1.
Northumberland, Pennsylvania
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Northumberland is a borough in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 3,804 at the 2010 census, the land that became Northumberland was purchased from the Iroquois in the first Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768, and the village was laid out in 1772. During the American Revolution, Northumberland was evacuated during the Big Runaway in 1778, there is one other property in the borough on the NRHP, the Priestley-Forsyth Memorial Library, built by a great grandson of Joseph Priestley. Much of the borough is part of the Northumberland Historic District, Northumberland is located at 40°53′38″N 76°47′46″W, about 60 miles northeast of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. It sits at the confluence of the north and west branches of the Susquehanna River, according to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of 1.6 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,714 people,1,657 households, the population density was 2,368.2 people per square mile. There were 1,772 housing units at a density of 1,129.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 98. 38% White,0. 73% African American,0. 13% Native American,0. 19% Asian,0. 40% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 62% of the population. 32. 0% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.79. In the borough the population was out, with 21. 7% under the age of 18,6. 7% from 18 to 24,29. 2% from 25 to 44,24. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 90.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.8 males, the median income for a household in the borough was $31,891, and the median income for a family was $38,807. Males had an income of $31,162 versus $22,203 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $18,229, about 4. 5% of families and 7. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7. 7% of those under age 18 and 6. 8% of those age 65 or over. The local public school system is the Shikellamy School District, with offices in nearby Sunbury. Shikellamy High School has a 78% graduation rate according to the report card 2005-2006. In 11th grade in the year, 49% were proficient in math. The high school is ranked 384th out of 606 public high schools in Pennsylvania, the Shikellamy School Board set the budget at $34.62 million for 2007-2008
2.
Rochester, New York
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Rochester is a city on the southern shore of Lake Ontario in the western portion of the U. S. state of New York, and the seat of Monroe County. The citys population was the third largest — after New York City. This area, which is part of the Western New York region, had a population of 1,079,671 at the time of the 2010 Census, a Census estimate of July 1,2012, raised that number to 1,082,284. Rochester was one of Americas first boomtowns, and rose to prominence as the site of many mills along the Genesee River. Several of the universities have renowned research programs. In addition, Rochester is the site of important inventions and innovations in consumer products. Until 2010, the Rochester metropolitan area was the second-largest regional economy in New York State, internal Revenue Service, after the New York City metropolitan area. Rochesters GMP has since ranked just below that of Buffalo, New York, the 25th edition of the Places Rated Almanac rated Rochester as the most livable city in 2007, among 379 U. S. metropolitan areas. In 2010 Forbes rated Rochester as the third-best place to raise a family, in 2012 Kiplinger rated Rochester as the fifth-best city for families, citing low cost of living, top public schools, and a low jobless rate. Of the 19 places in the United States named Rochester at least eight were named directly after Rochester, New York, having been founded or settled by former residents. These include Rochester, Indiana, Rochester, Texas, Rochester, Iowa, Rochester, Kentucky, Rochester, Michigan, Rochester, Minnesota, Rochester, Nevada, and Rochester, Ohio. The Seneca tribe of Native Americans lived in and around Rochester until they lost their claim to most of land in the Treaty of Big Tree in 1797. Settlement before the Seneca tribe is unknown, development of modern Rochester followed the American Revolution, and forced cession of their territory by the Iroquois after the defeat of Great Britain. Allied with the British, four major Iroquois tribes were forced from New York. As a reward for their loyalty to the British Crown, they were given a land grant on the Grand River in Canada. Rochester was founded shortly after the American Revolution by a wave of English-Puritan descended immigrants from New England who were looking for new agricultural land and they would be the dominant cultural group in Rochester for over a century. They chose the site because its three cataracts on the Genesee offered great potential for water power, beginning in 1811, and with a population of 15, the three founders surveyed the land and laid out streets and tracts. In 1817, the Brown brothers and other landowners joined their lands with the Hundred Acre Tract to form the village of Rochesterville, by 1821, Rochesterville was the seat of Monroe County
3.
Mount Hope Cemetery (Rochester)
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Mount Hope Cemetery in Rochester, New York, founded in 1838, is one of the United States first municipal rural cemeteries. Situated on 196 acres of adjacent to the University of Rochester on Mount Hope Avenue. The annual growth rate of this cemetery is 500-600 burials per year, Mount Hope also contains the ruins of a now outdated catacomb system, most notably with its sealed entrance on the east-facing drumlin upon entering the cemetery from the north. Its alternative entrance can be found in the Sunken Garden of Warner Castle across Mt, in 2010, G. Gotham Smith shot a segment of the feature film 3.14. The cemetery hosts the sculpture Defenders of the Flag, a Civil War monument made in 1908 by the American sculptor Sally James Farnham, about 12,000 to 14,000 years ago, Mount Hope was covered with ice one to two miles thick. As the glacier receded, cracks appeared in the ice, when the miles-high ice sheets finally melted, these river beds were left as ridges created from all the rock and rubble that had been deposited by the flowing river. In geological terms, these ridges are called eskers, one such esker snakes its way through much of Mount Hope Cemetery. The Seneca Indians used the Mount Hope esker as a trail from the Bristol Hills south of Rochester to Lake Ontario on the northern border. For the Senecas, it provided a continuous high path through the moraine, today, this esker is a principal vehicular lane through the cemetery and is called Indian Trail Avenue. General Elwell Stephen Otis was originally interred at Mount Hope before being removed to Arlington National Cemetery, notable cremations at Mount Hope include Blanche Stuart Scott and George Eastman. The Friends of Mount Hope Cemetery is an organization of volunteers founded in 1980 to restore, preserve. Votes For Women History Trail Richard O. Reisem, buried Treasures in Mount Hope Cemetery, Rochester, New York, A Pictorial Field Guide ISBN9780964103337. Gravestones in Mount Hope Cemetery ISBN9780964103351, OCLC801480231 Mount Hope Cemetery Reforest Mount Hope Volunteer At Mount Hope The Friends of Mount Hope Cemetery Tombstone Inscriptions from Mt
4.
Union (American Civil War)
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The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
5.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
6.
Union Army
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The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War,1861 to 1865. It included the permanent regular army of the United States, which was augmented by numbers of temporary units consisting of volunteers as well as conscripts. The Union Army fought and eventually defeated the Confederate Army during the war, at least two and a half million men served in the Union Army, almost all were volunteers. About 360,000 Union soldiers died from all causes,280,000 were wounded and 200,000 deserted. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, there were only 16,000 men in the U. S. Army, and of these many Southern officers resigned and joined the Confederate army. The U. S. Army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, four of artillery, Lincolns call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. The war proved to be longer and more extensive than anyone North or South had expected, the call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 Germans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincolns call, as more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Nevertheless, between April 1861 and April 1865, at least two and a million men served in the Union Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U. S, Military Academy on the active list, of these,296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were civilians,400 returned to the Union Army and 99 to the Confederate. Therefore, the ratio of Union to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283, the South did have the advantage of other military colleges, such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute, but they produced fewer officers. The Union Army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically, Military Division A collection of Departments reporting to one commander. Military Divisions were similar to the modern term Theater, and were modeled close to, though not synonymous with. Department An organization that covered a region, including responsibilities for the Federal installations therein. Those named for states usually referred to Southern states that had been occupied and it was more common to name departments for rivers or regions. District A subdivision of a Department, there were also Subdistricts for smaller regions
7.
Colonel (United States)
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It is equivalent to the naval rank of captain in the other uniformed services. The pay grade for colonel is O-6, the insignia of the rank of colonel, as seen on the right, is worn on the officers left side. The insignia for a colonel is an eagle which is a stylized representation of the eagle dominating the Great Seal of the United States. As on the Great Seal, the eagle has a U. S. shield superimposed on its chest and is holding an olive branch, however, in simplification of the Great Seal image, the insignia lacks the scroll in the eagles mouth and the rosette above its head. On the Great Seal, the branch is always clutched in the eagles right-side talons. The head of the eagle faces towards the branch, rather than the arrows. As a result, the head of the eagle faces towards the viewers left. During World War II the military insignia for the rank of Colonel changed somewhat with the eagle facing the arrows and this was done only during war years. These special war eagles, although rare, can sometimes be found in surplus or memorabilia sales. In the United States Army and United States Air Force, the eagle is worn with the head of the eagle to the wearers right. In the United States Marine Corps, United States Navy, United States Coast Guard and NOAA, the United States rank of colonel is a direct successor to the same rank in the British Army. The first colonels in America were appointed from Colonial militias maintained as reserves to the British Army in the American colonies, upon the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, colonial legislatures would grant commissions to men to raise a regiment and serve as its colonels. Thus, the first American colonels were usually respected men with ties in local communities, such was the origin of the phrase soldier and statesman. With the post-war reduction of the US Army, the rank of colonel disappeared, the first insignia for the rank of colonel consisted of gold epaulettes worn on the blue uniform of the Continental Army. The first recorded use of the insignia was in 1805 as this insignia was made official in uniform regulations by 1810. The rank of colonel was relatively rare in the early 19th century, partly because the U. S. Army was very small, and the rank was usually obtained only after long years of service. During the War of 1812 the Army grew rapidly and many colonels were appointed, a number of other colonels were appointed by brevet - an honorary promotion usually for distinguished service in combat. The American Civil War saw an influx of colonels as the rank was commonly held in both the Confederate army and Union Army by those who commanded a regiment
8.
