic, Baltic, and Republic, followed by the slightly larger Celtic and Adriatic. White Star began operating again in 1871 between New York and Liverpool and it has long been customary for many shipping lines to have a common theme for the names of their ships. White Star gave their ships names ending in -ic, such as Titanic, the first substantial loss for the company came only four years after its founding, occurring in 1873 with the sinking of the SS Atlantic and the loss of 535 lives near Halifax, Nova Scotia
4.
Foss Maritime
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Foss Maritime is an American shipping company. The company was founded in 1889 by Thea Foss and her husband Andrew Foss, the company is now the largest tug and towing concern on the west coast of the United States. July 2,2013, Foss Marine Holdings announced that it all of its operations and resources under a single name. Foss was founded in 1889 by Thea Foss in Tacoma, Washington and she sold and rented out boats to appealing crowds of fishermen for 50 cents a day. Thea tripled her profit and then sold it for fifteen dollars and her easy profit boosted her business confidence to begin a full round tugboat company. Her signature styling of a tugboat was having white coating with a green trim around the skirt and this gave the Foss family the finances they needed to propel into a functioning business. During this point of time, they used many of their rowboats for ferrying purposes, in 1904, their family owned firm was transformed into the Foss Launch and Tow Co. which would go on to become one of the top maritime companies known on the West Coast. The Foss concern began with a single rowboat which Thea Foss rented to crews of vessels in Tacoma, under the management of Thea Foss, and the Foss family, the company then branched out into sailboats, naptha launches, gasoline-engined vessels, and scows and barges. When Thea Foss died in 1927, the company owned 27 gasoline, diesel, and steam powered vessels, in 1916 Foss Launch and Tug Company bought Captain O. G. Olsons Tacoma towing business, including the steam tugs Echo, Elf, Foss tug dieselised their fleet c.1930. In this way, they were in a position to weather the Depression. Their small competition either went under or were bought out, during the Second World War, Foss tugs were seconded to the US Navy to fight in the Pacific. Tugs were needed to help the Navy in the South Pacific, in the North Pacific with the Aleutian Campaign, more tugs were built in the emergency program and these became available after the war. Foss tug would buy and sell used tugboats and name them with a member of the family, many famous tugs from the Seattle area have been renamed for a Foss. The condition of the vessel and the amount of work contracts at the time dictated ownership, in the post war years, large pulp mills were built around Puget Sound, as were large bridges. These provided work for the tugs, cement, chemicals, pulp, aircraft, fish, and the Cold War, with the DEW line in Alaska, provided work. The North Slope oil boom continued the work for tugs after 1968, by this time Foss had expanded to deep sea work and had become harbor tugs in San Francisco and Los Angeles. Foss Maritime has 90 tugs and an number of barges
5.
Northwest Seaport
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The organization owns several large historic vessels moored at the Historic Ships Wharf in Seattles Lake Union Park. These vessels, especially the 1889 wooden tugboat Arthur Foss, are used as platforms for a variety of programs, ranging from shows. Northwest Seaport is adjacent to the Center for Wooden Boats on the shore of Lake Union in downtown Seattle, Northwest Seaport was founded in the early 1960s as the Save Our Ships project to save the Wawona. Save Our Ships bought the Wawona in 1964, followed by the light ship Relief, Northwest Seaport offers a variety of programs meant to reach a broad audience. Some programs are conducted in partnership with the Center for Wooden Boats, several boats and ships moored in South Lake Union make up the collection of Northwest Seaport. As of 2007 these vessels are on the National Register of Historic Places, The tugboat Arthur Foss, in 1898, in response to the Alaskan gold rush, she transported barges full of gold seeking miners and supplies up the Inside Passage. There are no other Alaskan Gold Rush vessels still operating today and she was cast by the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer movie studio to play in its 1933 production Tugboat Annie. In World War II, Arthur Foss journeyed south to join the war effort, before the Battle of Wake Island began in late 1941, she was the last vessel to get away. After the war she was used in the timber industry, the Arthur Foss has a six-cylinder,700 horsepower diesel engine. Her top speed is 13 knots, the vessel is 120 feet long with a beam of 25 feet and a draft of 16 feet. When last operated the vessel was owned by Foss Launch and Tug who donated her to Northwest Seaport in 1970, Northwest Seaport renovated her in 2004. The vessel was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1989 and is a city landmark as well, and a featured attraction at Seattles new South Lake Union Park. The vessel is open for tours on most summer weekends. Lightship #83, now called Swiftsure, is a lightvessel launched in Camden, New Jersey, in 1904 and now moored in Seattle, Washington. She steamed around the tip of South America to her first station at Blunts Reef in California, formerly known as Relief, Number 83 had numerous names on her sides, all of which indicated the location of her station. Swiftsure refers to the Swiftsure Bank near the entrance to the Strait of Juan de Fuca and she also guided ships near Umatilla Reef and the Columbia River Bar. Swiftsure is one of the oldest lightships in the country and the one to have her original steam engines. She is 129 feet long, with a beam of 28 feet, six inches and her aids to navigation include a 1,000 watt primary light, a 140-decibel Diaphone horn, and a 1,000 pound foredeck fog bell
6.
Willamette Iron and Steel Works
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Willamette Iron Works was a general foundry and machine business established in 1865 in Portland, Oregon, originally specializing in the manufacture of steamboat boilers and engines. In 1904, the changed its name to Willamette Iron and Steel Works. The works was busy during both World War I and World War II, building small naval auxiliaries, minesweepers, patrol craft, submarine chasers. These were built through WISCOs relationship with Henry Kaiser, the company built more than 70 ships during World War II, but they were smaller than those built by the three nearby Kaiser Shipyards. The ships were built on contract to the US and British governments, between the wars, the shipyard concentrated on building small commercial vessels. During the 1920s, the company manufactured a geared steam locomotive known as the Willamette, between 1901 and 1931 Willamette built over 2500 steam donkeys for use in the logging industry. During World War II Willamette assembled over 800 Russian gauge Baldwin steam locomotives and shipped them to Vladivostok. NW Front Ave. in Portland had a distance of Russian gauge track for the engines to move from the engine house on the west side of Front to the loading dock on the east side of street. These were shipped across the Pacific on USSR flagged ships, since the USSR, a Porter 0-6-0 was bought from the US Government in Panama to switch the broad gauge track. In the early 1970s, the company manufactured the first three units for the third powerhouse to be built at Grand Coulee Dam. The company also made fire hydrants for the city of Portland in the late 19th century, in 1945, after World War II ended, Willamette Iron and Steel continued as mostly a ship repair facility. Over the years, business dropped as larger shipyards grew, and Willamette finally closed in 1990
7.
Museum ship
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A museum ship, also called a memorial ship, is a ship that has been preserved and converted into a museum open to the public for educational or memorial purposes. Some are also used for training and recruitment purposes, mostly for the number of museum ships that are still operational. Many, if not most, museum ships are also associated with a maritime museum, only a few survive, sometimes because of historical significance, but more often due to luck and circumstance. The restoration and maintenance of museum ships presents problems for historians who are asked for advice, for instance, the rigging of sailing ships has almost never survived, and so the rigging plan must be reconstructed from various sources. Studying the ships also allows historians to analyze how life on and operation of the ships took place, numerous scientific papers have been written on ship restoration and maintenance, and international conferences are held discussing the latest developments. Another consideration is the distinction between a museum ship, and a ship replica. As repairs accumulate over time, less and less of the ship is of the materials. Visitors without historical background are often unable to distinguish between a historical museum ship and a ship replica, which may serve solely as a tourist attraction. Typically the visitor enters via gangplank, wanders around on the deck, then goes below, usually using the original stairways, giving a sense of how the crew got around. The interior features restored but inactivated equipment, enhanced with mementos including old photographs, explanatory displays, pages from the logs, menus. Some add recorded sound effects, audio tours or video displays to enhance the experience, in some cases, the ships radio room has been brought back into use, with volunteers operating amateur radio equipment. Often, the callsign assigned is a variation on the identification of the ship. For example, the submarine USS Cobia, which had the call NBQV, is now on the air as NB9QV. The World War II submarine USS Pampanito, berthed at the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park, had the wartime call NJVT and is now on the air as NJ6VT, in other cases, such as the USS Missouri, a distinctive call is used. This radio work not only helps restore part of the vessel, a number of the larger museum ships have begun to offer hosting for weddings, meetings, other events, and sleepovers, and on a few ships still seaworthy, cruises. In the United States, this includes the USS Constitutions annual turnaround, a place on the deck is by invitation or lottery only, and highly prized. Many consider the appeal of an interesting old vessel on the city waterfront strong enough that any port city should showcase one or more museum ships. This may even include building a ship at great expense
8.
