1.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Photographer
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A photographer is a person who makes photographs. As in other arts, the definitions of amateur and professional are not entirely categorical, a professional photographer is likely to take photographs to make money, by salary or through the display, sale or use of those photographs. An amateur photographer may take photographs for pleasure and to record an event, emotion, place, as a person without a monetary motivation. A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a planned event such as a wedding or graduation. Others, including paparazzi and fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making a picture, some workers, such as crime scene detectives, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, an amateur may make considerable sums entering work in contests for prize money or through occasional inclusion of their work in magazines or the archive of a photo agency. The term professional may also imply preparation, for example, by academic study, Photographers are also categorized based on the subjects they photograph. Some photographers explore subjects typical of such as landscape, still life. The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright, countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees, an additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph. The contract may be for one year, or other duration. The photographer usually charges a royalty as well as a one-time fee, the contract may be for non-exclusive use of the photograph or for exclusive use of the photograph. The contract can also stipulate that the photographer is entitled to audit the company for determination of royalty payments. A royalty is also based on the size at which the photo will be used in a magazine or book. Photos taken by a photographer working on assignment are often work for hire belonging to the company or publication unless stipulated otherwise by contract. There are major companies who have maintained catalogues of stock photography and images for decades, such as Getty Images, commercial photographers may also promote their work to advertising and editorial art buyers via printed and online marketing vehicles. Many people upload their photographs to social networking websites and other websites and those interested in legal precision may explicitly release them to the public domain or under a free content license. Some sites, including Wikimedia Commons, are punctilious about licenses, the dictionary definition of photographer at Wiktionary Media related to Photographers at Wikimedia Commons
4.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
5.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
6.
Roy Stryker
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Roy Emerson Stryker was an American economist, government official, and photographer. He is most famous for heading the Information Division of the Farm Security Administration during the Great Depression, after serving in the infantry in World War I, Stryker went to Columbia University where he studied economics. He used his photography to illustrate his economics texts and lectures, at Columbia, he worked with Rexford Tugwell, and when Tugwell became part of the Resettlement Administration, Stryker followed him. Tugwell and Stryker refocused the attention of the Resettlement Administration to document the problems of the heartland, the RA was renominated the Farm Security Administration, and Stryker set up the photodocumentary project. Strykers greatest contribution to the FSAs photographic project was as a manager, the photographers involved attested to the fact that Stryker was expert at getting good work out of them. He made sure that the photographers were well briefed on their assigned areas before being sent out, however, Stryker has been criticized for his heavy-handed editing methodology, which involved physically defacing negatives by punching holes in them. Stryker also made sure that mainstream publications had access to FSA photographs and this both helped focus public attention on the plight of the rural poor and set up the commercial careers of his photographers. Overall, from 164,000 developed negatives some 77,000 different finished photographic prints were made for the press, plus 644 color images. During World War II, the unit of the FSA was reassigned to the Office of War Information and put to more propagandistic uses for one year. At the same time, the US Congress disbanded the FSA, Stryker resigned and went to work for Standard Oil in its public relations documentary project from 1943 to 1950. After suggesting topics he wanted documented, Stryker gave his photographers the freedom to pursue their individual approaches to their subjects, as with all his projects, Stryker was adamant that his staff understand their subjects and their context before going out on an assignment. From 1950 to 1952, Stryker worked to establish the Pittsburgh Photographic Library, in 1960, the collection was transferred to the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. After leaving the PPL, Stryker directed a project at Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation. Thereafter, he accepted consulting jobs on occasion and conducted seminars on photo-journalism at the University of Missouri, Stryker eventually returned to the west in the 1960s. He died in Grand Junction, Colorado, the Standard Oil Collection – A digital collection of photographs from the documentary project directed by Roy E. Stryker
7.
Rexford Tugwell
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Tugwell served in FDRs administration until he was forced out in 1936. He helped design the New Deal farm program and the Resettlement Administration that moved subsistence farmers into small rented farms under close supervision and his ideas on suburban planning resulted in the construction of Greenbelt, Maryland, with low-cost rents for relief families. He was denounced by conservatives who said his government-imposed planning violated the values of individualism, Roosevelt appointed Tugwell as Governor of Puerto Rico during World War II, and later president of the United Fruit Company. He became a professor at universities, with lengthy service at the University of Chicago. He wrote twenty books, covering the politics of the New Deal, biographies of politicians, issues in planning. Rexford Tugwell was born in 1891 in Sinclairville, New York, in his youth, he gained an appreciation for workers’ rights and liberal politics from the works of Upton Sinclair, James Bryce, Edward Bellamy, Frederick Winslow Taylor, and Charles Richard van Hise. Tugwell began studying economics in graduate work at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, at university, he was influenced by the teaching of Scott Nearing and Simon Patten, as well as the writings of John Dewey in philosophy. After graduation, Tugwell served as faculty at the University of Washington, American University in Paris. Tugwells approach to economics was experimentalist, and he viewed the industrial planning of World War I as a successful experiment and he advocated agricultural planning to stop the rural poverty that had become prevalent due to a crop surplus after the First World War. This method of controlling production, prices, and costs was especially relevant as the Great Depression began, in 1932 Tugwell was invited to join President Franklin Roosevelts team of advisers known as the Brain Trust. After Roosevelts inauguration in 1933, Tugwell was appointed first as Assistant Secretary and he helped create the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and served as its director. The AAA included a domestic allotment program, which paid farmers to reduce their production by roughly 30% so that reduced supply would increase the price they received. It was funded with a tax on processing companies that used farm commodities, Tugwells department managed the production of key crops by adjusting the subsidies for non-production. This was especially necessary given the damage of the 1930s Dust Bowls. He additionally played a key role in crafting the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, in April 1935 Tugwell and Roosevelt created the Resettlement Administration, a unit of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Directed by Tugwell, the RA sought to create healthy communities for the unemployed by relocating them to new communities for access to urban opportunities. Some of the RAs activities dealt with conservation and rural aid. Then go back into the cities and tear down whole slums and she believed that he underestimated the strengths of complex urban communities and caused too much social displacement in tearing down neighborhoods that might have been renovated
8.
Resettlement Administration
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Roosevelt established the RA under Executive Order 7027, as one of the New Deals alphabet agencies, and Tugwell became its first and only head. The new organization had four divisions, Rural Rehabilitation, Rural Resettlement, Land Utilization, however, Tugwells goal of moving 651,000 people from 100,000,000 acres of agriculturally exhausted, worn-out land was unpopular among the majority in Congress. This goal seemed socialistic to some and threatened to deprive influential farm owners of their tenant workforce, the main focus of the RA was to now build relief camps in California for migratory workers, especially refugees from the drought-struck Dust Bowl of the Southwest. This move was resisted by a share of Californians, who did not want destitute migrants to settle in their midst. After facing enormous criticism for his management of the RA. On January 1,1937, with hopes of making the RA more effective, the Weedpatch Camp now on the National Register of Historic Places, was built in 1936 south of Bakersfield, California, not by the RA but the FSA. The camp inspired John Steinbecks 1939 novel, The Grapes of Wrath, a 1940 film adaptation directed by John Ford, a Tony Award-winning play and an opera. In the face of Congressional criticism, in September 1937 it was folded into a new body, the Farm Security Administration, Farm Security Administration Dust Bowl Meriam, Lewis. Relief and Social Security The Brookings Institution, presented by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center and Mills Music Library Special Collections
9.
Dust Bowl
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The drought came in three waves,1934,1936, and 1939–1940, but some regions of the high plains experienced drought conditions for as many as eight years. During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust – named black blizzards or black rollers – traveled cross country, reaching as far as the East Coast and striking such cities as New York City and Washington, on the Plains, they often reduced visibility to 1 metre or less. While the term the Dust Bowl was originally a reference to the area affected by the dust, today it is usually used to refer to the event. The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched adjacent sections of New Mexico, Colorado, the Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of families to abandon their farms. The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100th meridian on the High Plains, elevation ranges from 2,500 feet in the east to 6,000 feet at the base of the Rocky Mountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20 inches of rain annually, the region is also prone to extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent duration. During wet years, the soil provides bountiful agricultural output. The region is subject to high winds. During early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, this region was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture, the lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture. The federal government encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the Homestead Act of 1862, an unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that rain follows the plow and that the climate of the region had changed permanently. Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century, a return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the formerly semiarid area could support large-scale agriculture. At the same time, technological improvements such as mechanized plowing, for example, in the Llano Estacado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, the area of farmland was doubled between 1900 and 1920, then tripled again between 1925 and 1930. The agricultural methods favored by farmers during this period created the conditions for large-scale erosion under certain environmental conditions, when severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, it resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought dried the topsoil and over time it became friable, without the indigenous grasses in place, the high winds that occur on the plains picked up the topsoil and created the massive dust storms that marked the Dust Bowl period. The persistent dry weather caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion, the fine soil of the Great Plains was easily eroded and carried east by strong continental winds. On November 11,1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from desiccated South Dakota farmlands in just one of a series of severe dust storms that year. Beginning on May 9,1934, a strong, two-day dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl, the dust clouds blew all the way to Chicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust
10.