2nd Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 2nd Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment in the United States Army that has served for more than two hundred years. It was constituted on 12 April 1808 as the 6th Infantry and that regiment became part of the 1st Infantry through the consolidations of 1815. At the end of the War of 1812 an act of Congress dated 3 March 1815 reduced the size of the Regular Army to a maximum of 10,000 men. Eight infantry regiments, one regiment and an artillery regiment were formed from the remains of the 46 existing regiments. This was done with no regard for the traditions of the existing regiments, the old regiments which happened to be closest together were pooled to form new regiments and the numbers assigned the regiments were based on the seniority of the colonels commanding them. The date of organization of the present 2nd Infantry is that of the original 6th Infantry,12 April 1808, the regiments headquarters was in the cantonment at Sacketts Harbor. Colonel Hugh Brady became the commanding officer with Henry Leavenworth as major. The regimental number was 2 because Brady was the second most senior commander in the United States Army. The War Department ruled that the present 2nd Infantry bear upon its colors the campaign honors of the regiments consolidated into its organization, the present 2nd Infantry also bears the two battle honors earned by the original/old 2nd Infantry for the Miami Campaign and Alabama 1814. In the ensuing years the regiment was primarily concerned with manning and constructing forts around the Great Lakes, when the Black Hawk War of 1832 erupted the 2nd Infantry was sent to Illinois but did not participate in any fighting. The regiment returned to its posts on the Great Lakes, during the Second Seminole War, from 1838 to 1842, the regiment was in Florida, where it was on the move daily, fighting and building roads and installations. In April 1840 with Colonel Brady attending to other duty assignments Lieutenant Colonel Bennett C, Riley assumed command of the regiment. Lieutenant Colonel Riley remained in command of the regiment until January 1850, in 1843 the regiment returned to its posts on Lakes Ontario and Champlain in upstate New York. When war broke out with Mexico in 1846, the 2nd Infantry Regiment was sent to Camargo, Mexico and joined General David E. Twiggs Brigade. From September 1846 to December 1847 the regiment campaigned from the Rio Grande to Mexico City, fighting in battles at Veracruz, Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Moline del Rey and Chapultepec. In September 1848 because of conflicts with the Indians in Oregon, the regiment sailed via Rio de Janeiro, Cape Horn and Santiago, Chile, to California. During the Civil War the 2nd Infantry fought in the early Battle of Wilsons Creek in Missouri, the regiment was assigned to the Army of the Potomac and fought in engagements such as Manassas, Antietam, Chancellorsville, Fredericksburg, and Gettysburg. From then until December 1864 the entire regiment consisted of just Company C, on 18 April 1869 the 2nd Infantry was consolidated with the 16th Infantry and the consolidated unit was designated as the 2nd Infantry
9.
Army of the Potomac
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The Army of the Potomac was the principal Union Army in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War. It was created in July 1861 shortly after the First Battle of Bull Run and was disbanded in June 1865 following the surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in April. The Army of the Potomac was created in 1861, but was only the size of a corps. Its nucleus was called the Army of Northeastern Virginia, under Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell, and it was the army fought the wars first major battle. The arrival in Washington, D. C. of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan dramatically changed the makeup of that army, on July 26,1861, the Department of the Shenandoah, commanded by Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. The men under Bankss command became a division in the Army of the Potomac. The army started with four corps, but these were divided during the Peninsula Campaign to produce two more, after the Second Battle of Bull Run, the Army of the Potomac absorbed the units that had served under Maj. Gen. John Pope. It is a popular, but mistaken, belief that John Pope commanded the Army of the Potomac in the summer of 1862 after McClellans unsuccessful Peninsula Campaign, on the contrary, Popes army consisted of different units, and was named the Army of Virginia. The Army of the Potomac underwent many changes during its existence. The army was divided by Ambrose Burnside into three divisions of two corps each with a Reserve composed of two more. Thereafter the individual corps, seven of which remained in Virginia, Hooker also created a Cavalry Corps by combining units that previously had served as smaller formations. In late 1863, two corps were sent West, and—in 1864—the remaining five corps were recombined into three, burnsides IX Corps, which accompanied the army at the start of Ulysses S. Grants Overland Campaign, rejoined the army later. For more detail, see the section Corps below, the Army of the Potomac fought in most of the Eastern Theater campaigns, primarily in Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. After the end of the war, it was disbanded on June 28,1865, the Army of the Potomac was also the name given to General P. G. T. Beauregards Confederate army during the early stages of the war. However, the name was changed to the Army of Northern Virginia. In 1869 the Society of the Army of the Potomac was formed as a veterans association and it had its last reunion in 1929. Because of its proximity to the cities of the North, such as Washington. Philadelphia, and New York City, the Army of the Potomac received more media coverage than the other Union field armies
10.
Seminole Wars
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Taken together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive Indian Wars in United States history. The First Seminole War began with General Andrew Jacksons excursions into West Florida, the governments of Britain and Spain both expressed outrage over the invasion. However, Spain was unable to defend its territory, and the Spanish Crown agreed to cede Florida to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. According to the Treaty of Moultrie Creek of 1823, the Seminoles were required to leave northern Florida and were confined to a reservation in the center of the Florida peninsula. The U. S. government enforced the treaty by building a series of forts and trading posts in the territory, mainly along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. The war resulted in most of the Seminole population in Florida being killed in battle, ravaged by starvation and disease, a few hundred Seminoles were allowed to remain in an unofficial reservation in southwest Florida. An estimated 100 Seminoles still refused to leave and retreated deep into the Everglades to live on land that was unwanted by white settlers, raids from the newly- established English Province of Carolina beginning in the mid-1600s began another steep decline in the indigenous population. In the first decade of the 18th century,10,000 –12,000 Indians were taken as slaves according to the governor of La Florida and by 1710, observers noted that north Florida was virtually depopulated. The few remaining natives fled west to Pensacola and beyond or east to the vicinity of St. Augustine. When Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain as part of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, during the mid-1700s, small bands from various Native American tribes from the southeastern United States began moving into the unoccupied lands of Florida. In 1715, the Yamasee moved into Florida as allies of the Spanish, Creek people, at first primarily the Lower Creek but later including Upper Creek, also started moving into Florida from the area of Georgia. The Mikasuki, Hitchiti-speakers, settled around what is now Lake Miccosukee near Tallahassee, another group of Hitchiti speakers, led by Cowkeeper, settled in what is now Alachua County, an area where the Spanish had maintained cattle ranches in the 17th century. One of the best-known ranches was Rancho de la Chua, the region became known as the Alachua Prairie. The Spanish in Saint Augustine began calling the Alachua Creek Cimarrones and this was the probable origin of the term Seminole. This name was applied to the other groups in Florida. Escaped African and African-American slaves who could reach the fort were essentially free, many were from Pensacola, some were free citizens though others had escaped from United States territory. The Spanish offered the freedom and land in Florida, they recruited former slaves as militia to help defend Pensacola. Other escaped slaves joined various Seminole bands as free members of the tribe, while most of the former slaves at Fort Mose went to Cuba with the Spanish when they left Florida in 1763, others lived with or near various bands of Indians
11.
Battle of Palo Alto
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The Battle of Palo Alto was the first major battle of the Mexican–American War and was fought on May 8,1846, on disputed ground five miles from the modern-day city of Brownsville, Texas. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Mexican General Mariano Aristas troops began to cross the Rio Grande, on May 3, the troops began to besiege the American outpost at Fort Texas. Taylor marched his Army of Occupation south to relieve the siege, Arista, upon learning of his approach, diverted many of his units away from the siege to meet Taylors force. The battle took place on May 8, three days before the declaration of war on Mexico by the United States. Arista ordered two cavalry charges, first against the American right flank and later against the left, the American victory is widely attributed to superior artillery. The U. S. light artillery was more mobile. That evening, Arista was forced to further south. The armies would clash again the day at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Arista started crossing the Rio Grande at Longoreno with his army, first with General Pedro de Ampudias 1st Brigade. Taylor prepared Fort Texas to withstand a siege while he moved most of his forces to protect his supply base at Fort Polk. Fort Texas was garrisoned by Taylor with 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowds four 18-pounders, Taylor started his return to Fort Texas on May 7 with 2,228 men plus his 200-wagon supply train. General Arista immediately left his camp at the Tanques del Ramireno with his army with the intention of blocking Taylor, Ampudias brigade left the Fort Texas siege to join him. Taylors scouts sighted the Mexican force at noon on the 8th, behind this line was Col. Cayetano Monteros light cavalry. Mays dragoon squadron guarded the flank and Capt. Croghan Ker guarded the train. Taylor halted his columns and formed a line behind his batteries when the Mexican artillery started firing at 2 PM, the American artillery was very effective while the Mexican artillery often fell short. Arista ordered Torrejons cavalry to attack the American right, but progress was slow, a fire started from a cannon burning wad which halted fighting for an hour as the smoke paralleled the lines. Arista pulled back 1,000 yards on his left and Taylor advanced accordingly, may failed to turn the Mexican left before the artillery duel resumed. Childs artillery battalion formed a square to repel another Torrejon cavalry charge, duncans battery stopped Arista from turning the American left and then advanced with the 8th Infantry and Kers dragoons to drive the Mexican right from the field
12.