Tugboat
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A tug is a boat or ship that maneuvers vessels by pushing or towing them. Tugboats are powerful for their size and strongly built, and some are ocean-going, some tugboats serve as icebreakers or salvage boats. Early tugboats had steam engines, but today most have diesel engines, many tugboats have firefighting monitors, allowing them to assist in firefighting, especially in harbors. Seagoing tugs fall into four categories, The standard seagoing tug with model bow that tows its payload on a hawser. The notch tug which can be secured in a notch at the stern of a specially designed barge and this configuration is dangerous to use with a barge which is in ballast or in a head- or following sea. Therefore, notch tugs are usually built with a towing winch and these units stay combined under virtually any sea conditions and the tugs usually have poor sea-keeping designs for navigation without their barges attached. Vessels in this category are considered to be ships rather than tugboats. These vessels must show navigation lights compliant with those required of ships rather than required of tugboats. Articulated tug and barge units also utilize mechanical means to connect to their barges, the tug slips into a notch in the stern and is attached by a hinged connection. ATBs generally utilize Intercon and Bludworth connecting systems, aTBs are generally staffed as a large tugboat, with between seven and nine crew members. The typical American ATB operating on the east coast customarily displays navigational lights of a towing vessel pushing ahead, compared to seagoing tugboats, harbour tugboats are generally smaller and their width-to-length ratio is often higher, due to the need for a lower draught. In smaller harbours these are also termed lunch bucket boats, because they are only manned when needed and only at a minimum. The number of tugboats in a harbour varies with the harbour infrastructure, things to take into consideration includes ships with/without bow thrusters and forces like wind, current and waves and types of ship. River tugs are also referred to as towboats or pushboats and their hull designs would make open ocean operation dangerous. River tugs usually do not have any significant hawser or winch and their hulls feature a flat front or bow to line up with the rectangular stern of the barge, often with large pushing knees. Tugboat engines typically produce 500 to 2,500 kW, for safety, tugboats engines often feature two of each critical part for redundancy. A tugboats power is stated by its engines horsepower and its overall bollard pull. The largest commercial harbour tugboats in the 2000s-2010s, used for towing container ships or similar, had around 60-65 tons of bollard pull, Tugboats are highly maneuverable, and various propulsion systems have been developed to increase maneuverability and increase safety
9.
Net tonnage
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Net tonnage is a dimensionless index calculated from the total moulded volume of the ships cargo spaces by using a mathematical formula. Net tonnage is used to calculate the port duties and should not be taken as less than 30 per cent of the gross tonnage. Net tonnage is not a measure of the weight of the ship or its cargo, also, unlike the net register tonnage, the net tonnage is unitless and thus can not be defined as tons or net tons. The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969 was adopted by IMO in 1969, Ships built before that date were given 12 years to migrate from their existing tonnage to use of NT and GT. The phase-in period was provided to allow time to adjust economically, since tonnage is the basis for satisfying manning regulations. Tonnage is also the basis for calculating registration fees and port dues, one of the Conventions goals was to ensure that the new units did not differ too greatly from the traditional GRT and NRT units. Both NT and GT are obtained by measuring ships volume and then applying a mathematical formula, Net tonnage is based on the moulded volume of all cargo spaces of the ship while gross tonnage is based on the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship. In addition, a net tonnage is constrained to be no less than 30% of her gross tonnage. The net tonnage calculation is based on a number of factors, the choice of the value to use for d can be complicated. For ships subject to the International Convention on Load Lines, the Summer Load Line draft is used, for passenger ships, the draft used is the deepest subdivision load line assigned in accordance with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea. Otherwise, if a ship has been assigned a load line by its national government, if the ship has no load line, instead, a maximum draft assigned by its national government, that value is used, if it has been assigned a maximum. Finally, for a ship to which none of the above applies, the Net tonnage calculation is defined in Regulation 4 of Annex 1 of The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969. In the United States, net tonnage is used to determine eligibility for registering boats with the federal government, vessels with net tonnage of five or more are eligible for federal registration and not required to display state registration numbers. Most vessels longer than 25 feet are five tons or more, International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969. International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969, archived from the original on 2009-07-07. Turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
10.
Gross tonnage
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Gross tonnage is a nonlinear measure of a ships overall internal volume. Gross tonnage is different from gross register tonnage, neither gross tonnage nor gross register tonnage should be confused with measures of mass or weight such as deadweight tonnage or displacement. These two measurements replaced gross register tonnage and net register tonnage, the International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969 was adopted by IMO in 1969. The Convention mandated a transition from the measurements of gross register tonnage and net register tonnage to gross tonnage. It was the first successful attempt to introduce a universal tonnage measurement system, various methods were previously used to calculate merchant ship tonnage, but they differed significantly and one single international system was needed. Previous methods traced back to George Moorsom of Great Britains Board of Trade who devised one such method in 1854, the tonnage determination rules apply to all ships built on or after July 18,1982. Ships built before that date were given 12 years to migrate from their existing gross register tonnage to use of GT, the phase-in period was provided to allow ships time to adjust economically, since tonnage is the basis for satisfying manning regulations and safety rules. Tonnage is also the basis for calculating registration fees and port dues, one of the Conventions goals was to ensure that the new calculated tonnages did not differ too greatly from the traditional gross and net register tonnages. Both GT and NT are obtained by measuring ships volume and then applying a mathematical formula, gross tonnage is based on the moulded volume of all enclosed spaces of the ship whereas net tonnage is based on the moulded volume of all cargo spaces of the ship. In addition, a net tonnage is constrained to be no less than 30% of her gross tonnage. The gross tonnage calculation is defined in Regulation 3 of Annex 1 of The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969. It is based on two variables, and ultimately an increasing function of ship volume, V, the ships total volume in cubic meters, and K. The value of the multiplier K varies in accordance with a total volume and is applied as a kind of amplification factor in determining the gross tonnage value. For smaller ships, K is smaller, for larger ships, note that the units of gross tonnage, which involve both meters and log-meters, have no physical significance, but were rather chosen for historical convenience. As an example, we can calculate the gross tonnage of a ship with 10,000 m3 total volume, newtons method may be used for obtaining an approximation to a ships volume given its gross tonnage. The exact formula is, V =50 × ln 10 × G T W where ln is the natural logarithm, Tonnage Compensated gross tonnage Ton List of worlds largest ships by gross tonnage International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969. International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships,1969, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A
11.
Washington Iron Works Skidder
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The Washington Winch is a steam-powered logging skidder, or cable winch. It was imported to Australia in the 1920s and was used to move the large Jarrah logs from the forests of Western Australia. It was later sold to the Forests Commission of Victoria for salvaging timber after the 1939 Black Friday fires and it is listed on the Victorian Heritage Register, and managed by the Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning. Washington Iron Works was a company in Seattle, Washington, founded by John M. Frink, the company was active from 1882 until the 1980s when its various divisions – manufacturing cranes, logging equipment, and presses – were gradually sold off. Washington Iron Works engines revolutionized steam logging in the 1920s and 1930s, the steam-powered winches were mounted on heavy log skid frames which allowed the winch to be transported to new sites. Many Washington skidders can still be seen in North America, the Washington Winch operated either a high lead or a skyline system. The high lead system was not often used as it only partially lifted the logs off the ground, which caused the logs to become caught in rocks, and left behind a snig track, which deepened over time. The skyline system involved two large spars used to create a flying fox to lift logs over the rough ground, riggers climbed 60m up a large tree and headed the trunk, which would cause the tree to sway violently. They then secured the spar with guy cables and attached the tackle and this operation was dangerous and physically demanding, often taking a full day, with lunch sent up on a rope. The Washington Winch was used to harvest Alpine Ash which would then be used for products such as furniture, flooring. Information panel at site Slackline Rigging North Bend Rigging High lead Rigging
12.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
13.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
14.
Seattle
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Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
15.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
16.
Portland, Oregon
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Portland is a port and the largest city in the U. S. state of Oregon and the seat of Multnomah County. It is in the Willamette Valley region of the Pacific Northwest, at the confluence of the Willamette, the city covers 145 square miles and had an estimated population of 632,309 in 2015, making it the 26th most populous city in the United States. Approximately 2,389,228 people live in the Portland metropolitan statistical area and its Combined Statistical Area ranks 17th with a population of 3,022,178. Roughly 60% of Oregons population resides within the Portland metropolitan area, named after Portland, Maine, the Oregon settlement began to be populated in the 1830s near the end of the Oregon Trail. Its water access provided convenient transportation of goods, and the industry was a major force in the citys early economy. At the turn of the 20th century, the city had a reputation as one of the most dangerous cities in the world. After the citys economy experienced a boom during World War II. Beginning in the 1960s, Portland became noted for its liberal political values, and the city has earned a reputation as a bastion of counterculture. According to a 2009 Pew Research Center study, Portland ranks as the eighth most popular American city, the city operates with a commission-based government guided by a mayor and four commissioners as well as Metro, the only directly elected metropolitan planning organization in the United States. The city government is notable for its planning and investment in public transportation. Its climate is marked by warm, dry summers and cool and this climate is ideal for growing roses, and Portland has been called the City of Roses for over a century. Keep Portland Weird is a slogan for the city. During the prehistoric period, the land that would become Portland was flooded after the collapse of glacial dams from Lake Missoula and these massive floods occurred during the last ice age and filled the Willamette Valley with 300 to 400 feet of water. The Chinook people occupying the land which would become Portland were first documented by Meriwether Lewis, before its European settlement, the Portland Basin of the lower Columbia River and Willamette River valleys had been one of the most densely populated regions on the Pacific Coast. Large numbers of settlers began arriving in the Willamette Valley in the 1830s via the Oregon Trail. In the early 1840s a new settlement began emerging ten miles from the mouth of the Willamette River and this community was initially referred to as Stumptown and The Clearing because of the many trees cut down to allow for its growth. In 1843 William Overton saw potential in the new settlement but lacked the funds to file a land claim. For 25 cents Overton agreed to half of the 640-acre site with Asa Lovejoy of Boston
17.