Cimarron County, Oklahoma
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Cimarron County is the westernmost county in the U. S. state of Oklahoma. As of the 2010 census, the population was 2,475 and its county seat is Boise City. Located in the Oklahoma Panhandle, Cimarron County contains the community in the state that observes the Mountain Time Zone. Black Rock Mesa, the highest point in the state, is in the northwest corner of the county, throughout most of its history it has had both the smallest population and the lowest population density of any county in Oklahoma. Cimarron County was created at statehood in 1907, before the Oklahoma Organic Act was passed in 1890, the area had belonged to what was known as No Mans Land, also referred to as the Public Land Strip. This was a lawless area, with no organized government. In 1890, the became known as Beaver County, Oklahoma Territory. Informally, it was known as the Oklahoma Panhandle, there were only two communities in the strip. One, Carrizo, had 83 residents in 1890, while the other, otherwise, the land was used primarily by sheepherders from New Mexico. Seven communities vied to become county seat after statehood, Boise City, Cimarron, Doby, Hurley, a county election in 1908 selected Boise City. Railroads came late to this part of Oklahoma, the Elkhart and Santa Fe Railway built a line from Elkhart, Kansas through Cimarron County in 1925. It completed the link into New Mexico in 1932, the same company built a line from Colorado to Boise City in 1931 and extended it into Texas in 1937. This line still operates and in 2000 was part of the BNSF system. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,841 square miles. It is the fourth-largest county in Oklahoma by area and it also has Oklahomas highest point at 4,973 feet on the Black Mesa. The northern part of the county is drained by the Cimarron River, the man-made Lake Carl Etling lies inside Black Mesa park. A location 300 yards east of Rt. 287/385 and 1.75 miles south of the Cimarron River is the place in the US less than 27 miles from five different states,26.99 miles from Kansas, New Mexico
11.
Oklahoma
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Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central United States. Oklahoma is the 20th-most extensive and the 28th-most populous of the 50 United States, the states name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning red people. The name was settled upon statehood, Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory were merged, on November 16,1907, Oklahoma became the 46th state to enter the union. Its residents are known as Oklahomans, or informally Okies, and its capital, a major producer of natural gas, oil, and agricultural products, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. In 2007, it had one of the economies in the United States, ranking among the top states in per capita income growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahomas primary economic anchors, with nearly two-thirds of Oklahomans living within their metropolitan statistical areas. With small mountain ranges, prairie, mesas, and eastern forests, most of Oklahoma lies in the Great Plains, Cross Timbers, interior Highlands—a region especially prone to severe weather. The name Oklahoma comes from the Choctaw phrase okla humma, literally meaning red people, equivalent to the English word Indian, okla humma was a phrase in the Choctaw language used to describe Native American people as a whole. Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory, and it was approved in 1890. Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States, covering an area of 69,898 square miles and it is one of six states on the Frontier Strip and lies partly in the Great Plains near the geographical center of the 48 contiguous states. It is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas, on the northwest by Colorado, on the far west by New Mexico, much of its border with Texas lies along the Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen, a failed continental rift. The geologic figure defines the placement of the Red River, the Oklahoma panhandles Western edge is out of alignment with its Texas border. The Oklahoma/New Mexico border is actually 2.1 to 2.2 miles east of the Texas line, the border between Texas and New Mexico was set first as a result of a survey by Spain in 1819. It was then set along the 103rd Meridian, in the 1890s, when Oklahoma was formally surveyed using more accurate surveying equipment and techniques, it was discovered the Texas line was not set along the 103rd Meridian. Surveying techniques were not as accurate in 1819, and the actual 103rd Meridian was approximately 2.2 miles to the east and it was much easier to leave the mistake than for Texas to cede land to New Mexico to correct the surveying error. The placement of the Oklahoma/New Mexico border represents the true 103rd Meridian, cimarron County in Oklahomas panhandle is the only county in the United States that touches four other states, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado and Kansas. Its highest and lowest points follow this trend, with its highest peak, Black Mesa, at 4,973 feet above sea level, situated near its far northwest corner in the Oklahoma Panhandle. The states lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town of Idabel, Oklahoma, which dips to 289 feet above sea level
12.
Esther Bubley
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Esther Bubley was an American photographer who specialized in expressive photos of ordinary people in everyday lives. Esther Bubley was born February 16,1921 in Phillips, Wisconsin, in 1936, while Esther was a senior at Central High School in Superior, Wisconsin, the photo magazine Life first hit the newsstands. As editor-in-chief of the yearbook, she sought to emulate the style of Life, after high school, Esther spent two years at Superior State Teachers College before enrolling in the one-year photography program at the Minneapolis School of Art. After college in 1941, Bubley moved to Washington, D. C. seeking work as a photographer, failing to find a job in Washington, Bubley moved to New York City. During the 1941 Christmas season, she landed a position at Vogue in New York, early in 1942, she returned to Washington when she was offered a job as a microfilmer for the National Archives and Records Administration. In the fall of 1942, Roy Stryker hired her as an assistant at the Office of War Information. With the encouragement of Stryker and some of the more senior photographers she moved to taking pictures for the OWI historical section and her most challenging assignment was a noted series on the bus system in the Midwest and South. During this period, she was married to Edwin Locke, Strykers administrative chief. By 1947, Bubley was expanding her horizons beyond Stryker and Standard Oil and she began working for the Childrens Bureau, a Federal child welfare agency. Over the next years, she contributed thousands of images to their files. She continued working for the Ladies Home Journal, producing a dozen stories for their celebrated series How America Lives. In 1951, Bubley started freelancing for Life, eventually contributing 40 photo stories, Bubley was one of the first women to successfully support herself working as a freelance photographer for the major magazines. In 1951, she produced a notable series on the Pittsburgh Childrens Hospital for Stryker. Edward Steichen, Directory of Photography at the Museum of Modern Art and he also mounted and displayed her contact sheets to show how she used every frame. This series led to medical themes becoming a part of her portfolio. In 1953, she was hired by UNICEF and the French government to travel to Morocco to photograph a program to treat trachoma, Bubley entered a photo from this assignment in the international division of a contest sponsored by Photography magazine in 1954. She became the first woman to win first place, and she received a trophy depicting a male photographer, in 1955, Steichen included her work in his monumental The Family of Man exhibition. In 1956, Pepsi-Cola International hired Bubley to cover Latin America for their company magazine Panorama, in the mid-1960s, Pan American World Airways sent her around the world twice to make images for their corporate photographic library
13.
Marjory Collins
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Marjory Collins was an American photojournalist. She is remembered above all for her coverage of the front during World War II. Marjory Collins was born March 15,1912 to Elizabeth Everts Paine and writer Frederick Lewis Collins in New York City and she studied at Sweet Briar College and the University of Munich. In 1935, Collins moved to Greenwich Village, and over the five years she studied photography informally with Ralph Steiner. Her work as a photographer was taken up by major agencies. As a result of a contribution for U. S. Camera and Travel about Hoboken, New Jersey and she completed some 50 assignments there with stories about the American way of life and support for the war effort. In line with new emphasis on multiculturalism, she contributed to photographic coverage of African Americans as well as citizens of Czech, German, Italian, in 1944 Collins worked freelance for a construction company in Alaska before travelling to Africa and Europe on government and commercial assignments. Thereafter she worked mainly as an editor and a writer covering civil rights, in the 1960s she edited American Journal of Public Health. Collins was very active politically, a feminist, she founded the journal Prime Time for the liberation of women in the prime of life, in the 1980s she moved to San Francisco where she obtained an M. A. in American Studies at Antioch College West. She died in 1985 at the age of 73, examples of Marjory Collins work from The Library of Congress Papers of Marjory Collins Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University
14.