Battle of Resaca de la Palma
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United States troops were victorious and forced the Mexicans out of Texas. Recalling his forces besieging Fort Texas, he was established along the twelve foot deep and 200 foot wide resaca, covering the flanks in the rear were the Presidiales, the light cavalry, and the 7th and 8th Regiments, including batteries on the south bank. Taylor reached the area about 3 PM and ordered Capt. William W. Mackalls skirmishers, randolph Ridgelys battery along the road, with the 4th and 5th Infantry to the left and the remaining 4th and 3d Infantry on the right. Fighting was disorganized and uncoordinated due to the chaparral and the intense Mexican artillery fire. Taylor ordered a charge by Capt. Charles A, mays dragoon squadron with the objective of clearing the Mexican battery. Mays exchange with Ridgeley supposedly included, Hello Ridgely, where is that Battery, I am ordered to charge it. Hold on Charley, till I draw their fire and you see where they are. Mays charge however carried them well past the guns and although he captured General Romulo Diaz de la Vega, Taylor then ordered William G. Belknaps 5th and 8th Infantry to secure the guns, which they did. The Mexicans east of the road then retreated, west of the road, Capt. Robert C. Buchanan and members of the 4th Infantry, found a trail which turned the Mexican left flank, enabling them to take and hold the battery located there. They were able to defend the position from General Pedro de Ampudias counterattacks, the Mexican Army left behind a number of artillery pieces, Aristas writing desk and silver service, the colors of Mexicos lauded Tampico Battalion, and other baggage. Among the several captured Mexican artillery pieces were two 8-pounder bronze guns, two 6-pounder bronze guns, and four 4-pounder bronze guns, taylors army settled into their Fort Texas campsite as Taylor considered his next move, although he did exchange prisoners with Arista. Taylor crossed the Rio Grande on 18 May, Aristas army having abandoned their artillery, sick and wounded at Linares, the Resaca De La Palma Battlefield is in the city limits of present-day Brownsville, Texas, but is part of the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park. The Battle of Resaca de la Palma inspired the name of Resaca, Georgia, battles of the Mexican-American War 1848 in Mexico List of conflicts in the United States Saint Patricks Battalion Bauer, K. Jack The Mexican War, 1846–1848 Grant, U. S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant, Vol. I, pp 65–69, ISBN 0-940450-58-5 Appendix To The Congressional Globe, - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
13.
Cortina Troubles
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According to author Robert Elman, Juan Cortina and his followers were the first socially motivated border bandits, similar to the Garzistas and the Villistas of later generations. The fighting took place in the Rio Grande Valley area, which straddles the border of Texas. The First Cortina War began at Brownsville on July 13,1859, tension increased between Cortina and the Brownsville authorities, and on September 28 he raided and occupied the town with a posse of between forty and eighty men. His enemies, however, had fled, and during the occupation of Brownsville, there is no need of fear. Orderly people and honest citizens are inviolable to us in their persons and our object, as you have seen, has been to chastise the villainy of our enemies, which heretofore has gone unpunished. Cortina retained control over Brownsville until September 30,1859, when he evacuated the town at the urging of influential residents of Matamoros, the following days, the townsfolk of Brownsville formed a twenty-man group in order to fight Cortina, called the Brownsville Tigers. In November, the Brownsville Tigers learned that Cortina was at his mothers home, called Rancho del Carmen and they immediately launched an attack, only to be sent into retreat in disarray by the Cortinistas, as they were called. Later the same month, the Brownsville Tigers were joined by a group of Texas Rangers, the offensive was unsuccessful, and in December, a second group of rangers led by Captain John Rip Ford arrived, larger and better organized. Because of appeals from Brownsville anglo-occupying forces, the United States Army sent troops from San Antonio to the nearby Fort Brown, the forts new commander, Major Samuel Heintzelman, united and coordinated all armed groups to put an end to the Cortinista threat. Cortina retreated up the Rio Grande, until on December 27,1859, Heintzelman, Cortinas forces were decisively defeated, losing sixty men and all their equipment. Pursued and defeated by Ford again a few later, Cortina retreated into the Burgos Mountains. The final engagements of the war were the Battle of La Bolsa, on February 4,1860, the Texas Rangers, under Ford, successfully defended their riverboat in the first engagement and then went on to rout the Cortinistas across the river at La Mesa, Tamaulipas. In May 1861, the much shorter Second Cortina War occurred, the American Civil War had just begun, and Cortina, who had aligned himself with the Federal Government of the United States, invaded Zapata County, Texas. He was defeated by Confederate Captain Santos Benavides at the Battle of Carrizo and retreated back into Mexico, Cortina would become one of the most important historical figures of the area, and continued to exert a decisive influence in the local events until his arrest in 1875. On September 28,1859, Juan Cortina raided and seized control of Brownsville with a forty to eighty man posse with the intent of killing his enemies in Brownsville. His enemies went into hiding and Cortina and his men shot five of the towns people presumably involved in the abuses against Texans of Mexican ethnicity. No indiscriminate attacks on the rest of the Brownsville population or on their properties took place under orders of Cortina, Cortina issues a famous proclamation, attempting to calm the American population of Brownsville, and asking for respect towards the Mexican inhabitants persons and properties. The following days, Brownsville forms a group in order to fight Cortina
14.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
15.
Battle of Gettysburg
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The Battle of Gettysburg was fought July 1–3,1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the war and is often described as the wars turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Meades Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lees attempt to invade the North. After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade. Elements of the two armies collided at Gettysburg on July 1,1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, on the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched an assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devils Den. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culps Hill, all across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines. The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army, Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the battle, the most costly in US history. Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville. Such a move would upset U. S. plans for the campaigning season. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest, in addition, Lees 72, 000-man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North. Thus, on June 3, Lees army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, the Cavalry Division remained under the command of Maj. Gen. J. E. B. The Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven corps, a cavalry corps. The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia
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Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
17.
Thomas Sully
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Thomas Sully was an American portrait painter, who was born in Britain but lived most of his life in Philadelphia. He painted in the style of Thomas Lawrence, and his subjects included Thomas Jefferson, John Quincy Adams and he also painted landscapes and historical pieces such as Passage of the Delaware, and his work was used on United States coinage. Sully was born in Horncastle, Lincolnshire, England in 1783, to the actors Matthew Sully, in March 1792, the Sullys and their nine children emigrated to Charleston, South Carolina, where Thomas’s uncle managed a theater. Sully made his first appearance in the arts as a tumbler at the age of 11 in Charleston, after a brief apprenticeship to an insurance broker, who recognized his artistic talent, at about age 12 Sully began painting. He studied with his brother-in-law Jean Belzons, a French miniaturist and he returned to Richmond to learn miniature and device painting from his elder brother Lawrence Sully. After Lawrence Sullys death, Thomas Sully married his brothers widow and he took on the rearing of Lawrences children and fathered an additional nine children with Sarah. Among the children were Alfred Sully, Mary Chester Sully, Jane Cooper Sully Darley, Blanche Sully, Rosalie Sully, Sully was one of the founding members of The Musical Fund Society where he painted the portraits of many of the musicians and composers. Sully became a painter at age 18 in 1801. He studied portrait painting under Gilbert Stuart in Boston for three weeks, after some time in Virginia with his brother, Sully moved to New York. He settled in Philadelphia in 1806, where he resided for the remainder of his life, in 1809 he traveled to London for nine months of study under Benjamin West. Sullys 1824 portraits of John Quincy Adams, who became President within the year and his Adams portrait may be seen in the National Gallery of Art, Washington. Many notable Americans of the day had their portraits painted by him, in 1837–1838 he was in London to paint Queen Victoria at the request of Philadelphias St. Georges Society. His daughter Blanche assisted him as the Queens stand-in, modeling the Queens costume when she was not available, one of Sullys portraits of Thomas Jefferson is owned by the Jefferson Literary and Debating Society at the University of Virginia and hangs in that schools rotunda. Another Jefferson portrait, this one head-to-toe, hangs at West Point, Sullys own index indicates that he produced 2,631 paintings from 1801, most of which are currently in the United States. His style resembles that of Thomas Lawrence, though best known as a portrait painter, Sully also made historical pieces and landscapes. An example of the former is the 1819 Passage of the Delaware, now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The Sully painting, Portrait of Anna and Harriet Coleman, sold on September 28,2013 for $145,000 by John M. Hess Auction Service Inc. of Manheim, Pennsylvania. Sully died in Philadelphia on November 5,1872, where he had spent the majority of his long and he is buried in the Laurel Hill Cemetery
18.
5th Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 5th Infantry Regiment is an infantry regiment of the United States Army that traces its origins to 1808. The Armys current regimental numbering system dates from this act, six of the old regiments were consolidated into the new 5th Regiment, which was organized on 15 May 1815 under the command of Colonel James Miller. The current 5th Infantry traces its origins to the oldest of these regiments, the 4th. After three years duty in New England, the 4th assembled near Philadelphia in the spring of 1811. S. In the spring of 1812, the 4th, commanded by then-Lieutenant Colonel Miller, was ordered to report to Brigadier General William Hull and they reached his headquarters at Detroit on 6 July, two days after being notified of the declaration of war. A week later, Hulls force crossed into Upper Canada, forming a base at Sandwich, on 9 August, marching south to rendezvous with a supply train from Ohio, the 4th charged and broke a British-Indian force at the Battle of Maguaga. A week after that, Hull surrendered Detroit and his command, including the 4th, to an inferior force of British. The 4th marched into captivity at Quebec city where the troops spent a month aboard prison ships in the St. Lawrence River before being exchanged on 29 October, the 4th lost 30 more men during the months voyage from Quebec to Boston. The 4th spent the years 1813–14 on the Lake Champlain front, participating in the battles of the Chateauguay and Lacolle Mills, the new 5th Regiments other ancestors also saw considerable action. On the Niagara Frontier, the old 9th Regiment served in Winfield Scotts brigade at the battles of Chippawa, James Miller took over from Ripley in early 1814 after Ripley was promoted to brigadier general and saw the 21st through its most rigorous tests in battle. The 21st fought at York, Sackets Harbor, as part of Ripleys Brigade at Chippawa, Lundys Lane, at Lundys Lane, Jacob Brown, the overall U. S. commander, asked Miller if he could take the British artillery on the high ground dominating the battlefield. Ill try, sir, became the 5th Infantrys regimental motto, perhaps the 5ths most lasting accomplishment was the construction in 1820–24, of Fort St. Anthony, at the mouth of the Minnesota River. On completion, the Army renamed the post in honor of its commanding officer, Fort Snelling became the seed pearl around which the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul grew. The only noteworthy engagement with Indians during this period was in the Black Hawk War of 1832. Even here, the 5th saw limited action, engaging in only in the final act of the war. Bad Axe was the last major fight between whites and Indians east of the Mississippi other than the Seminole resistance in Florida and this set off an immediate diplomatic crisis between the United States and Mexico over the southern boundary of Texas. Mexico claimed that the southern boundary of Texas was the Nueces River. Incoming President James Knox Polk directed Brigadier General Zachary Taylor to form an Army of Observation at Corpus Christi, Texas, on 9 March 1846, Taylors army left Corpus Christi to march to the Rio Grande and assert U. S. sovereignty over the expanded area
19.