Columbia Bar
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The Columbia Bar, also frequently called the Columbia River Bar, is a system of bars and shoals at the mouth of the Columbia River spanning the U. S. states of Oregon and Washington. The bar is about 3 miles wide and 6 miles long, the bar is where the rivers current dissipates into the Pacific Ocean, often as large standing waves. The waves are caused by the deposition of sediment as the river slows. The waves, wind, and current are hazardous for vessels of all sizes, the Columbia current varies from 4 to 7 knots westward, and therefore into the predominantly westerly winds and ocean swells, creating significant surface conditions. Unlike other major rivers, the current is focused like a fire hose without the benefit of a river delta, conditions can change from calm to life-threatening in as little as five minutes due to changes of direction of wind and ocean swell. The navigational channel is 2,640 feet wide at the west end, the channel is dredged to 55 feet in the northern three-quarters and 48 feet for the southern quarter. Inside the bar, the channel remains 600 feet wide and reduces to 43 feet deep and it is the only school for rough weather and surf rescue operation in the US, and is respected internationally as a center of excellence for heavy boat operations. Approximately 16 bar pilots, earning about $180,000 per year, guide ships across the bar and they generally consider the bar to be the area between the north and south jetties and Sand Island. Historically the regions mariners nickname was the Graveyard of the Pacific, the Graveyard also includes the rocky, rugged shoreline of the west coast of Vancouver Island, the shores of the Olympic Peninsula, and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. As a practical tip, small craft are advised to cross the bar during the flood tide. The most accessible place to watch ships cross the bar is at the South Jetty viewing platform at Fort Stevens State Park located near Hammond and this is also the north end of the Oregon Coast Trail. For a more dramatic view, hike the steep 0.75 mile trail to the Cape Disappointment Lighthouse at the Cape Disappointment State Park located in Ilwaco, Washington. King & Winge Columbia, historic navigational aid into the Columbia River Rabboni, rough Bar photos at Columbia River Bar Pilots website Columbia River Bar Pilots Video produced by Oregon Field Guide
18.
Strait of Juan de Fuca
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The Strait of Juan de Fuca is a large body of water about 95 miles long that is the Salish Seas outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The international boundary between Canada and the United States runs down the center of the Strait, barkley was the first non-indigenous person to find the strait, unless Juan de Fucas story was true. The strait was explored in detail between 1789 and 1791 by Manuel Quimper, José María Narváez, Juan Carrasco, Gonzalo López de Haro, the USGS defines the Strait of Juan de Fuca as a channel. It extends east from the Pacific Ocean between Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and the Olympic Peninsula, Washington, to Haro Strait, San Juan Channel, Rosario Strait, and Puget Sound. The Pacific Ocean boundary is formed by a line between Cape Flattery and Tatoosh Island, Washington, and Carmanah Point, British Columbia, the northern coast of the Olympic Peninsula forms the southern boundary of the strait. In the eastern entrance to the Strait, the Race Rocks Archipelago is located in the current zone halfway between Port Angeles, Washington, and Victoria, BC. While the climate is oceanic in nature, the dry summers result in the Mediterranean classification in the Köppen system. Rainfall ranges from over 100 inches conditions at the west end to as little as 16 inches at the east end and this strait remains the subject of a maritime boundary dispute between Canada and the United States. The dispute is only over the boundary extending 200 miles west from the mouth of the strait. The maritime boundary within the strait is not in dispute, both governments have proposed a boundary based on the principle of equidistance, but with different basepoint selections, resulting in small differences in the line. Resolution of the issue should be simple, but has been hindered because it might influence other unresolved maritime boundary issues between Canada and the United States, the proposed equidistant boundary currently marks the northern boundary of the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. British Columbias position is based on the principle of natural prolongation which developed in international law and it poses a dilemma for the federal government of Canada. In this Atlantic Ocean context, Canada favours an outcome based on the principle of equidistance. C, making Salish Sea official required a formal application to the Geographical Names Board of Canada. This latter definition was made official in 2009 by geographic boards of Canada, the United States Board on Geographic Names approved the name on November 12,2009. Some Pacific Coast murres paddle north to the bays of the Strait of Juan de Fuca to feed on herring. A live weather station of the Race Rocks
19.
Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, the Washington Territory was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The area was part of a region called the Columbia District after the Columbia River. The area was renamed Washington in order to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia, Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president. To distinguish it from the U. S. capital, which is named for George Washington, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, or, in more formal contexts. Washingtonians and other residents of the Pacific Northwest refer to the state simply as Washington, calling the nations capital Washington, D. C. or, often, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
20.
Lightvessel
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A lightvessel, or lightship, is a ship which acts as a lighthouse. They are used in waters that are too deep or otherwise unsuitable for lighthouse construction, the type has become largely obsolete, some stations were replaced by lighthouses as the construction techniques for the latter advanced, while others were replaced by large, automated buoys. A crucial element of design is the mounting of a light on a sufficiently tall mast. Initially, this consisted of oil lamps which could be run up the mast, later vessels carried fixed lamps, which were serviced in place. Fresnel lenses were used as they became available, and many vessels housed these in small versions of the used on lighthouses. Some lightships had two masts, the holding a reserve beacon in case the main light failed. Initially, the hulls were constructed of wood, with lines like those of any other small merchant ship and this proved to be unsatisfactory for a ship that was permanently anchored, and the shape of the hull evolved to reduce rolling and pounding. As iron and steel were used in ships, so were they used in lightvessels. Earlier vessels had to be towed to and from station, much of the rest of the ship was taken up by storage and crew accommodations. The primary duty of the crew was, of course, to maintain the light, but they also record of passing ships, observed the weather. Tests conducted by Trinity House found that sound from a bell submerged some 18 feet could be heard at a distance of 15 miles, holding the vessel in position was an important aspect of lightvessel engineering. Early lightships used fluke anchors, which are still in use on many contemporary vessels and these were not very satisfactory, since a lightship has to remain stationary in very rough seas which other vessels can avoid, and these anchors are prone to dragging. Since the early 19th century, lightships have used mushroom anchors, named for their shape and they were invented by Robert Stevenson. The first lightvessel equipped with one was an 82-ton converted fishing boat, renamed Pharos, which entered service on 15 September 1807 near to Bell Rock, the effectiveness of these anchors improved dramatically in the 1820s, when cast iron anchor chains were introduced. The designs varied, filled circles or globes, and pairs of inverted cones being the most common among them, a few ships had differently coloured hulls. For example, the Huron Lightship was painted black since she was assigned the black side of the entrance to the Lake Huron Cut. The lightvessel that operated at Minots Ledge, Cohasset, Mass. from 1854 until 1860 had a light yellow hull to make it visible against the blue-green seas, the earliest British lightship was placed in 1734, in The Nore near the mouth of the River Thames. Further vessels were placed off Norfolk in 1736, at Owers Bank in Sussex in 1788, in England and Wales, Trinity House is in charge of all lightvessels
21.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
22.
Columbia River
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The Columbia River is the largest river in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. The river rises in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, Canada and it flows northwest and then south into the US state of Washington, then turns west to form most of the border between Washington and the state of Oregon before emptying into the Pacific Ocean. The river is 1,243 miles long, and its largest tributary is the Snake River and its drainage basin is roughly the size of France and extends into seven US states and a Canadian province. By volume, the Columbia is the fourth-largest river in the United States, the rivers heavy flow and relatively steep gradient gives it tremendous potential for the generation of electricity. The Columbia and its tributaries have been central to the regions culture and they have been used for transportation since ancient times, linking the many cultural groups of the region. The river system hosts many species of fish, which migrate between freshwater habitats and the saline waters of the Pacific Ocean. In the following decades, fur trading companies used the Columbia as a key transportation route, steamships along the river linked communities and facilitated trade, the arrival of railroads in the late 19th century, many running along the river, supplemented these links. Since the late 19th century, public and private sectors have developed the river. The development, commonly referred to as taming or harnessing of the river, has been massive, to aid ship and barge navigation, locks have been built along the lower Columbia and its tributaries, and dredging has opened, maintained, and enlarged shipping channels. Since the early 20th century, dams have been built across the river for the purposes of power generation, navigation, irrigation, and flood control. Today, a reservoir lies along nearly every US mile of the once free-flowing river. Production of nuclear power has taken place at two sites along the river, plutonium for nuclear weapons was produced for decades at the Hanford Site, which is now the most contaminated nuclear site in the US. All these developments have had a impact on river environments, mainly through industrial pollution. The Columbia begins its 1, 243-mile journey in the southern Rocky Mountain Trench in British Columbia, Columbia Lake –2,690 feet above sea level – and the adjoining Columbia Wetlands form the rivers headwaters. The trench is a broad, deep, and long glacial valley between the Canadian Rockies and the Columbia Mountains in BC. Rounding the northern end of the Selkirk Mountains, the river turns south through a region known as the Big Bend Country, passing through Revelstoke Lake. Revelstoke, the Big Bend, and the Columbia Valley combined are referred to in BC parlance as the Columbia Country. Below the Arrow Lakes, the Columbia passes the cities of Castlegar, located at the Columbias confluence with the Kootenay River, the Pend Oreille River joins the Columbia about 2 miles north of the US–Canada border
23.