Marion Post Wolcott
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Marion Post, later Marion Post Wolcott, was a noted American photographer who worked for the Farm Security Administration during the Great Depression documenting poverty and deprivation. Marion Post was born in New Jersey on June 7,1910 and her parents split up and she was sent to boarding school, spending time at home with her mother in Greenwich Village when not at school. Here she met artists and musicians and became interested in dance. She studied at The New School, Post trained as a teacher, and went to work in a small town in Massachusetts. Here she saw the reality of the Depression and the problems of the poor, when the school closed she went to Europe to study with her sister Helen. Helen was studying with Trude Fleischmann, a Viennese photographer, Marion Post showed Fleischmann some of her photographs and was told to stick to photography. While in Vienna she saw some of the Nazi attacks on the Jewish population and was horrified, soon she and her sister had to return to America for safety. She went back to teaching but also continued her photography and became involved in the anti-fascist movement, at the New York Photo League she met Ralph Steiner and Paul Strand who encouraged her. Stryker was impressed by her work and hired her immediately, posts photographs for the FSA often explore the political aspects of poverty and deprivation. They also often find humour in the situations she encountered, in 1941 she met Leon Oliver Wolcott, deputy director of war relations for the U. S. Department of Agriculture under Franklin Roosevelt. They married, and she continued her assignments for the FSA and she found it difficult to fit in her photography around raising a family and a great deal of traveling and living overseas. In the 1970s, a renewed interest in Wolcotts images among scholars rekindled her own interest in photography, in 1978, Wolcott mounted her first solo exhibition in California, and by the 1980s the Smithsonian and the Metropolitan Museum of Art began to collect her photographs. The first monograph on her work was published in 1983 and she was an advocate for womens rights, in 1986, Wolcott said, Women have come a long way, but not far enough. Speak with your images from your heart and soul, looking for the Light, The Hidden Life and Art of Marion Post Wolcott. Marion Post Wolcott, A Photographic Journey, albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press,1989. The Photography of Marion Post Wolcott Website created by Wolcotts daughter, hosted on J. David Sapirs site Fixing Shadows, available online, http, carmel, CA, Friends of Photography,1983. Prose, Francine, The Photographs of Marion Post Wolcott, an extensive anthology of Marion Post Wolcotts photography edited by her daughter, Linda Wolcott-Moore. FSA Photos, including many by Wolcott, posted by Library of Congress on Flickr Commons Website, oral history interview with Marion Post Wolcott,1965 Jan
15.
Walker Evans
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Walker Evans was an American photographer and photojournalist best known for his work for the Farm Security Administration documenting the effects of the Great Depression. Much of Evanss work from the FSA period uses the large-format and he said that his goal as a photographer was to make pictures that are literate, authoritative, transcendent. Many of his works are in the permanent collections of museums and have been the subject of retrospectives at such institutions as The Metropolitan Museum of Art or George Eastman House. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, to Jessie and Walker, Walker Evans came from an affluent family and his father was an advertising director. He spent his youth in Toledo, Chicago, and New York City and he attended The Loomis Institute and Mercersburg Academy before graduating from Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, in 1922. He studied French literature for a year at Williams College, spending much of his time in the schools library, after spending a year in Paris in 1926, he returned to the United States to join the edgy literary and art crowd in New York City. John Cheever, Hart Crane, and Lincoln Kirstein were among his friends and he was a clerk for a stockbroker firm in Wall street from 1927 to 1929. Evans took up photography in 1928 around the time he was living in Ossining and his influences included Eugène Atget and August Sander. In 1930, he published three photographs in the poetry book The Bridge by Hart Crane, in 1931, he made a photo series of Victorian houses in the Boston vicinity sponsored by Lincoln Kirstein. In May and June 1933, Evans took photographs in Cuba on assignment for Lippincott, the publisher of Carleton Beals The Crime of Cuba, there Evans drank nightly with Ernest Hemingway, who loaned him money to extend his two-week stay an additional week. His photographs documented street life, the presence of police, beggars and dockworkers in rags and he also helped Hemingway acquire photos from newspaper archives that documented some of the political violence Hemingway described in To Have and Have Not. Fearing that his photographs might be deemed critical of the government and confiscated by Cuban authorities and he had no difficulties when returning to the United States, and 31 of his photos appeared in Beals book. The cache of prints left with Hemingway was discovered in Havana in 2002, in 1935, Evans spent two months at first on a fixed-term photographic campaign for the Resettlement Administration in West Virginia and Pennsylvania. From October on, he continued to do work for the RA and later the Farm Security Administration. Its detailed account of three farming families paints a moving portrait of rural poverty. Evanss photographs of the families made them icons of Depression-Era misery, in September 2005, Fortune revisited Hale County and the descendants of the three families for its 75th anniversary issue. Evans continued to work for the FSA until 1938 and that year, an exhibition, Walker Evans, American Photographs, was held at The Museum of Modern Art, New York. This was the first exhibition in the devoted to the work of a single photographer
16.
Russell Lee (photographer)
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Russell Lee was an American photographer and photojournalist, best known for his work for the Farm Security Administration. His technically excellent images documented the ethnography of various American classes and cultures, the son of Burton Lee and wife Adeline Werner, Lee grew up in Ottawa, Illinois and went to the Culver Military Academy in Culver, Indiana for high school. He earned a degree in engineering from Lehigh University in Bethlehem. He gave up an excellent position as a chemist to become a painter, originally he used photography as a precursor to his painting, but soon became interested in photography for its own sake, recording the people and places around him. Among his earliest subjects were Pennsylvanian bootleg mining and the Father Divine cult, in the fall of 1936, during the Great Depression, Lee was hired for the federally sponsored Farm Security Administration photographic documentation project of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration. He joined a team assembled under Roy Stryker, along with Dorothea Lange, Arthur Rothstein, Lee created some of the iconic images produced by the FSA, including photographic studies of San Augustine, Texas in 1939, and Pie Town, New Mexico in 1940. He worked for the United States Department of the Interior in 1946 and 1947 and he created over 4,000 photographs of miners and their working conditions in coal mines. In 1946, Lee completed a series of focused on a Pentecostal Church of God in a Kentucky coal camp. While completing the DOI work, Lee also continued to work under Stryker, some 80,000 of those photographs have been donated by Exxon Corporation to the University of Louisville in Kentucky. In 1947 Lee moved to Austin, Texas and continued photography, in 1965 he became the first instructor of photography at the University of Texas. In 2016 Lee Elementary, a school in the Austin Independent School District, will be renamed Russell Lee Elementary in honor of the photographer, replacing the original namesake, Robert E Lee. Brisco - A Guide to the Russell Lee Photograph Collection, University of Texas Russell Lees FSA Photos of Pie Town, New Mexico Museum of Art
17.
Gordon Parks
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Gordon Roger Alexander Buchanan Parks was an American photojournalist in the 1940s through 1970s—particularly in issues of civil rights, poverty and African-Americans—and in glamour photography. He is best remembered for his photos of poor Americans during the 1940s, for his photographic essays for Life magazine. Parks also was an author, poet and composer, Parks was born in Fort Scott, Kansas, the son of Sarah and Jackson Parks, on Nov.30,1912. He was the youngest of fifteen children and his father was a farmer who grew corn, beets, turnips, potatoes, collard greens, and tomatoes. They also had a few ducks, chickens, and hogs and he attended a segregated elementary school. Parks related in a documentary on his life that his teacher told him that his desire to go to college would be a waste of money, when Parks was eleven years old, three white boys threw him into the Marmaton River, knowing he couldnt swim. He had the presence of mind to duck underwater so they wouldnt see him make it to land and his mother died when he was fourteen. He spent his last night at the family home sleeping beside his mothers coffin, seeking not only solace, soon after, he was sent to St. Paul, Minnesota, to live with a sister and her husband. He and his uncle argued frequently and Parks was finally turned out onto the street to fend for himself at age 15, struggling to survive, he worked in brothels, and as a singer, piano player, bus boy, traveling waiter, and semi-pro basketball player. In 1929, he worked in a gentlemens club, the Minnesota Club. There he not only observed the trappings of success, but was able to read books from the club library. When the Wall Street Crash of 1929 brought an end to the club, he jumped a train to Chicago, while working as a waiter in a railroad dining car, he began seeing the portfolios of photographers in picture magazines, and decided to become a photographer. At the age of 25, Parks was struck by photographs of migrant workers in a magazine and he bought his first camera, a Voigtländer Brillant, for $7.50 at a Seattle, Washington, pawnshop and taught himself how to take photos. The photography clerks who developed Parks first roll of film applauded his work and prompted him to seek a fashion assignment at a clothing store in St. Paul, Minnesota. Those photographs caught the eye of Marva Louis, wife of boxing champion Joe Louis. She encouraged Parks to move to Chicago in 1940, where he began a portrait business and he began to chronicle the citys South Side black ghetto and, in 1941, an exhibition of those photographs won Parks a photography fellowship with the Farm Security Administration. Upon viewing the photograph, Stryker said that it was an indictment of America, and he urged Parks to keep working with Watson, however, which led to a series of photographs of her daily life. After the FSA disbanded, Parks remained in Washington, D. C. as a correspondent with the Office of War Information and he was unable to follow the group in the overseas war theatre, so he resigned from the O. W. I
18.