Simon Cameron
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Simon Cameron was an American politician who served as United States Secretary of War for Abraham Lincoln at the start of the American Civil War. Cameron made his fortune in railways, canals and banking, and he then turned to a life of politics. He became a U. S. senator in 1845 for the state of Pennsylvania, originally a Democrat, he failed to secure a nomination for senator from the Know-Nothing party, and joined the Peoples Party, the Pennsylvania branch of what became the Republican Party. He won the Senate seat in 1857, and became one of the candidates for the Republican nomination in the election of 1860. Cameron gave his support to Abraham Lincoln, and became his Secretary of War and he served only a year before resigning amidst allegations of disorganization and corruption during the early phases of the American Civil War. Cameron then became the minister to Russia, but was overseas for less than a year. Beginning in 1867, he served in the Senate, he was succeeded by his son, J. Donald Cameron in 1877. After leaving the senate, Cameron lived in retirement, but still participated in politics and he died in 1889 and was buried in Harrisburg. Camerons chief legacy was a powerful Republican party machine that continued to dominate Pennsylvania politics long after his death, Simon Cameron was born in Maytown, Pennsylvania, to Charles Cameron and Martha Pfoutz. He was orphaned at nine and later apprenticed to a printer, Andrew Kennedy and he was editor of the Bucks County Messenger in 1821. A year later, he moved to Washington, D. C. and studied political movements while working for the firm of Gales. He married Margaret Brua and returned to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania where he purchased, Cameron served as state printer of Pennsylvania from 1825 until 1827, and was state adjutant general in 1826. He constructed several lines and merged them into the Northern Central Railway. He founded the Bank of Middletown in 1832 and engaged in business enterprises. In 1838, he was appointed as commissioner to settle claims of the Winnebago Indians, Cameron began his political career as a Democrat, supporting the campaigns of Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren. He was elected to replace James Buchanan in the United States Senate in 1845, a persistent opponent of slavery, Cameron switched to the Know Nothing Party, before joining the Republican Party in 1856. In 1857, Cameron was again elected to the United States Senate, Cameron was nominated for President, but gave his support to Abraham Lincoln at the 1860 Republican National Convention. Lincoln, as part of a bargain, named Cameron Secretary of War
20.
8th Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 8th Infantry Regiment of the United States, also known as the Fighting Eagles, is an infantry regiment in the United States Army. The 8th Infantry participated in the Mexican War, American Civil War, Philippine Insurrection, Moro Rebellion, World War I, World War II, Vietnam War and Iraq Campaign. Crest, On a wreath of the colors Argent and Azure out of a mural coronet a dexter arm in armor embowed the hand grasping a flagstaff with tassel all Proper, shield, The shield is white with a blue bend, the Infantry colors. The arrow and tomahawk represent the Indian campaigns in which the regiment has participated, the claw representing the maimed strength of the Prussian eagle alludes to the regiments part in the Occupation of Germany after World War I. Crest, The crest symbolizes service in the Mexican War, the 8th was the first United States Regiment to plant its colors on the fort at Churubusco, the coat of arms was approved on 1923-07-06. It was amended to correct the spelling of the motto on 1963-10-01, the overall height of the insignia is 1 5/32 inches. The shield is silver with a bend, the Infantry colors. The arrow and tomahawk represent the Indian campaigns in which the regiment has participated, the claw representing the maimed strength of the Prussian eagle alludes to the regiments part in the Occupation of Germany after World War I. The distinctive unit insignia was approved on 1923-11-25 and it was amended to correct the description on 1925-04-28. Decorations of the Fighting Eagles Battalion include three presidential unit citations, the first citation was awarded to the regiment during World War II on 6 June 1944, for action on the beaches of Normandy. Two other presidential unit citations were awarded to the battalion for actions in Pleiku Province, a co and C co were awarded another presidential unit citation for Kontum Province in the Republic of Vietnam. In World War II, the 8th Infantry Regiment was cited twice in the order of the day by the Belgian Army – the first for action in the Belgian Campaign, the Belgian Government subsequently awarded the regiment the Belgian Fourragère. The Vietnamese Government awarded the battalion the Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry with Palm, alpha and Charlie Companies were awarded an Oakleaf Cluster to their Presidential Unit Citation for extraordinary heroism in the Republic of Vietnam. A-1-4 engineers took much of the brunt blast of automatics and mortar fire from human waves charging and retreating many times and they received A Company 4th Engineers Battalion, Combat U. S. Army. The regiment had seven Medal of Honor recipients, a few of the famous past commanders include former General of the Army George C. Marshall, and General James Van Fleet, who led the regiment ashore on D-Day, the 1st Battalion, 8th Infantry Regiment was originally organized on 1 July 1838 as a detachment of recruits at Detroit, Michigan. It was designated on 5 July 1838 as Company A, 8th Infantry and it was consolidated in May 1869 with Company A, 33rd Infantry, with the consolidated unit being designated as Company A, 8th Infantry. The 8th Infantry was assigned on 17 December 1917 to the 8th Division and relieved on 2 March 1923 from its assignment to the 8th division before being reassigned to the 4th Division
21.
Ho-Chunk
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The Hoocąągra, sometimes called Ho-Chunk or Wisconsin Winnebago, are a Siouan Native American group native to the present-day states of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and parts of Iowa and Illinois. They are in the process of redefining all the lands that were taken from them with a traditional territory map, there are two separate federally recognized tribal governments, the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin and the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska. According to Gordon Thunder, the Hoocąągra have been removed from their homelands. Some in the federal and state governments have undermined the Hoocąągra land claims, however, the Hoocąągra Waaziijahaaci were never assigned a reservation and now have tribal or nation members who live in 43 of the 50 states in America. They also have members in Canada, Mexico, Hawaii. The Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska live on a reservation in Nebraska. Since the late 20th century, both tribal councils have authorized the development of casinos to generate revenue to support development, infrastructure, health care. The Ho-Chunk Nation is working on restoration and has developed a Hoocąąk-language app for the iPhone. The department supported the Ho-Chunk claim in 1998, but in 2011 refused to accept the property on their behalf, with a number of subsidiaries, it employs more than 1400 people. It has also contributed to housing construction on the reservation, like more than 60% of federally recognized tribes, the Winnebago Tribe has legalized alcohol sales on the reservation to secure revenues that previously went to the state in retail taxes. The Ho-Chunk was the dominant tribe in its territory in the 16th century and their traditions hold that they have always lived in the area. Ethnologists have speculated that, like some other Siouan peoples, the Ho-Chunk originated along the East Coast, Perrot wrote that the names given to them by neighboring Algonquian peoples may have referred to their origin near a salt water sea. The Ho-Chunk suffered severe losses in the 17th century, to a low of perhaps as few as 500 individuals. This has been attributed to the loss of hundreds of warriors in a storm, epidemics of infectious disease. By the early 1800s, their population had increased to 2,900, in 1990 they numbered 7,000, current estimates of total population of the two tribes are 12,000. The Hoocąągra are an indigenous tribe who speak a Siouan language. The Hoocąągra were also called various names by other tribes, often inspired by their fierceness in battle, at one point, they were even called Stinkards due to living by water sources with large algae blooms, including Green Bay and Lake Winnebago. The term Winnebago is a used by the Potawatomi, pronounced as Winnipego
22.
Wisconsin
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Wisconsin is a U. S. state located in the north-central United States, in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous. The state capital is Madison, and its largest city is Milwaukee, the state is divided into 72 counties. Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline, Wisconsin is known as Americas Dairyland because it is one of the nations leading dairy producers, particularly famous for its cheese. Manufacturing, especially paper products, information technology, and tourism are major contributors to the states economy. The word Wisconsin originates from the given to the Wisconsin River by one of the Algonquian-speaking Native American groups living in the region at the time of European contact. French explorer Jacques Marquette was the first European to reach the Wisconsin River, arriving in 1673, subsequent French writers changed the spelling from Meskousing to Ouisconsin, and over time this became the name for both the Wisconsin River and the surrounding lands. English speakers anglicized the spelling from Ouisconsin to Wisconsin when they began to arrive in numbers during the early 19th century. The legislature of Wisconsin Territory made the current spelling official in 1845, the Algonquin word for Wisconsin and its original meaning have both grown obscure. Interpretations vary, but most implicate the river and the red sandstone that lines its banks, other theories include claims that the name originated from one of a variety of Ojibwa words meaning red stone place, where the waters gather, or great rock. Wisconsin has been home to a variety of cultures over the past 12,000 years. The first people arrived around 10,000 BCE during the Wisconsin Glaciation and these early inhabitants, called Paleo-Indians, hunted now-extinct ice age animals such as the Boaz mastodon, a prehistoric mastodon skeleton unearthed along with spear points in southwest Wisconsin. After the ice age ended around 8000 BCE, people in the subsequent Archaic period lived by hunting, fishing, agricultural societies emerged gradually over the Woodland period between 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. Toward the end of period, Wisconsin was the heartland of the Effigy Mound culture. Later, between 1000 and 1500 CE, the Mississippian and Oneota cultures built substantial settlements including the village at Aztalan in southeast Wisconsin. The Oneota may be the ancestors of the modern Ioway and Ho-Chunk tribes who shared the Wisconsin region with the Menominee at the time of European contact, the first European to visit what became Wisconsin was probably the French explorer Jean Nicolet. He canoed west from Georgian Bay through the Great Lakes in 1634, pierre Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers visited Green Bay again in 1654–1666 and Chequamegon Bay in 1659–1660, where they traded for fur with local Native Americans. In 1673, Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet became the first to record a journey on the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway all the way to the Mississippi River near Prairie du Chien
23.