Astoria, Oregon
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Astoria is the seat of Clatsop County, Oregon, United States. Situated near the mouth of the Columbia River, the city was named after the American investor John Jacob Astor and his American Fur Company founded Fort Astoria at the site in 1811,206 years ago. Astoria was incorporated by the Oregon Legislative Assembly on October 20,1876 and it holds the distinction of being the first permanent United States settlement on the Pacific coast and for having the first U. S. post office west of the Rocky Mountains. Located on the shore of the Columbia River, the city is served by the deepwater Port of Astoria. The population was 9,477 at the 2010 census, the Lewis and Clark Expedition spent the winter of 1805–06 at Fort Clatsop, a small log structure south and west of modern-day Astoria. The expedition had hoped a ship would come by to take them back east, today the fort has been recreated and is now a historical park. In 1811, British explorer David Thompson, the first person known to have navigated the length of the Columbia River. He arrived just two months after the Pacific Fur Companys ship, the Tonquin, the fort constructed by the Tonquin party established Astoria as a U. S. rather than a British, settlement. It became a vital post for American exploration of the continent and was used as an American claim in the Oregon boundary dispute with European nations. The Pacific Fur Company, a subsidiary of John Jacob Astors American Fur Company, was created to begin fur trading in the Oregon Country, during the War of 1812, in 1813, the companys officers sold its assets to their Canadian rivals, the North West Company. The fur trade would remain under British control until U. S. pioneers following the Oregon Trail began filtering into the town in the mid-1840s, the Treaty of 1818 established joint U. S. – British occupancy of the Oregon Country, in 1846, the Oregon Treaty divided the mainland at the 49th parallel north, and the southern portion of Vancouver Island south of this line was awarded to the British. Washington Irving, a prominent American writer with a European reputation, was approached by John Jacob Astor to mythologize the three-year reign of his Pacific Fur Company, Astoria, written while Irving was Astors guest, cemented the importance of the region in the American psyche. The first U. S. post office west of the Rocky Mountains was established in Astoria in 1847, Astoria attracted a host of immigrants beginning in the late 19th century, Nordic settlers, primarily Finns, and Chinese soon became larger parts of the population. By the late 1800s, 22% of Astorias population was Chinese, in 1883, and again in 1922, downtown Astoria was devastated by fire, partly because it was mostly wood and entirely raised off the marshy ground on pilings. Even after the first fire, the format was used. Frantic citizens resorted to dynamite, blowing up entire buildings to stop the fire from going further, Astorias economy centered on fishing, fish processing, and lumber. The lumber industry declined, Astoria Plywood Mill, the citys largest employer, closed in 1989
24.
Cape Cod
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Cape Cod is a geographic cape extending into the Atlantic Ocean from the southeastern corner of mainland Massachusetts, in the northeastern United States. Its historic, maritime character and ample beaches attract heavy tourism during the summer months, as defined by the Cape Cod Commissions enabling legislation, Cape Cod is conterminous with Barnstable County, Massachusetts. It extends from Provincetown in the northeast to Woods Hole in the southwest, since 1914, Cape Cod has been separated from the mainland by the Cape Cod Canal. The canal cuts 17.5 miles roughly across the base of the peninsula, though portions of the Cape Cod towns of Bourne. Two highway bridges cross the Cape Cod Canal, the Sagamore Bridge, in addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight and limited passenger services onto the Cape. Cape territory is divided into fifteen towns with many villages, like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to become resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and other tourists. Both islands are also famous summer tourist destinations, commonly accessed by ferry from several locations on the cape, the phrases Cape Cod and the Islands and the Cape and Islands are often used to describe the whole region of Barnstable County, Dukes County, and Nantucket County. Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, the Forbes family-owned Naushon Island was first purchased by John Murray Forbes. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned, one of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk, with a year-round population of 52 people. Cape Cod in particular is a retirement area,27. 8% of the population of Barnstable County is 65 years old or older. And the average age of residents is the highest of any area in New England, by voter registration numbers, Democrats outnumber Republicans by less in the three counties than in the whole of Massachusetts, to varying degrees. The name Cape Cod, as it was first used in 1602 and it remained that way for 125 years, until the Precinct of Cape Cod was incorporated as the Town of Provincetown. No longer in use over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all of the land east of the Manomet and Scusset rivers – essentially along the line that became the Cape Cod Canal. The creation of the canal separated the majority of the peninsula from the mainland, most agencies, including the Cape Cod Commission and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, treat the Cape as an island with regard to disaster preparedness, groundwater management, and the like. Cape Cod Bay lies in between Cape Cod and the mainland – bounded on the north by a line between Provincetown and Marshfield. North of Cape Cod Bay is Massachusetts Bay, which contains the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east of Cape Cod, and to the southwest of the Cape is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay, Cape Cod extends 65 miles into the Atlantic Ocean, with a breadth of between 1–20 miles, and covers more than 400 miles of shoreline. Its elevation ranges from 306 feet at its highest point, at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of Joint Base Cape Cod, one of the biggest barrier islands in the world, Cape Cod shields much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves
25.
James William Troup
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James William Troup was an American steamship captain, Canadian Pacific Railway administrator and shipping pioneer. Captain James William Troup was born in Portland, Oregon in February,1855 and he was the son of Capt. Willam H. Troup, a prominent early steamboatman in the Pacific Northwest. His maternal grandfather was sailing ship Capt, James had a younger brother, Claud Troup who was also an accomplished steamboat captain. James Troup also had a son, Roy Troup, who became a steamboat captain, together with his father, Captain Troup built many of the early steamboats of the Columbia River and he went to work on the steamer Vancouver in 1872 at the age of 17. By the age of 20 he was captain of the propeller steamer Wasp. Troup went to work on the Columbia river above the Cascades, when the first Harvest Queen, a big new steamer was built in 1878, Troup was appointed her master, even though he was only 23 years of age. This required running the rapids either at Celilo Falls, the Cascades, in 1881, Troup ran Harvest Queen over Celilo Falls, where she was nearly wrecked, and then through the Cascades. In 1881, he also took Idaho through the Cascades, in 1883 Troup began working in British Columbia for J. A. Mara, owner of the Peerless and Spallumcheen, two steamboats running on Kamloops and Shuswap lakes and the Thompson River. He also won the trust of Captain John Irving as a steamboat captain. Irving also gave Troup command of the huge and difficult to manage sidewheeler Yosemite on the route from Victoria to New Westminster and he worked in Oregon until 1892, and during this time he supervised construction of many steamboats, including the famous T. J. In 1891, Victorian was launched at Portland, Oregon and this ship was an extremely large vessel for one built entirely of wood. She was also underpowered, and became one of Troups few design failures, on May 26,1888, Troup took the sternwheeler Hassalo through the Cascades of the Columbia, covering the six miles of whitewater in just seven minutes. Unlike the record run of the Thompson, though, the run of the Hassalo was witnessed by 3,000 people. While Troup was in Oregon, his old Canadian colleagues John Irving, Mara had joined with Frank S. Barnard and two others to form the Columbia and Kootenay Steam Navigation Company. Mara persuaded Troup to return to Canada and supervise his companys operations on the inland lakes of British Columbia. Troup arrived back in Canada in March 1892 to take up his new post at Nelson and he designed many of the inland steamboats used on the lakes, and each boat was specifically built for a particular task, such as towing or passenger work. When Maras company was out by the Canadian Pacific Railway. When the Klondike Gold Rush generated a demand for shipping in 1898
26.
Klondike Gold Rush
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The Klondike Gold Rush was a migration by an estimated 100,000 prospectors to the Klondike region of the Yukon in north-western Canada between 1896 and 1899. Gold was discovered there by miners on August 16,1896 and. Some became wealthy, but the majority went in vain and it has been immortalized in photographs, books, films, and artifacts. To reach the fields most took the route through the ports of Dyea. Here, the Klondikers could follow either the Chilkoot or the White Pass trails to the Yukon River, each of them was required to bring a years supply of food by the Canadian authorities in order to prevent starvation. In all, their equipment weighed close to a ton, which for most had to be carried in stages by themselves, together with mountainous terrain and cold climate this meant that those who persisted did not arrive until summer 1898. Once there, they found few opportunities and many left disappointed, mining was challenging as the ore was distributed in an uneven manner and digging was made slow by permafrost. As a result, some chose to buy and sell claims, building up huge investments. To accommodate the prospectors, boom towns sprang up along the routes and at their end Dawson City was founded at the confluence of the Klondike, from a population of 500 in 1896, the town grew to house around 30,000 people by summer 1898. Built of wood, isolated and unsanitary, Dawson suffered from fires, high prices, despite this, the wealthiest prospectors spent extravagantly gambling and drinking in the saloons. The Native Hän people, on the hand, suffered from the rush, being moved into a reserve to make way for the stampeders. From 1898, the newspapers that had encouraged so many to travel to the Klondike lost interest in it. In the summer of 1899, gold was discovered around Nome in west Alaska, the boom towns declined and the population of Dawson City fell. Gold mining activity lasted until 1903 when production peaked after heavier equipment was brought in, since then the Klondike has been mined on and off, and today the legacy draws tourists to the region and contributes to its prosperity. The indigenous peoples in north-west America had traded in copper prior to European expansion. Most of the tribes were aware that gold existed in region, in the second half of the 19th century, American prospectors began to spread into the area. Making deals with the Native Tlingit and Tagish tribes, the early prospectors opened the important routes of Chilkoot and White Pass, here, they encountered the Hän people, semi-nomadic hunters and fishermen who lived along the Yukon and Klondike Rivers. The Hän did not appear to know about the extent of the deposits in the region
27.