Jack Delano
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Jack Delano was an American photographer for the Farm Security Administration and a composer noted for his use of Puerto Rican folk material. Delano was born as Jacob Ovcharov in Voroshilovka village, Podolie Governorate, near Vinnytsia, Russian Empire and moved, with his parents and younger brother, the family arrived at New York on July 5,1923 on the boat SS Homeric. Between 1924 and 1932 he studied graphic arts/photography and music at the Settlement Music School, after being awarded an art scholarship for his talents, he attended the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts where, from 1928 until 1932, he studied illustration and continued his musical training. While there, Delano was awarded the Cresson Traveling Scholarship, on which he chose to travel to Europe, after graduating from the PAFA, Delano proposed a photographic project to the Federal Art Project, a study of mining conditions in the Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania anthracite coal area. Delano sent sample pictures to Roy Stryker and applied for a job at the Farm Security Administration Photography program FSA, through the help of Edwin Rosskam and Marion Post Wolcott, Stryker offered Delano a job at $2, 300/year. As a condition of the job, Delano had to have his own car and drivers license, before working at the FSA, Delano had done his own processing and developing but did neither at the FSA. Other photographers working for the FSA include Walker Evans, Dorothea Lange, in 1943 FSA was eliminated as budget waste and subsumed into the Office of War Information. He travelled to Puerto Rico in 1941 as a part of the FSA project and this trip had such a profound influence on him that he settled there permanently in 1946. Between 1943 and 1946 he served in the U. S. Army Air Forces, with his wife Irene he worked in the Community Division of the Department of Public Education producing films, for many of which Delano composed the score. Delano also directed Los Peloteros, a Puerto Rican film about poor rural kids, the film remains a classic in Puerto Rican cinema. Jack Delanos musical compositions included works of every type, orchestral, ballets, chamber, choral and his vocal music often showcases Puerto Rican poetry, especially the words of friend and collaborator Tomás Blanco. Blanco, Délano and his wife Irene collaborated on childrens books and his score for the film Desde las nubes demonstrates an early use of electronic techniques. Most of his works composed after he moved to Puerto Rico are notable for using folk material in a classical form. In 1957, Delano helped found Puerto Ricos first publicly funded television station, WIPR where he also acted as a station producer, composer. Wiley Hitchcock and Stanley Sadie, New Grove Dictionary of American Music, composers of the Americas, biographical data and catalogs of their works, volume 19, pp 22–27. Cabán-Vales, Musiké Jack Delano at Find a Grave Cuatro sones de la tierra by mezzo-soprano Laura Virella and pianist Nathaniel LaNasa
19.
John Vachon
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John Felix Vachon was an American photographer. Vachon was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, the son of Ann Marie and he graduated from Cretin High School. He received a degree in 1934 from the University of St. Thomas in Saint Paul. In about 1938 he married Millicent Leeper who was known as Penny, Vachon married Françoise Fourestier in 1961. Vachon served in the United States Army in 1945, Vachons daughter, Christine Vachon, is a noted independent film producer. John Vachons first job at the Farm Security Administration carried the title assistant messenger and he was twenty-one, and had come to Washington from his native Minnesota to attend The Catholic University of America. By 1937 Vachon had looked enough to want to make photographs himself and his weekend photographs of everything in the Potomac River valley were clearly the work of a beginner, but Stryker lent him equipment and encouraged him to keep at it. Vachon received help as well from Walker Evans, who insisted that he master the view camera, and Arthur Rothstein, in October and November 1938, Vachon traveled to Nebraska on his first extensive solo trip. He photographed agricultural programs on behalf of the FSAs regional office and pursued an extra assignment from Stryker, the city of Omaha. He was a photographer for the Office of War Information in Washington, D. C. from 1942 to 1943, after serving in the army in 1944–45, in 1947 Vachon joined the Photo League, where he wrote book reviews for Photo Notes and participated in many exhibition. Between 1945 and 1947 he photographed New Jersey and Venezuela for Standard, Vachon became a staff photographer for Life magazine, where he worked between 1947 and 1949, and for over twenty five years beginning in 1947 at Look magazine. In 1953 Vachon took the first pictures of Marilyn Monroe and Joe DiMaggio when Monroe cured a sprained ankle near Banff, when Look closed in 1971 he became a freelance photographer. In 1973, he won a Guggenheim fellowship, in 1975 he was a visiting professor at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts. He died in 1975 in New York at age 60, John Vachon, A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress. Oral history interview with John Vachon,1964 Apr, post-World War II Photos of Poland by John Vachon from the JDC Archives
20.
Carl Mydans
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Carl Mydans was an American photographer who worked for the Farm Security Administration and Life magazine. Mydans grew up playing on the Mystic River near Medford, near Boston, Mydans became devoted to photography while in college at Boston University. While working on the Boston University News he abandoned childhood dreams of being a surgeon or a builder in favor of journalism. His first reporting jobs were for The Boston Globe and the Boston Herald, after college, he went to New York as a writer for American Banker and then in 1935 to Washington to join a group of photographers in the Farm Security Administration. There he worked with photographers like Dorothea Lange and Ben Shahn to document the conditions of the American rural workers. It was the Great Depression, and the poorest of Americas poor were devastated by the economic downturn, in 1936, he joined Life as one of its earliest staff photographers and a pioneering photojournalist. Mydans recorded photographic images of life and death throughout Europe and Asia during World War II travelling over 45,000 miles, in 1941, the photographer and Shelley Mydans were the first husband and wife team on the magazines staff. After their release, Mydans was sent back into Europe for pivotal battles in Italy, by 1944, Mydans was back in the Philippines to cover MacArthurs return. Some asserted that it must have been staged, but Mydans resolutely defended the photograph as entirely spontaneous, no one I have ever known in public life had a better understanding of the drama and power of a picture, Mydans, said about MacArthur. Mydans also captured the signing of Japans surrender aboard the U. S. S, but he also photographed the war from the viewpoint of the ordinary soldier or sailor. Resourceful and unruffled, Mr. Mydans sent back pictures of combat that even now define how some remember World War II, Korea, and other conflicts, noted the New York Times. Despite his two years in captivity, Mydans bore no ill will toward the Asian nation, and accepted an assignment to head Time-Lifes Tokyo bureau with his wife. Time-Life was the publisher of Time, Life and other top magazines, in 1948, he just happened to be in the city of Fukui when a destructive earthquake struck, some of his shots were taken on the street while buildings were collapsing around him. After covering the Korean War, Mydans traveled the globe for the two decades for Life before the publication folded in 1972. When it was relaunched several years later, he was listed as one of its contributing photographers. He died on August 16,2004, of failure at his home in Larchmont, New York. Widowed in 2002, Mydans was survived by his daughter, Misty, a California attorney, and his son, Seth, IN THE SHADOW OF THE CAPITOL. Photographs by Carl Mydans for the U. S. Resettlement Administration, edited and with text by Tom Clark
21.