St. Augustine, Florida
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St. Augustine is a city in the Southeastern United States, on the Atlantic coast in northeastern Florida. It is the oldest continuously occupied European-established settlement within the borders of the continental United States, the county seat of St. Johns County, it is part of Floridas First Coast region and the Jacksonville metropolitan area. According to the 2010 census, the city population was 12,975, the United States Census Bureaus 2013 estimate of the citys population was 13,679, while the urban area had a population of 69,173 in 2012. Saint Augustine was founded on September 8,1565, by Spanish admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Floridas first governor. He named the settlement San Agustín, as his ships bearing settlers, troops, and supplies from Spain had first sighted land in Florida eleven days earlier on August 28, the feast day of St. Augustine. The city served as the capital of Spanish Florida for over 200 years, since the late 19th century, St. Augustines distinct historical character has made the city a major tourist attraction, and it is also the headquarters for the Florida National Guard. Founded in 1565 by the Spanish conquistador, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, in 1562, a group of Huguenots led by Jean Ribault arrived in Spanish Florida to establish a colony in the territory claimed by Spain. They explored the mouth of the St. Johns River, calling it la Rivière de Mai, then sailed northward, Spain learned of this French expedition through its spies at ports on the Atlantic coast of France. The Huguenot nobleman René de Laudonnière, who had participated in the expedition and he arrived at the mouth of the River May on June 22,1564, sailed up it a few miles, and founded Fort Caroline. He was ordered as well to drive away any intruders who were not subjects of the Spanish crown. On July 28, Menéndez set sail from Cádiz with a led by his 600-ton flagship, the San Pelayo, accompanied by several smaller ships, and carrying over 1,000 sailors, soldiers. On the feast day of St. Augustine, August 28, Menéndez then sailed north and confronted Ribaults fleet outside the bar of the River May in a brief skirmish. On September 6, he returned to the site of his first landfall, naming it after the Catholic saint, disembarked his troops, and quickly constructed fortifications to protect his people and supplies. Menéndez then marched his soldiers overland for an attack on Fort Caroline. Jean Ribault had already put out to sea with his ships for an assault on St. Augustine, there they were confronted by the Spaniard and his men on the opposite side. After several parleys with the Spanish, Jean Ribault and the Frenchmen with him surrendered, almost all of them were executed in the dunes near the inlet, in 1572, the settlement was relocated to the mainland, in the area just south of the future town plaza. Confident that he had fulfilled the conditions of his contract with the King, including the building of forts along the coast of La Florida. After several more transatlantic crossings, Menéndez fell ill and died on September 17,1574, succeeding governors of the province maintained a peaceful coexistence with the local Native Americans, allowing the isolated outpost of St. Augustine some stability for a few years
24.
Zachary Taylor
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Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. Before his presidency, Taylor was an officer in the United States Army. Taylors status as a hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican-American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died 16 months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery and he remains the only President to come from Louisiana. Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth and he was commissioned as an officer in the U. S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and his success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname Old Rough and Ready. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, in May, Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and managed to drive his troops out of Texas. Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico, where once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September. Defying orders, Taylor moved his troops further south, despite being severely outnumbered, he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista. After this, most of Taylors troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, the Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political beliefs and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination, as president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda, despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and he sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, Taylor died suddenly of a stomach-related illness in July 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of Taylors term, Zachary Taylor was born on November 24,1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. He is inconclusively believed to have born at the home of his maternal grandfather. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family and had three younger sisters and his mother was Sarah Dabney Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution, Taylors second cousin through that line was James Madison, the fourth president. Leaving exhausted lands, his family joined the migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville, Kentucky
25.
James Longstreet
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James Longstreet was one of the foremost Confederate generals of the American Civil War and the principal subordinate to General Robert E. Lee, who called him his Old War Horse. Longstreets talents as a made significant contributions to the Confederate victories at Second Bull Run, Fredericksburg. He also performed strongly during the Seven Days Battles, the Battle of Antietam and his performance in semiautonomous command during the Knoxville Campaign resulted in a Confederate defeat. He enjoyed a successful career working for the U. S. government as a diplomat, civil servant. His reputation in the South further suffered when he led African-American militia against the anti-Reconstruction White League at the Battle of Liberty Place in 1874, authors of the Lost Cause movement focused on Longstreets actions at Gettysburg as a primary reason for the Confederacys loss of the war. His reputation in the South was damaged for over a century and has recently begun a slow reassessment. James Longstreet was born on January 8,1821 in Edgefield District, South Carolina, jamess ancestor Dirck Stoffels Langestraet immigrated to the Dutch colony of New Netherland in 1657, but the name became Anglicized over the generations. Jamess father was impressed by his sons rocklike character on the plantation, giving him the nickname Peter. Longstreets father decided on a career for his son. At the age of nine, James was sent to live with his aunt and uncle in Augusta and his uncle, Augustus Baldwin Longstreet, was a newspaper editor, educator, and a Methodist minister. James spent eight years on his uncles plantation, Westover, just outside the city while he attended the Academy of Richmond County, James was a poor student academically and a disciplinary problem at West Point, ranking 54th out of 56 cadets when he graduated in 1842. Longstreet was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 4th U. S. Infantry. Longstreet spent his first two years of service at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, where he was joined by his friend. Soon after, Longstreet met his future first wife Maria Louisa Garland and she was the daughter of Longstreets regimental commander, Lt. Col. John Garland. They married in March 1848, after the Mexican-American War, at about the same time as Longstreet began courting Garland, Grant became acquainted with and courted Longstreets fourth cousin, Julia Dent, and the couple eventually married. Historians agree that Longstreet attended the Grant wedding on August 22,1848 in St. Louis, Grant biographer Jean Edward Smith asserted that Longstreet served as Grants best man at the wedding. Longstreet served with distinction in the Mexican-American War with the 8th U. S. Infantry, early in the war, he served as a lieutenant in Zachary Taylors army at the Battle of Monterrey in September 1846. He received brevet promotions to captain for Contreras and Churubusco and to major for Molino del Rey, Longstreet was a veteran member of the Aztec Club of 1847
26.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
27.
Fort Croghan
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Fort Croghan was the third of the first four forts established by the United States government to protect settlers from hostile Indians along the Texas frontier. Part of a chain of forts extending from Fort Worth to Fort Inge near present-day Uvalde, the fort originally covered some 50 acres near the present day city of Burnet, Texas, extending from Hamilton Creek up and over Post Mountain. Today a small section exists due to the efforts of the Burnet County Historical Society who raised money in the 1960s to purchase this portion of the old fort. In the 1840s, upon the annexation of Texas to the United States, several companies of Texas Rangers, financed by the federal government, were stationed along the frontier. In December 1847, a company of Rangers under the command of Henry Eustace McCulloch took up a position three miles south of present-day Burnet. Samuel E. Holland purchased a 1, 280-acre grant there in 1848 and his residence built on that land is said to have been the first permanent home in Burnet County. The indigenous peoples of the Americas had occupied this region for thousands of years, in the late 1840s, it became apparent that the lure of free and cheap land had thrust many settlers far beyond the protection of civilization. More and more arrived, many of them from foreign countries. Some came expecting to acquire good farmland near the Texas coast and they soon learned that they would have to move hundreds of miles inland and the only land left was marginal rangeland. Indians who had been due to treaties and the presence of the United States soldiers during the U. S. -Mexican War now began to come into conflict with these newcomers. The Comanche and Apache were particularly incensed at this intrusion into their ancient hunting grounds, at first, the government wanted to build Fort Croghan near Holland Springs. Burnet Countys first white resident, Sam Holland, objected strenuously to a military post being located near his home and it was then decided to locate the fort a few miles north on Hamilton Creek. There was no more important consideration than a source of abundant clean water. Water was needed for many functions as well as drinking water for people, in October 1849, Company C. 8th Infantry, U. S. A. Mounted arrived to occupy this newly constructed fort, Fort Croghan consisted of the usual log cabins enclosed by a strong stockade. It was manned by one company of cavalry and one of infantry, the first commander was Captain Phillip St. George Cook. Captain Cook soon resigned his position and was followed by Captains, Blake, Lee, some of the soldiers settled in the area and stayed on after the Fort was decommissioned. Christian Dorbandt, later sheriff of Burnet County was one of these men.3, a small town soon grew up across Hamilton Creek as merchants and other suppliers of services moved to be near the fort
28.