Yosemite (sidewheeler)
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The steamboat Yosemite operated for almost fifty years on San Francisco Bay, the Sacramento River, inland coastal waters and the lower Fraser River in British Columbia, and Puget Sound. Yosemite was built in 1862 at the yard of John Gunder North, for a vessel built entirely of wood, Yosemite was enormous. She was 282 long after her following the 1865 boiler explosion. 35 beam and 13 depth of hold, and rated at 1525 tons and she was a side-wheel steamer built entirely of wood with a single-cylinder “walking-beam” steam engine with a 57 bore and a 122 stroke. Another source gives different dimensions,283.2 long,34.8 on the beam,13.6 depth of hold. On October 12,1865, as she was leaving the Rio Vista landing bound down river, her boiler exploded, killing 55 people and scalding and injuring many more. She was equipped with new boilers then, and once again in 1876, railroad competition in California forced her to be laid up at Oakland from 1879 to 1883. Yosemite proved to be a good purchase for Commodore Irving, despite her reputation arising from the 1865 boiler explosion, Yosemite ran in Canadian waters for many years without significant trouble. In those times, ships were subject to health quarantines, in particular for smallpox, officials were sometimes too quick to declare a smallpox quarantine, which happened twice in July 1892 to Yosemite. Twice she was barred at Vancouver from landing passengers coming from Victoria, court action was necessary to persuade the Vancouver officials to allow Yosemite to land in their city. By this time, Yosemite was almost 40 years old, in 1906, the Canadian Pacific Railway sold Yosemite to the Puget Sound Excursion Company. This company had been organized by Capt. Thomas Grant to run cruises, once in Seattle, Yosemite was rebuilt somewhat by John B. Mitchell. The main deck and social hall were extended all the way forward to be flush with the bow, and a large dancing pavilion was installed. By the spring of 1907, Yosemite was in operation under command of Captain Grant, carrying up to 1,000 passengers at a time from Seattle to Bremerton, music was provided by Wagner’s Band and food service by Lord and Meeks, a well-known Seattle catering firm. The surviving photographs of Yosemite seem to show an astounding number of people on her decks. Among other trips, in 1908, Yosemite carried almost the entire student body of the University of Washington out into Puget Sound to greet the Great White Fleet, boxing matches were held on her lower deck. Perhaps somewhat incongruously with hosting boxing matches, Yosemite on July 20,1907 or 1908, Yosemite was wrecked on July 9,1909 at Port Orchard Narrows, in broad daylight. The circumstances of the wreck were never cleared up
28.
Inside Passage
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The Inside Passage is a coastal route for oceangoing vessels along a network of passages which weave through the islands on the Pacific coast of North America. The route extends from southeastern Alaska, in the United States, through western British Columbia, in Canada, to northwestern Washington state, in the United States. Ships using the route can avoid some of the bad weather in the open ocean, the Inside Passage is heavily travelled by cruise ships, freighters, tugs with tows, fishing craft and ships of the Alaska Marine Highway, BC Ferries, and Washington State Ferries systems. The term Inside Passage is also used to refer to the ocean. It is generally accepted that the Inside Passage starts in Puget Sound in Washington and then north, first along the British Columbia Coast. In use during the Klondike Gold Rush the passage was one of the sea routes from Seattle, British Columbias portion of the route has up to 25,000 miles of coastline. From Fitz Hugh Sound northwards, the route is sheltered via the large islands in that area such as Princess Royal Island. The Alaskan portion of the Inside Passage extends 500 miles from north to south and 100 miles from east to west, the area encompasses 1,000 islands,15,000 miles of shoreline and thousands of coves and bays. The Inside Passage is a destination for enthusiasts of all kinds. The coastal mountain ranges and islands make for excellent wildlife viewing, the communities of Southeast Alaska are excellent launchpads for every level of adventure traveler skill level. Day hikes on local beaches and trails are a favorite with locals and visitors to more extensive and remote camping, kayaking, wildlife viewing in the region ranges from spectacular birding to whale watching and bear viewing. Designated bear viewing is available at Anan Creek near Wrangell and at Pack Creek Bear Sanctuary on Admiralty Island near Juneau. British author Jonathan Raban described his journey by boat through the Inside Passage from Seattle to Juneau in his 1999 travelogue Passage to Juneau, A Sea, kayaking the Inside Passage, A Paddlers Guide from Olympia, Washington to Muir Glacier, Alaska
29.
St. Michael, Alaska
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St. Michael is a city in Nome Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 401 at the 2010 census, St. Michael is located at 63°28′43″N 162°02′14″W on the east side of St. Michael Island at the southeastern end of the Norton Sound. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 28.1 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 368 people,90 households, the population density was 16.9 people per square mile. There were 93 housing units at a density of 4.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 6. 79% White,92. 66% Native American,0. 27% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 18. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 4. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 4.09 and the average family size was 4.79. In the city, the population was out with 43. 8% under the age of 18,11. 1% from 18 to 24,28. 0% from 25 to 44,14. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 22 years, for every 100 females there were 114.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 120.2 males, the median income for a household in the city was $33,036, and the median income for a family was $34,000. Males had an income of $31,250 versus $16,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $10,692, about 24. 2% of families and 22. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23. 1% of those under age 18 and 41. 7% of those age 65 or over. St. Michael is served by the Bering Strait School District, anthony A. Andrews School serves grades Pre-K through 12 grades. Redoubt St. Michael was founded in 1833 by traders of the Russian-American Company, the trading settlement and the island were named after the archangel Michael. Fort St. Michael, a U. S. military post, was established in 1897, during the gold rush of 1897, it was a major gateway to the Alaskan interior via the Yukon River Delta. As many as 10,000 persons were said to live in St. Michael during the gold rush, St. Michael was also a popular trading post for Alaska Natives to trade their goods for Western supplies. Centralization of many Yupiks from the surrounding villages intensified after the epidemic of 1900. St. Michaels population today is largely Yupik, many residents are also descendants of the Russian traders
30.
Yukon River
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The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. The source of the river is located in British Columbia, Canada, the lower half of the river lies in the U. S. state of Alaska. The river is 3,190 kilometres long and empties into the Bering Sea at the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, the average flow is 6,430 m³/s. The total drainage area is 832,700 km², of which 323,800 km² is in Canada, the total area is more than 25% larger than Texas or Alberta. The longest river in Alaska and Yukon, it was one of the means of transportation during the 1896–1903 Klondike Gold Rush. A portion of the river in Yukon—The Thirty Mile section, from Lake Laberge to the Teslin River—is a national heritage river, paddle-wheel riverboats continued to ply the river until the 1950s, when the Klondike Highway was completed. The name Yukon, or ųųg han, is a contraction of the words in the Gwichin phrase chųų gąįį han, which means white water river and refers to the visual effect of glacial silt in the Yukon River. The contraction omits the consonant “ch” and the vowels “ąįį. ”In 1843, the Holikachuks had told the Russians that their name for the river was Yukkhana and that this name meant big river. Although it served as the name of a big river, Yukkhana does not literally correspond to a Holikachuk phrase that means big river. The Holikachuks had borrowed the upriver language name and conflated its meaning with the meaning of Kuigpak, two years later, the Gwich’ins told the Hudson’s Bay Company that their name for the river was Yukon and that the name meant white water river. White water river in fact corresponds to Gwich’in words that can be shortened to form Yukon, the Lewes River is the former name of the upper course of the Yukon, from Marsh Lake to the confluence of the Pelly River at Fort Selkirk. The Yukon River has had a history of pollution from mining, military installations, dumps, wastewater. The generally accepted source of the Yukon River is the Llewellyn Glacier at the end of Atlin Lake in British Columbia. Others suggest that the source is Lake Lindeman at the end of the Chilkoot Trail. Either way, Atlin Lake flows into Tagish Lake, as eventually does Lake Lindeman after flowing into Bennett Lake, Tagish Lake then flows into Marsh Lake. The Yukon River proper starts at the end of Marsh Lake. Some argue that the source of the Yukon River should really be Teslin Lake and the Teslin River, the upper end of the Yukon River was originally known as the Lewes River until it was established that it actually was the Yukon. North of Whitehorse, the Yukon River widens into Lake Laberge, other large lakes that are part of the Yukon River system include Kusawa Lake and Kluane Lake
31.
Skagway, Alaska
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The Municipality and Borough of Skagway is a first-class borough in Alaska on the Alaska Panhandle. As of the 2010 census, the population was 920, estimates put the 2015 population at 1,057 people. The population doubles in the summer tourist season in order to deal more than 900,000 visitors. Incorporated as a Borough on June 25,2007, it was previously a city in the Skagway-Yakutat-Angoon Census Area, the port of Skagway is a popular stop for cruise ships, and the tourist trade is a big part of the business of Skagway. The White Pass and Yukon Route narrow gauge railroad, part of the mining past, is now in operation purely for the tourist trade. Skagway is also part of the setting for Jack Londons book The Call of the Wild, Will Hobbss book Jasons Gold, Skagway is derived from shԍagéi, a Tlingit idiom which figuratively refers to rough seas in the Taiya Inlet, that are caused by strong north winds. Skagway was derived from shԍagéi, a Tlingit idiom which figuratively refers to rough seas in the Taiya Inlet, the word is also a gerund, derived from the Tlingit verb theme -sha-ka-l-ԍéi, which means, in the case of a woman, to be beautiful. The rough seas caused by these winds are referred to by the use of Kanagu’s nickname. Except for the fact that “Kanagu … lives in bay, ” the identity of the Kanagu stone formation is not recorded, however, it is likely to be Face Mountain, which is seen from Skagway bay. The Tlingit name for Face Mountain translates to Kanagu’s Image, the area around present-day Skagway was inhabited by Tlingit people from prehistoric times. They fished and hunted in the waters and forests of the area and had become prosperous by trading with groups of people on the coast. One prominent resident of early Skagway was William Billy Moore, a steamboat captain. As a member of an 1887 boundary survey expedition, he had made the first recorded investigation of the pass over the Coast Mountains, which later became known as White Pass. He believed that lay in the Klondike because it had been found in similar mountain ranges in South America, Mexico, California. In 1887, he and his son, J. Bernard Ben Moore, Moore settled in this area because he believed it provided the most direct route to the potential goldfields. They built a log cabin, a sawmill, and a wharf in anticipation of future gold prospectors passing through, the boundary between Canada and the United States along the Alaska Panhandle was only vaguely defined then. There were overlapping land claims from the United States purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867, the Klondike gold rush changed everything. In 1896, gold was found in the Klondike region of Canadas Yukon Territory, on July 29,1897, the steamer Queen docked at Moores wharf with the first boat load of prospectors
32.