Dorothea Lange
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Dorothea Lange was an American documentary photographer and photojournalist, best known for her Depression-era work for the Farm Security Administration. Langes photographs humanized the consequences of the Great Depression and influenced the development of documentary photography, born of second generation German immigrants on May 26,1895, at 1041 Bloomfield Street, Hoboken, New Jersey, Dorothea Lange was named Dorothea Margaretta Nutzhorn at birth. She dropped her name and assumed her mothers maiden name after her father abandoned the family when she was 12 years old. The other was her contraction of polio at age seven which left her with a right leg. It formed me, guided me, instructed me, helped me and humiliated me, ive never gotten over it, and I am aware of the force and power of it. Lange graduated from the Wadleigh High School for Girls and was educated in photography at Columbia University in New York City and she was informally apprenticed to several New York photography studios, including that of the famed Arnold Genthe. In 1918, she left New York with a friend to travel the world. By the following year she had opened a portrait studio. She lived across the bay in Berkeley for the rest of her life, in 1920, she married the noted western painter Maynard Dixon, with whom she had two sons, Daniel, born in 1925, and John, born in 1930. With the onset of the Great Depression, Lange turned her camera lens from the studio to the street, in December 1935, she and Dixon divorced and she married economist Paul Schuster Taylor, Professor of Economics at the University of California, Berkeley. For the next five years they documented rural poverty and the exploitation of sharecroppers and migrant laborers – Taylor interviewing and gathering economic data, distributed free to newspapers across the country, her poignant images became icons of the era. One of Langes most recognized works is titled Migrant Mother, the woman in the photo is Florence Owens Thompson. In 1960, Lange spoke about her taking the photograph, I saw and approached the hungry and desperate mother. I do not remember how I explained my presence or my camera to her, I made five exposures, working closer and closer from the same direction. I did not ask her name or her history and she told me her age, that she was thirty-two. She said that they had been living on frozen vegetables from the surrounding fields and she had just sold the tires from her car to buy food. There she sat in that lean-to tent with her children huddled around her, and seemed to know that my pictures might help her, there was a sort of equality about it. After Lange returned home, she told the editor of a San Francisco newspaper about conditions at the camp, the editor informed federal authorities and published an article that included the photos
22.
Ben Shahn
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Ben Shahn was a Lithuanian-born American artist. He is best known for his works of realism, his left-wing political views. Shahn was born in Kaunas, Lithuania, then occupied by the Russian Empire and his father was exiled to Siberia for possible revolutionary activities in 1902, at which point Shahn, his mother, and two younger siblings moved to Vilkomir. In 1906, the family immigrated to the United States where they rejoined Hessel and they settled in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, New York, where two more siblings were born. His younger brother drowned at age 17, Shahn began his path to becoming an artist in New York, where he was first trained as a lithographer. Shahns early experiences with lithography and graphic design is apparent in his prints and paintings which often include the combination of text. Shahns primary medium was egg tempera, popular among social realists, although Shahn attended New York University as a biology student in 1919, he went on to pursue art at City College in 1921 and then at the National Academy of Design. After his marriage to Tillie Goldstein in 1924, the two traveled through North Africa and then to Europe, where he made the traditional artist pilgrimage, there he studied great European artists such as Henri Matisse, Raoul Dufy, Georges Rouault, Pablo Picasso and Paul Klee. Contemporaries who would make a impact on Shahns work and career include artists Walker Evans, Diego Rivera. Shahn was dissatisfied with the inspired by his travels, claiming that the pieces were unoriginal. Shahn eventually outgrew his pursuit of European modern art, and redirected his efforts toward a realist style which he used to contribute to social dialogue. The twenty-three gouache paintings of the trials of Sacco and Vanzetti communicated the political concerns of his time, the Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti was exhibited in 1932 and received acclaim from both the public and critics. This series gave Shahn the confidence to cultivate his personal style, Shahns subsequent series of California labor leader Tom Mooney won him the recognition of Diego Rivera. In May and June 1933, he served as an assistant to Diego Rivera while Rivera executed the Rockefeller Center mural, Shahn had a role in fanning the controversy, by circulating a petition among the workers. Also during this period, Shahn met photojournalist Bernarda Bryson, who would become his second wife. Although this marriage was successful, the mural, his 1934 project for the Public Works of Art Projects, fortunately, in 1935, Shahn was recommended by Walker Evans, a friend and former roommate, to Roy Stryker to join the photographic group at the Farm Security Administration. As a member of the FSA group, Shahn roamed and documented the American south together with his colleagues Walker Evans, like his earlier photography of New York City, Shahn’s FSA work can be viewed as social-documentary. Similarly, Shahn’s New Deal art for the FSA and Resettlement Agency exposed American living and working conditions and he also worked for these agencies as a graphic artist and painter
23.
Rural area
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In general, a rural area or countryside is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Whatever is not urban is considered rural, typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas are rural, though so are others such as forests. Different countries have varying definitions of rural for statistical and administrative purposes, in Canada, the census division has been used to represent regions and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent communities. Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Ehrensaft, as well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural for their population counts and this definition has changed over time. Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or less inhabitants, the current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometre. 84% of the United States inhabitants live in suburban and urban areas, Rural areas occupy the remaining 90 percent. The U. S. Census Bureau, the USDAs Economic Research Service, an urbanized area consists of a central surrounding areas whose population is greater than 50,000. USDA The USDAs Office of Rural Development may define rural by various population thresholds, for example, a metropolitan county is one that contains an urbanized area, or one that has a twenty-five percent commuter rate to an urbanized area regardless of population. In 2014, the USDA updated their rural / non-rural area definitions based on the 2010 Census counts, Rural health definitions can be different for establishing under-served areas or health care accessibility in rural areas of the United States. This became the Goldsmith Modification definition of rural, health care delivery in rural areas of the United States can be challenging. From 2005-2011, the rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations for acute conditions was highest in rural areas, in Brazil, theres different notions of rural area and countryside. Rural areas are any place outside an urban development and its carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside are officially defined as all municipalities outside the capitals metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul doesnt have any metropolitan region, thus all of the state, Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and its de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio
24.
Farm Security Administration
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The FSA is famous for its small but highly influential photography program, 1935–44, that portrayed the challenges of rural poverty. The projects that were combined in 1935 to form the RA started in 1933 as an assortment of programs tried out by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, the RA was headed by Rexford Tugwell, an economic advisor to President Roosevelt. However, Tugwells goal moving 650,000 people into 100,000,000 acres of exhausted and this goal seemed socialistic to some and threatened to deprive influential farm owners of their tenant workforce. The main focus of the RA was to now build relief camps in California for migratory workers and this move was resisted by a large share of Californians, who did not want destitute migrants to settle in their midst. After facing enormous criticism for his management of the RA. On January 1,1937, with hopes of making the RA more effective, on July 22,1937, Congress passed the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act. This law authorized a modest credit program to assist tenant farmers to purchase land, following the passage of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act, Congress passed the Farm Security Act into law. The Farm Security Act officially transformed the Resettlement Administration into the Farm Security Administration, the FSA expanded through funds given by the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act. They were not allowed to purchase their farms for fear that they would back into inefficient practices not guided by RA. The Dust Bowl in the Great Plains displaced thousands of tenant farmers, sharecroppers, the FSA operated camps for them, such as Weedpatch Camp as depicted in The Grapes of Wrath. The RA and the FSA gave educational aid to 455,000 farm families during the period 1936-1943, in June,1936, Roosevelt wrote, You are right about the farmers who suffer through their own fault. I wish you would have a talk with Tugwell about what he is doing to educate this type of farmer to become self-sustaining, during the past year his organization has made 104,000 farm families practically self-sustaining by supervision and education along practical lines. That is a pretty good record, the FSAs primary mission was not to aid farm production or prices. Roosevelts agricultural policy had, in fact, been to try to decrease agricultural production in order to increase prices, however, when production was discouraged, the tenant farmers and small holders suffered most by not being able to ship enough to market to pay rents. Many renters wanted money to buy farms, but the Agriculture Department realized there already were too many farmers, instead they used education to help the poor stretch their money further. Congress however demanded that the FSA help tenant farmers purchase farms, and purchase loans of $191 million were made, a much larger program was $778 million in loans to 950,000 tenant farmers. The goal was to make the more efficient so the loans were used for new machinery, trucks, or animals. At all times the borrower was closely advised by a government agent, family needs were on the agenda, as the FSA set up a health insurance program and taught farm wives how to cook and raise children
25.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
26.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
27.