Fort McKavett State Historic Site
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Fort McKavett State Historic Site is located in Menard County, Texas, United States. Fort McKavett was a fort established as Camp on the San Saba in 1852 to protect settlers from Indian raids. The camp was renamed in honor of Captain Henry McKavett, who was killed in the Mexican-American War battle of Monterrey. Other forts in the fort system were Forts Griffin, Concho, Belknap, Chadbourne, Stockton, Davis, Bliss, Richardson, Clark, McIntosh, Inge, and Phantom Hill in Texas. On July 4,1971, Fort McKavett was added to the National Register of Historic Places, Colonel Thomas Stanifords 8th Infantry established the post along the San Saba in March 1852, building the first structures, on 2300 acres leased for $600 per year. Thomas was soon relieved by Major Pitcairn Morrison, who was relieved by Col. Edmund B. Alexander in May 1853, the 8th Infantry was replaced by Colonel Charles A. Mays 2nd Dragoons in early 1854, the dragoons were replaced by Col. Henry Bainbridges 1st Infantry on 15 August 1855, which remained until the fort was abandoned on 22 March 1859 under orders from General David E. Twiggs. Companies C and F were transferred to Camp Cooper, Fort McKavett was abandoned in 1859 as Indian depredation in the area decreased and civilian migration to the area slowed. Fort McKavett remained a camp until the late spring of 1862. Elements of McCullochs troops and members of the 31st Brigade of Texas State Troops then used the fort as a base of operations until the end of the war. During the Civil War, the fort was occupied by a few left on the frontier despite Indians raiding at will. The fort was reactivated on 1 April 1868 as part of the redeployment of a military force. Beaumonts 4th Cavalry A Company, who found the conditions of the old fort deplorable, Col. George A. Gordon assumed command on 10 April 1868, just before the arrival of Company F and Companies D, E, and I of the 38th Infantry. Camp followers formed a town a mile north of the post and it was supposed to be named after a German merchant by the surname of Lehne, but went by the unfortunate name of Scabtown. The historic site itself is located 23 miles west of Menard, Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie assumed command of the 38th Infantry, an African American regiment, on 15 March 1869, with Lt. Col. William R. Shafter as his aide. On 1 Sept.1869, the 38th was combined with the 41st to create the 24th Infantry under Mackenzie, sergeant Emanuel Stance received the Medal of Honor after leading 10 troopers of the 9th Cavalry against Indians at Kickapoo Springs on 20 May 1870. Mackenzie assumed command of Fort Concho on 15 February 1871, humpy Jackson and accomplices, none of whom were ever convicted by civilian authorities. Federal soldiers found their most dangerous enemies not to be Commanches, the fort was connected by telegraph to Fort Concho, Fredericksburg, and San Antonio in 1875
29.
Comanche
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The Comanche people are federally recognized as the Comanche Nation, headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Post-contact, the Comanches were hunter-gatherers with a horse culture, there may have been as many as 45,000 Comanches in the late 18th century. They were the dominant tribe on the Southern Plains and often took captives from weaker tribes during warfare, selling them as slaves to the Spanish and they also took thousands of captives from the Spanish, Mexican, and American settlers. Today, the Comanche Nation has 15,191 members, approximately 7,763 of whom reside in tribal jurisdictional area around the Lawton, Fort Sill, the Comanche Nation Homecoming Powwow is held annually in Walters, Oklahoma in mid-July. The Comanche language is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, only about 1% of Comanches speak their language today. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, the Comanche Nation is headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is located in Caddo, Comanche, Cotton, Grady, Jefferson, Kiowa, Stephens, membership of the tribe requires a 1/8 blood quantum. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues tribal vehicle tags and they have their own Department of Higher Education, primarily awarding scholarships and financial aid for members college educations. Additionally, they operate the Comanche Nation College in Lawton, Oklahoma and they own ten tribal smoke shops and four casinos. The casinos are Comanche Nation Casino in Lawton, Comanche Red River Casino in Devol, Comanche Spur Casino, in Elgin, in 2002, the tribe founded the Comanche Nation College, a two-year tribal college in Lawton. Each July Comanches from across the United States gather to celebrate their heritage and culture in Walters, the Comanche Nation Fair is held every September. The Comanche Little Ponies host two annual dances—one over New Years and one in May, the Comanche emerged as a distinct group shortly before 1700, when they broke off from the Shoshone people living along the upper Platte River in Wyoming. In 1680, the Comanche acquired horses from the Pueblo Indians after the Pueblo Revolt and they separated from the Shoshone after this, as the horses allowed them greater mobility in their search for better hunting grounds. The horse was a key element in the emergence of a distinctive Comanche culture and they only just fall short of possessing all of the conveniences of the earth, and have no need to covet the trade pursued by the rest of the Indians. Their original migration took them to the southern Great Plains, into a sweep of territory extending from the Arkansas River to central Texas. They reached present-day New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle by 1700, forcing the Lipan Apache people ever southward, by 1777, the Lipan Apache had retreated to the Rio Grande and the Mescalero Apache to Coahuila. The Comanche never formed a single cohesive unit, but were divided into almost a dozen autonomous groups. These groups shared the language and culture, and rarely fought each other
30.
Fort Martin Scott
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Fort Martin Scott is a restored United States Army outpost near Fredericksburg in the Texas Hill Country, United States, that was active from December 5,1848 until April,1853. It was part of a line of forts established to protect travelers and settlers within Texas. The fort was established as Camp Houston on December 5,1848. It was located two miles southeast of Fredericksburg on Barons Creek and eventually consisted of a complex of twenty-one buildings, the soldiers patrolled the Fredericksburg-San Antonio road and surrounding area. One mission of the outpost was to protect settlers from Indian depredations, the Eighth Military Department renamed the camp in December 1849 for Major Martin Scott, who was killed at the Battle of Molino del Rey in the Mexican War in 1847. The forces stationed at the fort began alternating between a company of infantry and one of dragoons, as the settlers pushed farther west, Fort Martin Scott lost its strategic significance. In 1853, Army inspectors recommended that the fort be closed, the Eighth Military Department ordered that Fort Martin Scott close in December 1853. The full text of this treaty can be found at Meusebach–Comanche Treaty, on May 9,1847, prior to the establishment of Fort Martin Scott, an expedition under John O. Meusebach negotiated the non-government Treaty Between the Comanche and the German Immigration Company. The full text of the treaty can be found at Fort Martin Scott Treaty. The Fort Martin Scott Treaty was a treaty, negotiated and signed on December 10,1850 by Indian agent John Rollins, U. S. Army Captain Hamilton W. Merrill. The treaty was signed in San Saba County but named for the nearest military outpost. On December 25,1850, General George M and this treaty put the signed tribes under the sole jurisdiction of the United States of America. It regulated commerce and prohibited supplying alcoholic beverages to the tribes, the tribes were required to remain at peace with each other and the United States government, and to be at peace with other tribes the government deemed at peace. The tribes were to return all property and captives and to cease depredations. The government made it tribal responsibility to report any suspected activity that might violate the treaty, in return, the government would establish trading posts and give the tribes blacksmiths and school teachers. The treaty also required the tribes to allow Christian preachers to minister to them, the site was occupied intermittently by the Texas Rangers and then the Confederate States Army. In September 1866, General Philip H. Sheridan ordered elements of the Fourth United States Cavalry to Fort Martin Scott to secure the frontier once again from possible Indian attacks, by the end of 1866, the fort was permanently abandoned by military units. Many of the Martin Scott commanders fought in the American Civil War, including William R. Montgomery, William Steele, Edward D. Blake, James Longstreet, in the early 1880s, the fort was the location of the Gillespie County Fair
31.
Fort Worth
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Fort Worth is the 16th-largest city in the United States and the fifth-largest city in the state of Texas. The city is in North Central Texas and covers nearly 350 square miles in the counties of Denton, Parker, Wise, according to the 2015 census, estimates, Fort Worths population is 833,319. The city is the second-largest in the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area, the city was established in 1849 as an Army outpost on a bluff overlooking the Trinity River. Today, Fort Worth still embraces its Western heritage and traditional architecture, USS Fort Worth is the first ship of the United States Navy named after the city. Fort Worth is home to the Van Cliburn International Piano Competition, also of note is the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, designed by Tadao Ando. The Amon Carter Museum of American Art, designed by Philip Johnson, the Sid Richardson Museum, redesigned by David M. Schwarz, has one of the most focused collections of Western Art in the U. S. emphasizing Frederic Remington and Charles Russell. The Treaty of Birds Fort between the Republic of Texas and several Native American tribes was signed in 1843 at Birds Fort in present-day Arlington, Texas. Article XI of the treaty provided that no one may pass the line of trading houses without permission of the President of Texas and these trading houses were later established at the junction of the Clear Fork and West Fork of the Trinity River in present-day Fort Worth. At this river junction, the U. S, War Department established Fort Worth in 1849 as the northernmost of a system of 10 forts for protecting the American Frontier following the end of the Mexican–American War. The City of Fort Worth continues to be known as where the West begins, originally 10 forts had been proposed by Major General William Jenkins Worth, who commanded the Department of Texas in 1849. In January 1849, Worth proposed a line of 10 forts to mark the western Texas frontier from Eagle Pass to the confluence of the West Fork, One month later, Worth died from cholera in South Texas. General William S. Harney assumed command of the Department of Texas, Arnold to find a new fort site near the West Fork and Clear Fork. On June 6,1849, Arnold, advised by Middleton Tate Johnson, established a camp on the bank of the Trinity River, in August 1849, Arnold moved the camp to the north-facing bluff, which overlooked the mouth of the Clear Fork of the Trinity River. The United States War Department officially named the post Fort Worth on November 14,1849, E. S. Terrell from Tennessee claimed to be the first resident of Fort Worth. The fort was flooded the first year and moved to the top of the bluff, the fort was abandoned September 17,1853. As a stop on the legendary Chisholm Trail, Fort Worth was stimulated by the business of the cattle drives, millions of head of cattle were driven north to market along this trail. Fort Worth became the center of the drives, and later. It was given the nickname of Cowtown, during Civil War, Fort Worth suffered from shortages of money, food, and supplies
32.