Barque
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A barque, barc, or bark is a type of sailing vessel with three or more masts having the fore- and mainmasts rigged square and only the mizzen rigged fore-and-aft. The word barque entered English via French, which in came from the Latin barca by way of Occitan. The Latin barca may stem from Celtic barc or Greek baris, the Oxford English Dictionary considers the latter improbable. The word barc appears to have come from Celtic languages, the form adopted by English, perhaps from Irish, was bark, while that adopted by Latin as barca very early, which gave rise to the French barge and barque. In Latin, Spanish and Italian the term refers to a small boat. French influence in England led to the use in English of both words, although their meanings now are not the same, well before the 19th century a barge had become interpreted as a small vessel of coastal or inland waters. Somewhat later, a became a sailing vessel of a distinctive rig as detailed below. In Britain, by the century, the spelling had taken on the French form of barque. Francis Bacon used this form of the word as early as 1592, throughout the period of sail, the word was used also as a shortening of the barca-longa of the Mediterranean Sea. The usual convention is that spelling barque refers to a ship and bark to tree hide, barcarole in music shares the same etymology, being originally a folk song sung by Venetian gondolier and derived from barca - boat in Italian. In the 18th century, the British Royal Navy used the bark for a nondescript vessel that did not fit any of its usual categories. She happened to be a sailing vessel with a plain bluff bow. Our Northern Mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this distinction to a broad-sterned ship, hon. the Earl of Sussex, Lord Deputy of Ireland. By the end of the 18th century, the term came to refer to any vessel with a particular type of sail-plan. This comprises three masts, fore-and-aft sails on the aftermost mast and square sails on all other masts, barques were the workhorse of the Golden Age of Sail in the mid-19th century as they attained passages that nearly matched full rigged ships but could operate with smaller crews. Conversely, the ship rig tended to be retained for training vessels where the larger the crew, another advantage is that a barque can outperform a schooner or barkentine, and is both easier to handle and better at going to windward than a full-rigged ship. Usually the main mast was the tallest, that of Moshulu extends to 58 m off the deck, the four-masted barque can be handled with a surprisingly small crew—at minimum, ten—and while the usual crew was around thirty, almost half of them could be apprentices. Today many sailing ships are barques
33.
Gale
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A gale is a very strong wind. There are conflicting definitions of how strong a wind must be to be considered a gale, the U. S. National Weather Service defines a gale as 34–47 knots of sustained surface winds. Forecasters typically issue gale warnings when winds of strength are expected. Other sources use minima as low as 28 knots and maxima as high as 90 knots, through 1986, the National Hurricane Center used the term gale to refer to winds of tropical force for coastal areas, between 33 knots and 63 knots. The 90 knots definition is very non-standard, a common alternative definition of the maximum is 55 knots. The most common way of measuring winds is with the Beaufort scale and it is an empirical measure for describing wind speed based mainly on observed sea conditions. Its full name is the Beaufort Wind Force Scale, on the Beaufort Wind Scale, a gale is classified as,7, Moderate Gale,8, Fresh Gale,9, Strong Gale and 10, Storm/Whole Gale. There is a unique Beaufort Scale number and a unique Arrow Indication for each type of Wind Description mentioned above, the word gale is derived from the older gail, but its origin is uncertain
34.
Barge
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A barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal transport of heavy goods. Some barges are not self-propelled and must be towed or pushed by towboats, Barge is attested from 1300, from Old French barge, from Vulgar Latin barga. The word originally could refer to any small boat, the modern meaning arose around 1480, bark small ship is attested from 1420, from Old French barque, from Vulgar Latin barca. The more precise meaning three-masted ship arose in the 17th century, both are probably derived from the Latin barica, from Greek, βάρις, translit. Egyptian boat, from Coptic, ⲃⲁⲁⲣⲉ bāri small boat, hieroglyphic Egyptian, by extension, the term embark literally means to board the kind of boat called a barque. The long pole used to maneuver or propel a barge has given rise to the saying I wouldnt touch that with a barge pole. On the British canal system, the barge is used to describe a boat wider than a narrowboat. In the United States, deckhands perform the labor and are supervised by a leadman or the mate, the captain and pilot steer the towboat, which pushes one or more barges held together with rigging, collectively called the tow. The crew live aboard the towboat as it travels along the river system or the intracoastal waterways. These towboats travel between ports and are also called line-haul boats, poles are used on barges to fend off the barge as it nears other vessels or a wharf. These are often called pike poles, barges are used today for low-value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods by barge is very low. Barges are also used for heavy or bulky items, a typical American barge measures 195 by 35 feet. The most common European barge measures 76.5 by 11.4 metres, as an example, on June 26,2006, a 565-short-ton catalytic cracking unit reactor was shipped by barge from the Tulsa Port of Catoosa in Oklahoma to a refinery in Pascagoula, Mississippi. Extremely large objects are normally shipped in sections and assembled onsite, of the reactors 700-mile journey, only about 40 miles were traveled overland, from the final port to the refinery. Canal barges are made for the particular canal in which they will operate. Many barges, primarily Dutch barges, which were designed for carrying cargo along the canals of Europe, are no longer large enough to compete in this industry with larger newer vessels. Many of these barges have been renovated and are now used as hotel barges carrying holidaymakers along the same canals on which they once carried grain or coal. This holds true today, for areas of the world
35.
Juneau, Alaska
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The City and Borough of Juneau, is the capital city of Alaska. It is a municipality located on the Gastineau Channel in the Alaskan panhandle. Juneau has been the capital of Alaska since 1906, when the government of what was then the District of Alaska was moved from Sitka as dictated by the U. S. Congress in 1900. Downtown Juneau is nestled at the base of Mount Juneau and across the channel from Douglas Island, as of the 2010 census, the City and Borough had a population of 31,276. In 2014, the estimate from the United States Census Bureau was 32,406. Fairbanks, however, is the second most populous area in the state. Juneaus daily population can increase by roughly 6,000 people from visiting cruise ships between the months of May and September, the city is named after a gold prospector from Quebec, Joe Juneau, though the place was for a time called Rockwell and then Harrisburg. The Tlingit name of the town is Dzántiki Héeni, and Auke Bay just north of Juneau proper is called Áakw in Tlingit, the Taku River, just south of Juneau, was named after the cold taakh wind, which occasionally blows down from the mountains. Juneau is rather unusual among U. S. capitals in that there are no roads connecting the city to the rest of Alaska or to the rest of North America, the absence of a road network is due to the extremely rugged terrain surrounding the city. This in turn makes Juneau a de facto island city in terms of transportation, since all goods coming in and out must go by plane or boat, in spite of the city being located on the Alaskan mainland. Downtown Juneau sits at sea level, with tides averaging 16 feet, the Mendenhall glacier has been gradually retreating, its front face is declining both in width and height. The Alaska State Capitol in downtown Juneau was originally built as the Federal and Territorial Building in 1931, prior to statehood, it housed federal government offices, the federal courthouse and a post office. It also housed the territorial legislature and many other territorial offices, today, Juneau remains the home of the state legislature and the offices of the governor and lieutenant governor. Some other executive offices have moved elsewhere in the state. The Aakw Kwáan had a village and burying ground here, in the 21st century it is known as Indian Point. They annually harvested herring during the season, and celebrated this bounty. They consider it sacred territory, both because of the ground and the importance of the point in their traditions of gathering sustenance from the sea. They continue to gather clams, gumboots, grass and sea urchins here, the city and state supported Sealaska Heritage Institute in documenting the 78-acre site, and in August 2016 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places
36.
Haines, Alaska
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Haines is a census-designated place located in Haines Borough, Alaska, United States. It is in the part of the Alaska Panhandle, near Glacier Bay National Park. As of the 2010 census, the population of the area was 2,508, the area around present-day Haines was called Dtehshuh or end of the trail by the Chilkat group of Tlingit. The first European, George Dickinson, an agent for the North West Trading Company, in 1881, the Chilkat asked Sheldon Jackson to send missionaries to the area. Samuel Hall Young, a Presbyterian minister, was sent and he built the Willard mission and school at Dtehshuh, on land given the church by the Chilkat. The mission was renamed Haines in 1884 in honor of Francina E. Haines, at the time the boundary between Canada and the U. S. was disputed and vaguely defined. There were overlapping land claims from the United States purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867, the Klondike Gold Rush of 1898–1899 changed the region greatly. The population of the area reached 30,000, composed largely of Americans, Haines grew as a supply center, since the Dalton Trail from Chilkat Inlet offered a route to the Yukon for prospectors. Gold was also discovered 36 miles from Haines in 1899 at the Porcupine District, during this time the name Haines came into use for the area around the mission and not for just the mission itself. The sudden importance of the region increased the urgency of fixing an exact boundary, there were reports that Canadian citizens were harassed by the U. S. as a deterrent to making any land claims. In 1898 the national governments agreed on a compromise, but the government of British Columbia rejected it, U. S. President McKinley proposed a permanent lease of a port near Haines, but Canada rejected that compromise. The economy continued to grow and diversify, four canneries were constructed around the mission by 1900. However, the completion of the White Pass and Yukon Route railway in neighboring Skagway that same year led to the Dalton Trails eventual abandonment and Haines economic decline. Fort William H. Seward, a United States Army installation, was constructed south of Haines in 1904, in 1922, the fort was renamed Chilkoot Barracks. It was the only United States Army post in Alaska before World War II, during World War II, it was used as a supply point for some U. S. Army activities in Alaska. The fort was deactivated in 1946 and sold as property to a group of investors who called it Port Chilkoot. Port Chilkoot was incorporated as a city in 1956, in 1970, Port Chilkoot merged with Haines into one municipality. Heinmiller was Port Chilkoots mayor for the majority of its existence as a separate city, in 1972, the fort was designated a National Historic Landmark and the name, Fort William H. Seward, was restored
37.