Shenandoah National Park
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Shenandoah National Park /ˈʃɛnənˌdoʊə/ is a national park which encompasses part of the Blue Ridge Mountains in the U. S. state of Virginia. The park is long and narrow, with the broad Shenandoah River and Valley on the west side, the highest peak is Hawksbill Mountain at 4,051 feet. The park encompasses parts of eight counties, on the west side of Skyline Drive they are, from northeast to southwest, Warren, Page, Rockingham, and Augusta counties. On the east side of Skyline Drive they are Rappahannock, Madison, Greene, the park stretches for 105 miles along Skyline Drive from near the town of Front Royal in the northeast to near the city of Waynesboro in the southwest. The park headquarters are located in Luray, Shenandoah National Park lies along the Blue Ridge Mountains in north-central Virginia. These mountains form a distinct highland rising to elevations above 4,000 feet, local topographic relief between the Blue Ridge Mountains and Shenandoah Valley exceeds 3,000 feet at some locations. The crest of the range divides the Shenandoah River drainage basin, part of the Potomac River drainage, on the west side, from the James and Rappahannock River drainage basins on the east side. Some of the rocks exposed in the date to over one billion years in age. Bedrock in the park includes Grenville-age granitic basement rocks and a sequence of metamorphosed Neoproterozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Swift Run. Columns of Catoctin Formation metamorphosed basalt can be seen at Compton Peak, clastic rocks of the Chilhowee Group are of early Cambrian age. Quaternary surficial deposits are common and cover much of the bedrock throughout the park, the park is located along the western part of the Blue Ridge anticlinorium, a regional-scale Paleozoic structure at the eastern margin of the Appalachian fold and thrust belt. Rocks within the park were folded, faulted, distorted, the rugged topography of Blue Ridge Mountains is a result of differential erosion during the Cenozoic, although some post-Paleozoic tectonic activity occurred in the region. Shenandoah was authorized in 1926 and fully established on December 26,1935, prior to being a park, much of the area was farmland and there are still remnants of old farms in several places. The Commonwealth of Virginia slowly acquired the land through eminent domain, in the creation of the park, a number of families and entire communities had to vacate portions of the Blue Ridge Mountains. At least 500 homes in eight Virginia counties were affected, most of the families came from Madison County, Page County, and Rappahannock County. Nearly 90% of the inhabitants worked the land for a living, although a terrible drought in 1930 affected many nearby apple orchards, some people vehemently opposed leaving. Eventually, a compromise was reached, some families were allowed to stay after their properties were acquired and they lived in the park until they died. The last one was Annie Lee Bradley Shenk, she died in 1979 at age 92, according to the Virginia Historical Society, 85-year-old Hezekiah Lam explained, I aint so crazy about leavin these hills but I never believed in bein agin the Government
28.
Cattle
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Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
29.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
30.
John H. Bankhead
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John Hollis Bankhead was a Democratic U. S. Senator from the state of Alabama between 1907 and 1920, Bankhead was born on September 13,1842, at Moscow, Marion County, Alabama. His great-grandfather, James Bankhead was born in Ulster and settled in South Carolina. At age 65, John H. Bankhead was appointed, then elected, to out the remainder of the U. S. Senate term left by the death of John Tyler Morgan. He served from June 18,1907, until his death on March 1,1920. Comer, former governor of Alabama, was appointed to serve the rest of his term, until November 2,1920, when J. Thomas Heflin was elected to serve out the term. Bankhead was a member of the Inland Waterways Commission in 1907, and was instrumental in enacting the Federal Aid Road Act of 1916, which became the first federal highway funding legislation. United States Senator John H. Bankhead II and Speaker of the House William Brockman Bankhead were his sons, the cross-country Bankhead Highway was named after him, as is Bankhead Lake on the Black Warrior River near Birmingham. Bankhead House James Greer Bankhead House Media related to John Hollis Bankhead at Wikimedia Commons United States Congress, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. John H. Bankhead at Find a Grave
31.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
32.
Alabama
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Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
33.
Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act
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The Bankhead–Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 was passed on July 22,1937 and authorized acquisition by the federal government of damaged lands to rehabilitate and use them for various purposes. Most importantly, however, the law authorized a modest credit program to assist tenant farmers to purchase land, both the U. S. Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management manage some Bankhead-Jones lands. Some Forest Service Bankhead-Jones lands are National Grasslands and they repaid their loan of $1,495 in only five years. Ten Years of the Farm Tenant Purchase Program, journal of Farm Economics 31, 469-486. Statutes at Large,50, Part 1, 522-33
34.
Boykin, Alabama
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Boykin, also known as Gees Bend, is an African American majority community and census-designated place in a large bend of the Alabama River in Wilcox County, Alabama. As of the 2010 census, its population was 275, the Boykin Post Office was established in the community in 1949 and remains active, servicing the 36723 ZIP code. Gees Bend was named for Joseph Gee, a large land owner from Halifax County. Gee brought 18 African American slaves with him and established a cotton plantation within the bend, Boykin is a block of land enclosed on three sides by the Alabama River, within a horseshoe shaped turn of the river named Gees Bend. It is within the Black Belt of Alabama, the plantation started by Joseph Gee passed to his nephews Sterling and Charles Gee upon his death, along with 47 slaves. The brothers then sold it to their relative Mark H. Pettway in 1845 to settle a $29,000 debt, about a year later, the Pettway family moved from North Carolina to Gees Bend, bringing about one hundred slaves with them. When slavery was abolished many of them continued working for the Pettways as sharecroppers, many of the black tenants Arthur Rothstein photographed were named Pettway. The white Pettway family owned the property until 1895, when it was sold to Adrian Sebastian Van de Graaff, Van de Graaff, a lawyer from Tuscaloosa, then operated it as an absentee landlord. The community had received assistance from the Red Cross in 1932 and federal. Beginning in 1935, the Resettlement Administration made agricultural loans and offered farm, residents were also encouraged to replace oxen with more efficient mules. The agencys programs at Gees Bend continued after Rothsteins visit, during 1937, the agency purchased the old Pettway plantation and two adjacent farms, divided the land, and rented it to the tenants. The following year, a nurse working in the community, and construction began for a school, store, blacksmith shop. By 1939 enough visible change had occurred for Roy Stryker to send Mary Post Wolcott to the community to photograph the signs of progress—to get the after pictures. During the 1940s, many families at Gees Bend bought their farms from the government for an average of $1,400 each. This was about $2,600 less per farm than the units had cost the government. Gees Bend continued to fascinate outsiders, in 1941, New York City speech professor and folklore collector Robert Sonkin recorded music, recitations, discussion, and a Fourth of July program at Gees Bend. When large numbers of residents began taking the ferry to the county seat of Camden to try to register to vote, the lack of ferry service forced the residents of the community to drive more than an hour in order to conduct business in Camden. The people of Gees Bend would be without a service for forty-four years
35.
The American Magazine
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The American Magazine was a periodical publication founded in June 1906, a continuation of failed publications purchased a few years earlier from publishing mogul Miriam Leslie. The original title, Frank Leslies Popular Monthly, had begun publishing in 1876 and was renamed Leslies Monthly Magazine in 1904, from September 1905 through May 1906 it was called the American Illustrated Magazine, then subsequently shortened as The American Magazine until publication ceased in 1956. It kept continuous volume numbering throughout its history, in June 1906, muckraking journalists Ray Stannard Baker, Lincoln Steffens and Ida M. Tarbell left McClures to help create American Magazine. Baker contributed articles using the pseudonym David Grayson, under John Sanborn Phillips, who served as editor until 1915, the monthly magazine departed somewhat from the muckraking style and focused on human interest stories, social issues and fiction. Initially published by his Phillips Publishing Company of Springfield, Ohio, it later was taken over by Crowell Publishing Company, the American Magazine was published by Crowell-Collier until it folded in 1956. With the changes in 1915, the editor was John M. Siddall. The cover of the September 1917 issue announced, This Magazines Circulation Has Doubled in 20 Months, the September 1922 cover stated circulation had reached 1.8 million. Merle Crowell served as editor of American Magazine from 1923 until 1929 when Sumner Blossom took over, Blossom, who had been editor of Popular Science, was there for the last 27 years of the magazines existence. Fictional serials and short stories were a feature, and the magazine published several winners of the O. Henry Awards. High-profile writers contributed articles on a variety of topics, during his editorship, Blossom adopted the unusual policy of hiding the authors name on all works of fiction during the selection process as a way to encourage new fiction writers. The magazines staff learned the identity only once they accepted or rejected a manuscript. The American Magazines last issue was displayed on newsstands in August 1956, the FictionMags Index, Magazines, Listed by Title. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008, archived from the original on 26 October 2009
36.