Fort Mason (Texas)
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Fort Mason was established on July 6,1851, in present-day Mason County, Texas. It was named in honor of George Thomson Mason, a United States Army second lieutenant killed in the Thornton Affair during the Mexican–American War near Brownsville, April 25,1846. At various times from 1856 to 1861, this was the fort for Albert Sidney Johnston, George H. Thomas, Earl Van Dorn. The fort was abandoned by the military in the 1870s, visitors can tour the reproduction officers quarters at the Fort Mason Museum. The fort is designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1936, Fort Mason, Texas, was established by the United States War Department as a front-line defense against Kiowa, Lipan Apache, and Comanche, on July 6,1851. The site on Post Oak Hill near Comanche and Centennial Creeks was chosen by Lieutenant Colonel William J. Hardee, bevet Major Hamilton W. Merrill, along with companies A and B of the Second Dragoons, established the fort itself. Originally part of Gillespie County, Mason County was named for the fort when it was established in 1858. Comanche chief Katemcy at one point turned over two white captives aged 11 and 12, and again bringing them back when the captives ran away from the fort to reunite with the Comanches. The fort was closed in January 1854, after which horse theft by Native Americans was reported and pursued by the military, Fort Mason was Robert E. Lees last command with the United States Army. In a letter dated January 23,1861, Lee wrote, Fort Mason was evacuated by federal troops on March 29,1861, and reoccupied after the Civil War until 1869. The Confederate States Army took control of Fort Mason on March 29,1861, in 1862, the CSA held 215 men prisoner, who were transferred to Austin in 1862. The United States Army reoccupied the fort on December 24,1866, during this period, the fort was renovated with both civilian and military labor. Indian depredations had increased during the Civil War and were worse when the army returned, the lawlessness of the Reconstruction era of the United States through the military personnel, many of who deserted or were subjected to military discipline. By January 13,1869,25 buildings, either unoccupied or in shape, remained. The order to close the fort was carried out on March 23,1869, during 1870, the state of Texas organized several companies of frontier forces. Fort Mason was reopened in September of that year as headquarters for Companies A and B, Frontier Forces, the fort was closed for good in 1871. Mason citizens recycled material from the fort when building their own homes, a restoration of the fort began in 1975. Today, the fort belongs to the Mason County Historical Society
33.
Fort Chadbourne
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Fort Chadbourne was a fort established by the United States Army on October 28,1852, in what is now Coke County, Texas, to protect the western frontier and the Butterfield Overland Mail route. It was named after Lt. T. L. Chadbourne and it was manned by Companies A and K of the 8th U. S. Infantry. Robert Neighbors met with the band of Comanches and their chiefs Sanaco, Buffalo Hump, Ketsume. All topics of interest to the Comanches were discussed, Neighbors communicated with Seth Eastman, while Seth was a captain at the fort in 1856, and was responsible for the Brazos Indian Reservation, about Comanche depradations in the area. Fort Chadbourne, a Texas state historical site, was added in 1973 to the National Register of Historic Places. The small community of Fort Chadbourne, Texas, is located a few miles to the southwest of the original fort. Fort Chadborne has received $1 million to build a center in memory of Roberta Cole Johnson of Brenham, Texas, by the executors of her estate, Charles. The Blakes are members of the Concho Valley Archeological Society in San Angelo and they also matched another $125, 000-allocation to restore the Butterfield stage stop. On September 20,2009, Garland H. Richards presided over the annual Round-Up for Rehab Supper fund-raiser held at Fort Chadbourne, the award was presented by Woody Gilliland, chief executive officer of the rehab center. It honors those in the community who support the mission of the center. Texas State Senator Grady Hazlewood, father of the road program, was born at Old Fort Chadbourne in 1902. Texas Forts Trail Forts of Texas U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Fort Chadbourne Fort Chadbourne Official Web Site
34.
Davis Mountains
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The Davis Mountains, originally known as Limpia Mountains, are a range of mountains in West Texas, located near Fort Davis, after which they are named. They are a site for camping and hiking and the region includes Fort Davis National Historic Site. The historical and architectural value of the fort, along with the natural beauty of the park are a significant destination for tourism in Texas. The mountains are of volcanic origin composed of strata associated with eruptions of the Trans-Pecos Texas volcanic field 35 million years ago, the highest peak in the Davis Mountains is Mount Livermore at 8,382 feet, and is the fourth highest peak in Texas. Since 1996, The Nature Conservancy has acquired 33,000 acres in the mountain range and this parcel is open to the public at specified times. McDonald Observatory is accessed by Spur 78 from State Highway 118, Spur 78 is the highest state maintained road in Texas at 6,791 feet near the summit of Mt. Locke where the older telescopes of the observatory are located. Spur 77 branches off from Spur 78 providing access to the research equipment atop Mt. Fowlkes. The Texas separatist organization known as the Republic of Texas has its origins in the Davis Mountains. On April 27,1996, the leader of the group, Rick McLaren, staged an attack on his neighbors house and demanded that he cede his property to the Republic of Texas. This led to 300 state troopers surrounding his house with him, his five followers, his wife, ultimately, one follower was shot in the standoff and McLaren was arrested and imprisoned for the equivalent of a life sentence. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Davis Mountains
35.
Fort Davis National Historic Site
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Fort Davis National Historic Site is a United States National Historic Site located in the unincorporated community of Fort Davis, Jeff Davis County, Texas. Established in October 1854 along the Limpia Creek at Painted Comanche Camp by Bvt, maj. Gen. Persifor Frazer Smith, Fort Davis was named after Secretary of War Jefferson Davis. Hoping to protect the garrison from winter northers, Smith tucked the fort into a canyon flanked on three sides by sheer rock walls, commanding the post was 8th Infantry Regiment commander Lt. Col. Washington Seawell. The fort was evacuated in April 1861 under orders from General David E. Twiggs at the start of the Civil War, during John R. Baylors invasion of New Mexico, only 20 Confederate States Army troops manned the fort. On the night of 4 August 1861, Mescalero Apaches raided a nearby cattle pen and this defeat convinced Baylor to staff the fort with three officers and 70 enlisted men. The Confederates evacuated the fort and all other posts west of Fort Clark in August 1862, Fort Davis is important in understanding the presence of African Americans in the West and in the frontier military because the 24th and 25th U. S. Infantry regiments and the 9th and 10th U. S. Cavalry regiments, all-black regiments, Lt. Col. Wesley Merritt led Troops C, F, H, and I of the 9th Cavalry in reoccupying the fort on 29 June 1867. They rebuilt the fort, using limestone and adobe, outside the canyon walls, today,24 restored historic buildings and over 100 ruins and foundations are part of Fort Davis National Historic Site. Five of the buildings have been refurbished to the 1880s. A self-guided tour of the fort begins at the visitor center. Living history demonstrations are common during the summer, Fort Davis National Historic Site was authorized as a unit of the National Park System in 1961, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960. com
36.
Fort Quitman
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Fort Quitman was a United States Army installation on the Rio Grande in Texas, south of present-day Sierra Blanca,20 miles southeast of McNary in southern Hudspeth County. The fort, now a ghost town, was named for Mississippi Governor John A. Quitman, in 1963, Recorded Historic Texas Landmark number 2007 was placed at the county courthouse, honoring Fort Quitman. Fort Quitman was established on September 28,1858, by units of the 8th Infantry Regiment, the first troops were under the command of Captain Arthur T. Lee and included 86 officers and men. Their mission was to protect the San Antonio-El Paso Road and it was a station on the route of the mail coaches of the San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line and later the Butterfield Overland Mail. By 1860 the garrison had been reduced to one officer Second Lieutenant Zenas Bliss and 20 men, on the outbreak of the American Civil War, Texas joined the Confederacy. Lieutenant Bliss and his men were ordered to march to San Antonio with other troops evacuating West Texas garrisons and they believed they would be put on ships and sent to the North, but instead were captured and held as prisoners of war. Bliss was later exchanged and rose to the rank of colonel of volunteers and his promotion to general grade was probably hindered by his having been a prisoner of war. Confederate Texas troops under Brigadier General Henry Hopkins Sibley passed through the post on their way to the New Mexico Campaign in December 1861, the remnants of his army also passed by the post after their defeat. There is no evidence that Confederate troops ever permanently garrisoned the fort, the fort was inspected by troops from the California Column looking for any evidence of further Confederate activity or stragglers in 1863, but did not see any need to garrison the post. The Fort was regarrisoned in January 1868 by Buffalo Soldiers of the 9th Cavalry Regiment and 42 Infantry under command of Major Albert Payson Morrow of the 9th Cavalry, much of the post was in bad condition and was never fully restored. Soldiers would complain about adobe from the falling into their bunks as the slept due to the poor condition of the buildings. It has been stated, No worse site for a military post could ever be conceived and it was all but totally isolated from civilization with mountain ranges running down both sides of the river. Any attempts at cultivating gardens to help with food supplies met with little success, expeditions against the Apache in the Sacramento Mountains were mounted from Fort Quitman, but they met with little success. Gradually the garrison was reduced to a company of infantry. The last unit, Company B of the 25th Infantry Regiment, the post itself was burned later that year by an angry mob from San Elizario during the San Elizario Salt War. The rioters destroyed it in protest of federal support of a rival faction and it was temporarily reoccupied as a sub-post of Fort Davis by troops from the 10th Cavalry Regiment from 1880 to 1882 during Victorios War. The building of the Southern Pacific Railroad through the pass in the mountains north-west of the post, effectively by-passing it, Fort Quitman, fortwiki. com accessed December 19,2010 Fort Quitman, C. S. A. - Sierra Blanca ~ Marker Number,2007
37.