Puget Sound
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Puget Sound /ˈpjuːdʒɪt/ is a sound along the northwestern coast of the U. S. state of Washington, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and part of the Salish Sea. Flow through Deception Pass is approximately equal to 2% of the tidal exchange between Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Puget Sound extends approximately 100 miles from Deception Pass in the north to Olympia and its average depth is 450 feet and its maximum depth, off Point Jefferson between Indianola and Kingston, is 930 feet. The depth of the basin, between the southern tip of Whidbey Island and Tacoma, Washington, is approximately 600 feet. Since 2009, the term Salish Sea has been established by the United States Board on Geographic Names as the waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Sometimes the terms Puget Sound and Puget Sound and adjacent waters are used for not only Puget Sound proper but also for waters to the north, such as Bellingham Bay and the San Juan Islands region. The term Puget Sound is used not just for the body of water, major cities on the sound include Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, and Everett, Washington. Puget Sound is also the second largest estuary in the United States, in 1792 George Vancouver gave the name Pugets Sound to the waters south of the Tacoma Narrows, in honor of Peter Puget, a Huguenot lieutenant accompanying him on the Vancouver Expedition. This name later came to be used for the north of Tacoma Narrows as well. The USGS defines Puget Sound as all the south of three entrances from the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The main entrance at Admiralty Inlet is defined as a line between Point Wilson on the Olympic Peninsula, and Point Partridge on Whidbey Island. The second entrance is at Deception Pass along a line from West Point on Whidbey Island, to Deception Island, the third entrance is at the south end of the Swinomish Channel, which connects Skagit Bay and Padilla Bay. Under this definition, Puget Sound includes the waters of Hood Canal, Admiralty Inlet, Possession Sound, Saratoga Passage and it does not include Bellingham Bay, Padilla Bay, the waters of the San Juan Islands or anything farther north. Another definition, given by NOAA, subdivides Puget Sound into five basins or regions, four of these correspond to areas within the USGS definition, but the fifth one, called Northern Puget Sound includes a large additional region. It is defined as bounded to the north by the boundary with Canada. Kruckeberg uses the term Puget Sound and adjacent waters, continental ice sheets have repeatedly advanced and retreated from the Puget Sound region. The most recent glacial period, called the Fraser Glaciation, had three phases, or stades. S. Since each new advance and retreat of ice erodes away much of the evidence of ice ages
38.
Ballard Locks
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The Locks are listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the American Society of Civil Engineers Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks. As early as 1854, there was discussion of building a connection between Lake Washington and Puget Sound for the purpose of transporting logs, milled lumber. Thirteen years later, the United States Navy endorsed a canal project, in 1891 the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers started planning the project. Some preliminary work was begun in 1906, and work began in earnest five years later under the command of Hiram M. Chittenden. The delays in planning and construction resulted in the US Navy building the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, Washington. In early 1909, the Washington State Legislature appropriated $250,000, placed under the control of the Corps of Engineers, for excavation of the canal between Lake Union and Lake Washington. In June 1910, the US Congress gave its approval for the lock, construction was then delayed by legal challenges, mainly by mill owners in Ballard who feared property damage and loss of waterfront in Salmon Bay, and by Lake Washington property owners. In July 1912, the Locks gates were closed for the first time, the first ship passed through the Locks on August 3,1916. On August 25,1916, the dam at Montlake was breached. The Locks officially opened for traffic on May 8,1917. The total cost of the project to that point was $3.5 million, with $2.5 million having come from the Federal government and the rest from local governments. To allow for the boat traffic, three bridges were removed along the ship canal route, at Latona Avenue, Fremont, Stone Way. The Ballard and Fremont Bridges were completed in 1917, followed by the University Bridge in 1919, the University Bridge was improved in 1932, and in 1934 the Lake Washington Ship Canal project was declared complete. To prevent the mixing of sea water from Puget Sound with the water of the lakes. To move boats from the level of the lakes to the water level of Puget Sound. The complex includes two locks,30 ft ×150 ft and 80 ft ×825 ft, the complex also includes a 235 ft spillway with six 32 ft ×12 ft gates to assist in water-level control. A fish ladder is integrated into the locks for migration of anadromous fish, the grounds feature a visitors center, as well as the Carl S. English Jr. Botanical Gardens. Operated by the US Army Corps of Engineers, the locks were opened on July 4,1917
39.
Ballard, Seattle
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Ballard is a neighborhood located in the northwestern part of Seattle, Washington. To the north it is bounded by Crown Hill, to the east by Greenwood, Phinney Ridge and Fremont, to the south by the Lake Washington Ship Canal, and to the west by Puget Sound’s Shilshole Bay. The neighborhood’s landmarks include the Hiram M. Chittenden Locks, the Nordic Heritage Museum, the Shilshole Bay Marina, the neighborhoods main thoroughfares running north-south are Seaview, 32nd, 24th, Leary, 15th, and 8th Avenues N. W. East-west traffic is carried by N. W. Leary Way, 85th, 80th, 65th, and Market Streets. The Ballard Bridge carries 15th Avenue over Salmon Bay to the Interbay neighborhood, before the settling of Seattle, the land surrounding Shilshole Bay was inhabited by the Shilshole Tribe who lived off the plentiful salmon and clams in the region. The first European resident, homesteader Ira Wilcox Utter, moved to his claim in 1853, Utter hoped to see a rapid expansion of population but that did not happen, so he sold the land to Thomas Burke, a judge. Thirty-six years later, Judge Burke, together with John Leary, the partners also built a spur from Fremont’s main line of the Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern Railway. Today three miles of line, running along Salmon Bay from N. W. 40th Street to the BNSF Railway mainline at N. W. 67th, are operated as the Ballard Terminal Railroad, during the late 19th century Captain William Rankin Ballard, owner of land adjoining Judge Burkes holdings, joined the partnership with Burke, Leary, and Gilman. Then, in 1887 the partnership was dissolved and the assets divided, capt. Ballard lost the coin-toss and ended up with the undesirable 160-acre tract. The railroad to Seattle ended at Salmon Bay because the company was unwilling to build a trestle to cross the bay. From the stop at Ballard Junction, passengers could walk across the wagon bridge, ability to ship products spurred the growth of mills of many types. Ballard’s first mill, built in 1888 by Mr. J Sinclair was a lumber mill, with the rapid population growth the residents realized that there might soon be a need for laws to keep order, a process that would require a formal government. In the late summer of 1889 the community discussed incorporating as a town, the issue pressed, however, so several months later, on November 4,1889, the residents again voted on the question and this time they voted to incorporate. The first mayor of Ballard was Charles F. Treat, by 1900, Ballards population had grown to 4,568 making it the seventh largest city in Washington, and the town was faced with many of the problems common to small towns. The city also faced problems with loose livestock, so the Cow Ordinance of 1903 made allowing cows to graze south of present-day 65th St. a punishable offense. The city faced more problems, however, with two of the most difficult being the lack of both a proper water supply and a sewer system. The one weakness of the location on Salmon Bay was the lack of freshwater springs
40.