Life (magazine)
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Life was an American magazine that ran weekly from 1883 to 1936 as a humor magazine with limited circulation. Time owner Henry Luce bought the magazine in 1936, solely so that he could acquire the rights to its name, Life was published weekly until 1972, as an intermittent special until 1978, and as a monthly from 1978 to 2000. After 2000 Time Inc. continued to use the Life brand for special, Life returned to regularly scheduled issues when it became a weekly newspaper supplement from 2004 to 2007. The website life. com, originally one of the channels on Time Inc. s Pathfinder service, was for a time in the late 2000s managed as a joint venture with Getty Images under the name See Your World, LLC. On January 30,2012 the LIFE. com URL became a channel on Time. com. When Life was founded in 1883, it was developed as similar to the British magazine and it was published for 53 years as a general-interest light entertainment magazine, heavy on illustrations, jokes and social commentary. The Luce Life was the first all-photographic American news magazine, the magazines role in the history of photojournalism is considered its most important contribution to publishing. Life was wildly successful for two generations before its prestige was diminished by economics and changing tastes, Life was founded January 4,1883, in a New York City artists studio at 1155 Broadway, as a partnership between John Ames Mitchell and Andrew Miller. Mitchell held a 75 per cent interest in the magazine with the remainder by Miller, both men retained their holdings until their deaths. Miller served as secretary-treasurer of the magazine and was very successful managing the side of the operation. Mitchell, a 37-year-old illustrator who used a $10,000 inheritance to invest in the weekly magazine, Mitchell created the first Life name-plate with cupids as mascots, he later drew its masthead of a knight leveling his lance at the posterior of a fleeing devil. Mitchell took advantage of a new printing process using zinc-coated plates. This edge helped because Life faced stiff competition from the humor magazines Judge and Puck. Edward Sandford Martin was brought on as Lifes first literary editor, the motto of the first issue of Life was, While theres Life, theres hope. The new magazine set forth its principles and policies to its readers and we shall try to domesticate as much as possible of the casual cheerfulness that is drifting about in an unfriendly world. The magazine was a success and soon attracted the leading contributors. Among the most important was Charles Dana Gibson, three years after the magazine was founded, the Massachusetts native first sold Life a drawing for $4, a dog outside his kennel howling at the moon. Encouraged by a publisher who was also an artist, Gibson was joined in Life early days by such illustrators as Palmer Cox
37.
Africa
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Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most-populous continent. At about 30.3 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earths total surface area and 20.4 % of its land area. With 1.2 billion people as of 2016, it accounts for about 16% of the human population. The continent includes Madagascar and various archipelagos and it contains 54 fully recognized sovereign states, nine territories and two de facto independent states with limited or no recognition. Africas population is the youngest amongst all the continents, the age in 2012 was 19.7. Algeria is Africas largest country by area, and Nigeria by population, afarensis, Homo erectus, H. habilis and H. ergaster – with the earliest Homo sapiens found in Ethiopia being dated to circa 200,000 years ago. Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas, it is the continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Africa hosts a diversity of ethnicities, cultures and languages. In the late 19th century European countries colonized most of Africa, Africa also varies greatly with regard to environments, economics, historical ties and government systems. However, most present states in Africa originate from a process of decolonization in the 20th century, afri was a Latin name used to refer to the inhabitants of Africa, which in its widest sense referred to all lands south of the Mediterranean. This name seems to have referred to a native Libyan tribe. The name is connected with Hebrew or Phoenician ʿafar dust. The same word may be found in the name of the Banu Ifran from Algeria and Tripolitania, under Roman rule, Carthage became the capital of the province of Africa Proconsularis, which also included the coastal part of modern Libya. The Latin suffix -ica can sometimes be used to denote a land, the later Muslim kingdom of Ifriqiya, modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name. According to the Romans, Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while Asia was used to refer to Anatolia, as Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of Africa expanded with their knowledge. 25,4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya, isidore of Seville in Etymologiae XIV.5.2. Suggests Africa comes from the Latin aprica, meaning sunny, massey, in 1881, stated that Africa is derived from the Egyptian af-rui-ka, meaning to turn toward the opening of the Ka. The Ka is the double of every person and the opening of the Ka refers to a womb or birthplace
38.
Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
39.
Plantations in the American South
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
40.
Look (American magazine)
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Look was a bi-weekly, general-interest magazine published in Des Moines, Iowa, from 1937 to 1971, with more of an emphasis on photographs than articles. It is known for helping launch the career of film director Stanley Kubrick, Gardner Mike Cowles, Jr. the magazines co-founder and first editor, was executive editor of The Des Moines Register and The Des Moines Tribune. When the first issue went on sale in early 1937, it sold 705,000 copies, although planned to begin with the January 1937 issue, the actual first issue of Look to be distributed was the February 1937 issue, numbered as Volume 1, Number 2. It was published monthly for five issues, then switched to starting with the May 11,1937 issue. Page numbering on early issues counted the front cover as page one, early issues, subtitled Monthly Picture Magazine, carried no advertising. The unusual format of the early issues featured layouts of photos with captions or very short articles. The magazines backers described it as an experiment based on the tremendous unfilled demand for extraordinary news and feature pictures. It was aimed at a broader readership than Life, promising trade papers that Look would have reader interest for yourself, for your wife, for your private secretary, within weeks, more than a million copies were bought of each issue, and it became a bi-weekly. By 1948 it sold 2.9 million copies per issue, circulation reached 3.7 million in 1954, and peaked at 7.75 million in 1969. Its advertising revenue peaked in 1966 at $80 million, of the leading general interest large-format magazines, Look had a circulation second only to Life and ahead of The Saturday Evening Post, which closed in 1969, and Colliers, which folded in 1956. Look was published under various names, Look, Inc. Cowles Magazines, and Cowles Communications, Inc and its New York editorial offices were located in the architecturally distinctive 488 Madison Avenue, dubbed the Look Building, now on the National Register of Historic Places. Beginning in 1963, Norman Rockwell, after closing his career with the Saturday Evening Post and he goes on to explain exactly how the Look reporters were compromised. Look ceased publication with its issue of October 19,1971, the victim of a $5 million loss in revenues in 1970, circulation was at 6.5 million when it closed. Hachette Filipacchi Médias brought back Look, The Picture Newsmagazine in February 1979 as a bi-weekly in a smaller size. Subscribers received copies of Esquire magazine to fulfill their terms, the Look Magazine Photograph Collection was donated to the Library of Congress and contains approximately five million items. After the closure, six Look employees created a fulfillment house using the computer system developed by the magazines circulation department. The company, CDS Global, is now an international provider of customer relationship services, Stanley Kubrick was a staff photographer for Look before starting his feature film career
41.
George Eastman Museum
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The George Eastman Museum, the worlds oldest museum dedicated to photography and one of the worlds oldest film archives, opened to the public in 1949 in Rochester, New York. Home to the 500-seat Dryden Theatre, the museum is located on the estate of George Eastman, the estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966. The Rochester estate of George Eastman was bequeathed upon his death to the University of Rochester, University presidents occupied Eastmans mansion as a residence for ten years. In 1948, the university transferred the property to the museum, George Eastman House was chartered as a museum in 1947. From the outset, the mission has been to collect, preserve. The museum opened its doors on November 9,1949, displaying its core collections in the public rooms of Eastmans house. Today, the name is the George Eastman Museum. Entire archives, corporate collections, and artists lifetime portfolios have been donated to the Eastman Museum, as well as an assemblage of rare motion pictures and ephemera. By 1984, the holdings were considered by many to be among the worlds finest, but with the collections growing at a rapid pace. Additional space became critical to store, study the number of collection objects. The museums expansion facility opened to the public in January 1989, in 1999, the George Eastman Museum launched the Mellon Advanced Residency Program in Photograph Conservation, made possible with grant support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. The program trains top photograph archivists and conservators from around the world, in 1996, the museum opened the Louis B. Mayer Conservation Center in nearby Chili, New York. One of only four film conservation centers in the United States and that same year, the Eastman House launched the first school of film preservation in the United States to teach restoration, preservation, and archiving of motion pictures. The L. Jeffrey Selznick School of Film Preservation is supported by a grant from The Louis B. Mayer Foundation, George Eastman Museum has organized numerous groundbreaking exhibitions, including New Topographics, Photographs of a Man-Altered Landscape in 1975. On October 6,2015, the changed its name from George Eastman House to the George Eastman Museum. The current director of the George Eastman Museum is Bruce Barnes who was appointed in September 2012, the George Eastman Museum is headed by a board of trustees. Steven Schwartz, of Chicago, is the current chair of board, the George Eastman Museums annual budget is approximately $10 million. As of December 2014, its endowment exceeded $35 million, more than 14,000 photographers are represented in the collection, including virtually all the major figures in the history of the medium
42.
Smithsonian Institution
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The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
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Photokina
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The photokina is the worlds largest trade fair held in Europe for the photographic and imaging industries. The first photokina was held in Cologne, Germany, in 1950, many photographic and imaging companies introduce and showcase state of the art imaging products at photokina. The show has two competitors, both annual shows held in different parts of the world. The CP+ show in Yokohama, Japan, originally the Japan Camera Show, has held since the early 1960s. In the U. S. the main show is PMA@CES. The first photokina was held in 1950 at the initiative of Bruno Uhl, noting the importance of the trade show, U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent a greeting telegram marking the opening of photokina in 1956. The 2008 show featured 1,579 exhibitors from 46 countries and had over 169,000 visitors from 161 countries, the 2010 photokina took place from 21 to 26 September. It featured 1,251 suppliers from 45 countries and had over 180,000 visitors from 160 countries. The number of visitors increased to 185,000 from 166 countries for photokina 2012. The 2014 attendance remained roughly constant, at an estimated 185,000, the 2016 photokina was the first taking place under the new slogan Imaging unlimited from 20 to 25 September 2016. The next photokina will take place in Cologne, Germany from 25 to 30 September 2018, official photokina site Media related to Photokina at Wikimedia Commons
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Corcoran Gallery of Art
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The Corcoran Gallery of Art was an art museum in Washington, D. C. Prior to its closing, it was one of the oldest privately supported cultural institutions in the United States capital, starting in 1890, a museum school, later known as the Corcoran College of Art + Design, co-existed with the gallery. The museums main focus was American art, when the gallery was founded in 1869 by William Wilson Corcoran, the co-founder of Riggs Bank, it was one of the first fine art galleries in the country. Corcoran established the gallery, supported with an endowment, for the establishment and encouragement of the Fine Arts. While an independent institution, the Corcoran was the oldest and largest non-federal art museum in the District of Columbia and its mission was dedicated to art and used solely for the purpose of encouraging the American genius. The Corcoran Gallery of Art was originally located at 17th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, construction of that building started before the Civil War. The building, near completion, was used by the government as a warehouse during the Civil War and it was finally completed in 1874 and the gallery opened to the public. By 1897, the Corcoran Gallery collection outgrew the space of its original building, a new building was constructed, designed by Ernest Flagg in a Beaux-Arts style. The 135,000 square feet building was built to house an expanded Corcoran collection in addition to the nascent school, which had been formally founded in 1890. In 1928, the art collection of former Senator William A. Clark joined the Corcoran in a new wing designed by Charles Adam Platt, for decades, the Corcoran examined the possibility of adding on a final wing which would complete the campus footprint. These plans abruptly ended in 2005 after a Frank O. Gehry -designed wing was scrapped due to lack of funding, throughout the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, the gallery continued to display its main collection from Corcoran, Clark, and a few select major donors. In 1989, the Corcoran Gallery of Art had agreed to host a solo exhibit of Robert Mapplethorpes works. Mapplethorpe decided to show a new series that he had explored shortly before his death, Robert Mapplethorpe, several Trustees of the Corcoran and U. S. The Coalition of Washington Artists organized a demonstration to protest the Corcoran Gallerys cancellation of the exhibit, an estimated 700 people attended the demonstration. In June 1989, pop artist Lowell Blair Nesbitt became involved with a scandal involving Mapplethorpes work and it was at this time that Nesbitt, a long-time friend of Mapplethorpe, revealed that he had a $1.5 million bequest to the museum in his will. Nesbitt publicly promised that if the museum refused to host the exhibition he would revoke his bequest, the Corcoran refused and Nesbitt bequeathed the money to the Phillips Collection instead. The 1990 NEA Appropriations Bill included language against obscene work, as a result of the scandal, more than a dozen artists canceled exhibitions while the director, Christina Orr-Cahall, resigned and moved to the Norton Museum of Art. In its final years, the museum and its art and design college Corcoran College of Art and Design together had a staff of about 140
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Royal Photographic Society
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The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain, commonly known as the Royal Photographic Society, is one of the worlds oldest photographic societies. A change to the name to reflect the Royal patronage was, however. In 1874 it was renamed the Photographic Society of Great Britain, a registered charity since 1962, in July 2004, The Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain was granted a Royal charter recognising its eminence in the field of photography as a learned society. For most of its history the Society was based at premises in London. It moved to Bath in 1979, and since 2004 its headquarters has been at Fenton House in Bath, membership is international and open to anyone with an interest in photography. It runs a programme of more than 300 events throughout the United Kingdom and abroad, through local groups. Photographers were slow in coming together and forming clubs and societies, in other countries the Société française de photographie was founded in Paris in 1854. The catalyst behind the formation of The Photographic Society was Roger Fenton, the inaugural meeting of The Photographic Society was held on 20 January 1853. Fenton became the Societys first secretary, a position he held for three years, as Jane Fletcher has argued the changing nature of photography and photographic education in the early 1970s forced The Society to modernise and to become more relevant to British photography. An internal review led to changes, the introduction of a new distinction called the Licentiate in 1972. The rising cost of maintaining The Societys premises in South Audley Street, London, the Council approved at a meeting on 1 April 1977 a move to Bath and the establishment of a National Centre of Photography to house the Societys headquarters and collection. An appeal for £300,000 was launched in the summer of 1978 for the funds needed to convert The Octagon and adjacent buildings in Milsom Street, the inaugural exhibition opened in May 1980 with the building officially opened by Princess Margaret in April 1981. Although the Societys inaugural meeting took places at the Society of Arts in London and it held functions as a number of addresses, some concurrently for different types of meetings. The Societys premises were, 1899–1909 –66 Russell Square, London, 1909–1940 –35 Russell Square, London. 1940–1968 – Princes Gate, South Kensington, London, 1968–1970 –1 Maddox Street, Mayfair, London. 1970–1979 –14 South Audley Street, Mayfair, London 1980–2003 – The Octagon, Milsom Street, 2004–present – Fenton House,122 Wells Road, Bath, officially opened 16 February 2005. Supporters, The lions on either side of the shield with their ciphers pay tribute to our historical connections and Royal Patronage dating back to Queen Victoria, the lions are based on those on Prince Alberts garter stallplate at St. Georges Chapel, Windsor. Motto, The motto translates to All life perceived to indicate that the ability and potential for photography to observe and record so much of that which constitutes our life
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United States Information Service
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The United States Information Agency, which existed from 1953 to 1999, was a United States agency devoted to public diplomacy. S. The agency was known overseas as the United States Information Service. President Dwight D. Eisenhower established the United States Information Agency in 1953, the United States Information Agency was established to streamline the U. S. governments overseas information programs, and make them more effective. Its stated goals were, To explain and advocate U. S. S. government policy-makers on the ways in which foreign attitudes will have a bearing on the effectiveness of U. S. policies. Propaganda played a role in how the United States was viewed by the world during the Cold War. American propagandists felt as though the Hollywood movie industry was destroying the image of the United States in other countries. In response to the portrayal of America from communist propaganda the USIA exist as much to provide a view of the world to the United States as it to give the world a view of America. The purpose of the USIA within the United States was to assure Americans that, abroad, the USIA aimed to preserve a positive image of America regardless of negative depictions from communist propaganda. One notable example was Project Pedro, a funded project to create newsreels in Mexico during the 1950s that portrayed Communism unfavorably. Journalistic articles reflecting the views promoted by the USIA were frequently published under fictitious bylines, the agency did this through public opinion surveys throughout the world. It then issued a variety of reports to government officials, including a report on foreign media commentary around the world. From the beginning, Dwight Eisenhower said, “audiences would be receptive to the American message if they were kept from identifying it as propaganda. Avowedly propagandistic materials from the United States might convince few, through these different forms, the United States government was able to distribute and disguise the propaganda more easily and engage a greater concentration of people. Four main divisions existed at the beginning of the USIAs propaganda effort, the first division dealt with broadcasting information both in the United States and around the world. One of the most widely used forms of media at the onset of the Cold War was the radio, the Smith-Mundt Act authorized information programs, including Voice of America. Voice of America was intended as an unbiased and balanced Voice from America as originally broadcast during World War II, the VOA was used to tell Americas stories. to information deprived listeners behind the Iron Curtain”. By 1967, the VOA was broadcasting in 38 languages to up to 26 million listeners, in 1976 VOA gained its so-called Charter which required its news to be balanced. The second division of the USIA consisted of libraries and exhibits, the Smith-Mundt Act and the Fulbright-Hays Act of 1961 both authorized the international cultural and educational exchanges
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