Port Angeles, Washington
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Port Angeles is a city in and the county seat of Clallam County, Washington, United States. With a population of 19,038 as of the 2010 census, the population was estimated at 19,448 in 2015 by the Office of Financial Management. The Citys harbor was dubbed Puerto de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles by Spanish explorer Francisco de Eliza in 1791, by the mid-19th century, after settlement by English speakers from the United States, the name was shortened and partially anglicized to its current form, Port Angeles Harbor. Port Angeles is home to Peninsula College and it is the birthplace of football hall of famer John Elway and residents include writers and artists. The city is served by William R. Fairchild International Airport, ferry service is provided across the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Victoria, British Columbia, Canada on the M/V Coho. This area was occupied by succeeding cultures of indigenous peoples. In 1791 the harbor was entered by Spanish explorer Francisco de Eliza and he was on an expedition from southern California. This name was shortened to the current one of Port Angeles, the first Europeans to the area tended to trade with the Native Americans. It was not until the 19th century that European Americans began to settle here, a small whaling, fishing and shipping village developed, which traded with Victoria, British Columbia. In 1856–1857, the first settlers arrived and they were followed by the Cherbourg Land Company in 1859, soon afterwards the site caught the attention of Victor Smith. Smith, a protege of Salmon Chase, was Collector of Customs for the Puget Sound District and he quickly gained approval to move the Port of Entry from Port Townsend to Port Angeles. With Chases support, he succeeded in getting President Abraham Lincoln to designate 3,520 acres at Port Angeles as a federal reserve for lighthouse, military. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers platted a town site on the reserve land. The fact that Washington, D. C. was the other city officially laid out by the federal government led the U. S. Board of Trade in 1890 to dub Port Angeles the Second National City, settlers soon followed slowly, but Smiths death in the sinking of the Brother Jonathen led to the loss of interest in the area. The Port of Entry was returned to Port Townsend and the area sank into obscurity until the 1880s, in 1884, a hotel was built and the trading post was expanded into the areas first general store. A wharf was built upon that site that the current ferry pier stands. A village of 300 in 1886, Port Angeles population grew to 3,000 by 1890, the town was incorporated in that year
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Timber rafting
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Timber rafting is a log transportation method in which logs are tied together into rafts and drifted or pulled across a water body or down a flatter river. It is arguably the second cheapest method of transportation of timber, both methods may be referred to as timber floating. On the other hand, rafting requires wider waterflows, Timber rafts were also used as a means of transportation of people and goods, both raw materials and man-made. Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. This practice used to be common in parts of the world, especially North America. Large pines in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Netherlands, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m wide and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, Timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe. The advent of the railroad, steam boat vessels and improvements in trucking and it is still of importance in Finland. Timber rafts could be of enormous proportions, sometimes up to 600 metres long,50 meters wide, such rafts would contain thousands of logs. For the comfort of the raftsmen - which could number up to 500 - logs were used to build cabins. Control of the raft was done by oars and later on by tugboats, raft construction differs depending on the watercourse. Rocky and windy rivers saw rafts of simple, yet sometimes smart, for example, the front parts of the logs were joined together by wooden bars, while the rear parts were loosely roped together. The resulting slack allowed for easy adaptation for narrow and windy waterbeds, wide and quiet rivers, like the Mississippi River, allowed huge rafts to travel in caravans and even be chained into strings. Rafting was a method of transporting timber in the southeastern United States but, except on the Mississippi River. On Georgia’s Altamaha River, for example, the width was about forty feet. Maximum length was about 250 feet, that being the longest that could navigate The Narrows, several miles of the river that were not only very narrow, each raft had two oars forty to fifty feet long, one in the bow, the other at the stern. The oars were for steering, not propelling, the raft, the minimum raft crew was two men, the pilot who usually manned the stern oar, and his bow hand. Rafts usually had a shack for shelter and a mound of dirt for a hearth to warm by
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Olympic Peninsula
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The Olympic Peninsula is the large arm of land in western Washington that lies across Puget Sound from Seattle. It is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, the north by the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Cape Alava, the westernmost point in the contiguous United States, and Cape Flattery, the northwesternmost point, are on the peninsula. Comprising about 3600 square miles, the Olympic Peninsula contained many of the last unexplored places in the contiguous United States and it remained largely unmapped until Arthur Dodwell and Theodore Rixon mapped most of its topography and timber resources between 1898 and 1900. The Olympic Peninsula is home to temperate forests, including the Hoh, Queets Rain Forest. The Olympic mountain range sits in the center of the Olympic Peninsula and this range is the second largest in Washington State. Its highest peak is Mt. Olympus, natural lakes on the peninsula including, Lake Crescent, Lake Ozette, Lake Sutherland, Lake Quinault, and Lake Pleasant. Two dammed rivers form the reservoirs of Lake Cushman and Wynoochee Lake, within the Olympic National Forest, there are five designated wilderness areas, The Brothers, Buckhorn, Colonel Bob, Mt. Skokomish, and Wonder Mountain. Just off the west coast is the Washington Islands Wilderness, clallam and Jefferson Counties, as well as the northern parts of Grays Harbor and Mason Counties, are on the peninsula. The Kitsap Peninsula, bounded by the Hood Canal and the Puget Sound, is an entirely separate peninsula and is not connected to the Olympic Peninsula. From Olympia, the capital, U. S. Route 101 runs along the Olympic Peninsulas southern edge. Most of the peninsula has a climate, or Cfb under the Köppen climate classification. Most populated areas, however, have a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, the Olympic Peninsula is represented in the U. S. House of Representatives by Derek Kilmer
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Bellingham, Washington
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Bellingham is the largest city in and the county seat of Whatcom County in the U. S. state of Washington. The boundaries of the city encompass the towns of Fairhaven, Whatcom, Sehome. Bellingham is the northernmost city in the contiguous United States with a population of more than 50,000 residents and it is acclaimed for its easy access to outdoor opportunities in the San Juan Islands and North Cascades as well as proximity to the cities of Vancouver and Seattle. It is also famous for the quantities of Canadian tourists and shoppers who visit daily to take advantage of relatively cheap gasoline, airfare. The name of Bellingham is derived from the bay on which the city is situated, George Vancouver, who visited the area in June 1792, named the bay for Sir William Bellingham, the controller of the storekeepers account of the Royal Navy. Prior to Euro-American settlement, Bellingham was in the homeland of Coast Salish peoples of the Lummi, the first Caucasian settlers reached the area in 1854. In 1858, the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush caused thousands of miners, storekeepers, Coal was mined in the Bellingham area from the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries. It was Henry Roeder who had discovered coal off the shore of Bellingham Bay. The mine extended to hundreds of miles of tunnels as deep as 1200 feet and it ran southwest to Bellingham Bay, on both sides of Squalicum Creek, an area of about one square mile. At its peak in the 1920s, the mine employed some 250 miners digging over 200,000 tons of coal annually, Whatcom is todays Old Town area and was founded in 1852. Sehome was an area of downtown founded in 1854, Bellingham was further south near Boulevard Park, founded in 1853, while Fairhaven was a large commercial district with its own harbor, also founded in 1853. In 1890, Fairhaven developers bought Bellingham, Whatcom and Sehome had adjacent borders and both towns wanted to merge, thus they formed New Whatcom. Later, on October 27,1903, the word New was dropped from the name, because the Washington State Legislature outlawed the use of the new in city. At first, attempts to combine Fairhaven and Whatcom failed, Whatcom citizens wouldnt support a city named Fairhaven, and Fairhaven residents would not support a city named Whatcom. They eventually settled on the name Bellingham, which remains today, voting a second time for a final merger of the four towns into a single city, the resolution passed by 2163 votes for and 596 against. In the early 1890s, three railroad lines arrived, connecting the bay cities to a market of builders. The foothills around Bellingham were clearcut after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake to provide the lumber for the rebuilding of San Francisco. In time, lumber and shingle mills sprang up all over the county to accommodate the byproduct of their work, in 1889, Pierre Cornwall and an association of investors formed the Bellingham Bay Improvement Company
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Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
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Compound steam engine
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A compound steam engine unit is a type of steam engine where steam is expanded in two or more stages. Multiple-expansion engines employ additional cylinders, of lower pressure, to extract further energy from the steam. Invented in 1781, this technique was first employed on a Cornish beam engine in 1804, around 1850, compound engines were first introduced into Lancashire textile mills. In a single-expansion steam engine, the steam enters the cylinder at boiler pressure through an inlet valve. The steam pressure forces the piston down the cylinder, until the valve shuts and this cut-off allows much more work to be extracted, since the expansion of the steam is doing additional work beyond that done by the steam at boiler pressure. An earlier cut-off increases the ratio, which in principle allows more energy to be extracted and increases efficiency. This temperature drop would occur if the cylinder were perfectly insulating so that no heat is released from the system. As a result, steam enters the cylinder at high temperature, the changing steam temperature alternately heats and cools the cylinder with every stroke and is a source of inefficiency which increases at higher expansion ratios. Beyond a certain point, further increasing the ratio will actually decrease efficiency due to the increased heating and cooling. A method to lessen the magnitude of this heating and cooling was invented in 1804 by British engineer Arthur Woolf, in the compound engine, high-pressure steam from the boiler first expands in a high-pressure cylinder and then enters one or more subsequent lower pressure cylinders. The complete expansion of the steam occurs across multiple cylinders and, as there is less expansion in each cylinder and this reduces the magnitude of cylinder heating and cooling, making higher expansion ratios practical and increasing the efficiency of the engine. There are other advantages, as the range is smaller, cylinder condensation is reduced. Loss due to condensation is restricted to the LP cylinder, pressure difference is less in each cylinder so there is less steam leakage at the piston and valves. The turning moment is uniform, so balancing is easier. Only the smaller HP cylinder needs to be built to withstand the highest pressure, similarly, components are subject to less strain, so they can be lighter. The reciprocating parts of the engine are lighter, reducing the engine vibrations, the compound could be started at any point in the cycle, and in the event of mechanical failure the compound could be reset to act as a simple, and thus keep running. To derive equal work from lower-pressure steam requires a larger cylinder volume as this steam occupies a greater volume, therefore, the bore, and often the stroke, are increased in low-pressure cylinders, resulting in larger cylinders. Double-expansion engines expand the steam in two stages, but this does not imply that all engines have two cylinders
46.
Cabin (ship)
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A cabin or berthing is an enclosed space generally on a ship or an aircraft. A cabin which protrudes above the level of a deck may be referred to as a deckhouse. In sailing ships, the officers and paying passengers would have an individual or shared cabin, the captain or commanding officer would occupy the great cabin that normally spanned width of the stern with large windows. In most modern warships, the officer has a main cabin, the in-port cabin, often adjacent to the ships central control room. Thus, when likely to be called from sleep or attending to administration, the sea cabin is sparsely equipped, containing just a bunk, a desk, and basic toilet facilities. The in-port cabin is more lavishly furnished, with separate bedroom and combination sitting room/office, for ships intended to act as flagships, like the aircraft carrier the USS Lexington, the admiral also has a sea cabin and an in-port cabin, in addition to the captains cabins. Admiral Fletchers sea cabin in the USS Yorktown in World War II had a bed, a chair, a table. Officers will normally have their own cabins, which double as their offices, some senior petty officers may have cabins for similar reasons. In ships carrying passengers, they are accommodated in cabins. First class cabins were referred to as staterooms, and today many cruise lines now prefer to refer to passenger cabins as staterooms or suites. In cruise ship terms, a crawl is an event where passengers tour the cabins of fellow passengers. A cruise ship may also offer a cabin crawl of cabins or suites which did not sell for a particular sailing, the purpose of a cabin crawl is to give passengers an idea of the space and layout of various cabin options for their next cruise. Cabin crawls are normally organized prior to a cruise, through cruise-fan websites, inside spacecraft, the cabins are required to fully supply food and oxygen for their crew. On missions lasting a year or longer, the cabins have to be self-sustaining, i. e. replenish their own water, the space cabin for any long-range manned mission is expected to be reasonably spacious, with approximately 28 cubic metres allotted to each occupant. In addition, cabins have life support systems that should have the capability to meet a variety of conditions, including cabin fires, depressurization. Frequently, these conditions occur so quickly that automatic control systems offer the possibility for recovery. In the late 1960s, several experimental ground facilities were developed to evaluate regenerative life support systems for manned space flight
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Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
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Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
United States
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