Fort Brown
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Fort Brown was a military post of the United States Army in Texas during the later half of 19th century and the early part of the 20th century. The next year, the played a role during the opening of the Mexican–American War. During the Siege of Fort Texas, two Americans were killed, including Major Jacob Brown, in honor of the fallen major, General Zachary Taylor renamed the post Fort Brown. In 1849, the city of Brownsville, Texas, was established not far from the forts grounds, Major Samuel P. Heintzelman, while in command at the fort, coordinated with John Salmon Ford in the Cortina Troubles culminating in the Battle of Rio Grande City in 1859. This ended in 1864 when Confederate forces under General James E. Slaughter and they would hold the post until the end of the war when it was occupied again by Union forces under General Egbert Brown. From 1867–1869, a permanent fort was constructed under the supervision of Capt. William A. Wainwright, in 1882, Dr. William Crawford Gorgas was assigned to the hospital at Fort Brown during the height of the yellow fever outbreak. Using Fort Brown as his base of operations, Gorgas studied the disease for years until he was sent to Cuba during the Spanish–American War. On August 13 and 14,1906, unknown persons raided Brownsville, indiscriminately shooting bystanders, wounded one man, William H. Taft, then President Theodore Roosevelts Secretary of War and soon to be President himself, discharged all 168 black soldiers without honor. Sixty years later, another investigation was held and the soldiers had their honor restored. However, by then, only 2 of the original 168 men were still alive, recent theories have come out regarding who shot up Brownsville. The History Channels program Historys Mysteries attributed it to Brownsvillians shooting up the town with rifles using the same ammunition as the soldiers. On April 20,1915, U. S. Signal Corps Officers Byron Q. Jones, curtiss over the fort to spot movements of Mexican Revolutionary leader Francisco Pancho Villa. The plane reached an altitude of 2,600 ft. and was up for 20 minutes and it did not cross the border into Mexico, although it was fired upon by machine guns and small arms. These frequent patrols lasted for a period of 6 weeks and were used effectively in 1916. The troopers stationed at Fort Brown from 1929-45 were from the 124th Cavalry Regiment, Texas National Guard, on November 18,1940, they went into active military training. Fort Brown was transferred to the USAAF Training Command on 7 July 1943, the USAAF Gulf Coast Training Center used the fort for flexible gunnery training until the fort was inactivated on 1 February 1946. On 1 Feb 1946 Fort Brown was decommissioned, turned over to the Army Corps of Engineers on 25 April 1946. It was acquired by the City of Brownsville and Texas Southmost College in 1948, Fort Brown from the Handbook of Texas Online
38.
Fort Stockton, Texas
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Fort Stockton is a city in Pecos County, Texas, United States. It is the county seat of Pecos County, located on Interstate Highway 10, Future Interstate 14, highways 67,285, and 385, and the Santa Fe Railroad,329 miles northwest of San Antonio and 240 miles east of El Paso. The population was 8,283 at the 2010 census, Fort Stockton is located at 30°53′29″N 102°53′6″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.1 square miles. As of the census of 2010,8,535 people,2,790 households, the population density was 1,531.3 people per square mile. The 3,189 housing units averaged 622.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 70. 6% White,0. 89% African American,0. 57% Native American,0. 76% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,25. 16% from other races, and 2. 54% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 71% of the population, about 21. 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.78 and the family size was 3.25. In the city, the population was distributed as 30. 1% under the age of 18,9. 9% from 18 to 24,25. 6% from 25 to 44,20. 8% from 45 to 64, the median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.1 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $27,713, males had a median income of $25,735 versus $17,885 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,834, about 19. 7% of families and 22. 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30. 6% of those under age 18 and 17. 7% of those age 65 or over. Fort Lancaster sent 1st Infantry Co, H to take post along Comanche Springs on 12 April 1859. Fort Stockton grew up around Comanche Springs, one of the largest sources of spring water in Texas, Comanche Springs was a favorite rest stop on the Great Comanche Trail to Chihuahua, San Antonio-El Paso Road, the Butterfield Overland Mail Route. In 1861, the fort was garrisoned by 39 men of Company C, 8th Infantry, under the command of Capt. Arthur Tracy Lee, who evacuated the fort by April. The Confederates took possession of the fort on 9 May by Charles L. Pyron at the outbreak of the Civil War, with the failure of John Baylors invasion of New Mexico, a general Confederate evacuation of West Texas occurred in 1862. In 1867, the Army rebuilt the fort on a larger, major James F. Wade took command of Troops A, B, D, and E, 9th Cavalry, and Company G, 41st Infantry, on 2 Oct.1868
39.
San Antonio
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San Antonio, officially the City of San Antonio, is the seventh-most populated city in the United States and the second-most populous city in the state of Texas, with a population of 1,409,019. It was the fastest growing of the top 10 largest cities in the United States from 2000 to 2010, the city straddles South Texas and Central Texas and is on the southwestern corner of an urban megaregion known as the Texas Triangle. San Antonio serves as the seat of Bexar County, recent annexations have extended the citys boundaries into Medina County and, though for only a very tiny area near the city of Garden Ridge, into Comal County. Due to its placement, the city has characteristics of other urban centers in which there are sparsely populated areas. San Antonio is the center of the San Antonio–New Braunfels Metropolitan Statistical Area, growth along the Interstate 35 and Interstate 10 corridors to the north, west and east make it likely that the metropolitan area will continue to expand. San Antonio was named for Saint Anthony of Padua, whose feast day is on June 13, the city contains five 18th-century Spanish frontier missions, including The Alamo and San Antonio Missions National Historical Park, which were designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 2015. Other notable attractions include the River Walk, the Tower of the Americas, the Alamo Bowl, the city is home to the five-time NBA champion San Antonio Spurs and hosts the annual San Antonio Stock Show & Rodeo, one of the largest such events in the country. The U. S. Kelly Air Force Base operated out of San Antonio until 2001, the remaining portions of the base were developed as Port San Antonio, an industrial/business park and aerospace complex. San Antonio is home to six Fortune 500 companies and the South Texas Medical Center, at the time of European encounter, Payaya Indians lived near the San Antonio River Valley in the San Pedro Springs area, calling the vicinity Yanaguana, meaning refreshing waters. In 1691, a group of Spanish Catholic explorers and missionaries came upon the river and Payaya settlement on June 13 and they named the place and river San Antonio in his honor. It was years before any Spanish settlement took place, father Antonio de Olivares visited the site in 1709, and he was determined to found a mission and civilian settlement there. He directed Martin de Alarcón, the governor of Coahuila and Texas, differences between Alarcón and Olivares resulted in delays, and construction did not start until 1718. The families who clustered around the presidio and mission formed the beginnings of Villa de Béjar, on May 1, the governor transferred ownership of the Mission San Antonio de Valero to Fray Antonio de Olivares. On May 5,1718 he commissioned the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar on the west side of the San Antonio River, one-fourth league from the mission. On February 14,1719, the Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo proposed to the king of Spain that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Havana to populate the province of Texas. By June 1730,25 families had reached Cuba, and 10 families had sent to Veracruz before orders from Spain came to stop the re-settlement. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland from Veracruz to the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar, due to marriages along the way, the party now included 15 families, a total of 56 persons. They joined the community established in 1718
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Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
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Battle of Gettysburg, Second Day
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During the Second Day of the Battle of Gettysburg Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee attempted to capitalize on his first days success. He launched the Army of Northern Virginia in multiple attacks on the flanks of the Union Army of the Potomac, the assaults were unsuccessful, and resulted in heavy casualties for both sides. After a short delay to assemble his forces and avoid detection in his approach march and his division under Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood attacked Little Round Top and Devils Den. To Hoods left, Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws attacked the Wheatfield, although neither prevailed, the Union III Corps was effectively destroyed as a combat organization as it attempted to defend a salient over too wide a front. Gen. Meade rushed as many as 20,000 reinforcements from elsewhere in his line to resist these fierce assaults. The attacks in this sector concluded with an assault by the Third Corps division of Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson against the Union center on Cemetery Ridge. Lees hope of crushing the Army of the Potomac on Northern territory was dashed, the VI Corps was still 30 miles away in Manchester, Maryland, on that morning. They assumed positions in a hook shape about three miles long, from Culps Hill, around to Cemetery Hill, and down the spine of Cemetery Ridge. The Army of Northern Virginia line was parallel to the Unions, on Seminary Ridge and on an arc northwest, north. All of the Second Corps and Third Corps were present, Robert E. Lee had several choices to consider for his next move. His order of the evening that Ewell occupy Culps Hill or Cemetery Hill if practicable was not realized. Longstreet argued that this was the point of the Gettysburg campaign, to move strategically into enemy territory. Lee rejected this argument because he was concerned about the morale of his soldiers having to give up the ground for which they fought so hard the day before and he was therefore determined to attack on July 2. He desired an early-morning assault by Longstreets Corps, reinforced by Ewell, Ewell protested this arrangement, claiming his men would be demoralized if forced to move from the ground they had captured. And Longstreet protested that his division commanded by John Bell Hood had not arrived completely, Ewells demonstration would be turned into a full-scale assault if the opportunity presented itself. Lee ordered Longstreet to launch an attack with two divisions straddling, and guiding on, the Emmitsburg Road. Hoods division would move up the side of the road, Lafayette McLawss the western side. The objective was to strike the Union Army in an attack, rolling up their left flank, collapsing the line of Union corps onto each other
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Jacob B. Sweitzer
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Jacob Bowman Sweitzer was a Pennsylvania lawyer and soldier who commanded a regiment and then a brigade in the Army of the Potomac in the American Civil War. He and his men were engaged at the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg. Jacob Bowman Sweitzer was born July 4,1821, in Brownsville, Fayette County and he was the son of Henry Sweitzer 1780-1852, and Ann Elliott Bowman 1790-1876. His Paternal ancestors were George Ludwig Lewis Sweitzer 1740-1795, and Conrad Sweitzer/Schweitzer 1706-1770 and his brother, Nelson Bowman Sweitzer, who became a career army officer, was born in Brownsville seven years later. Jacob Sweitzer studied at Jefferson College, graduating in 1843 and he later studied law, passed the bar exam, and established a legal practice. Sweitzer was named major of the 62nd Pennsylvania Infantry on July 4,1861 and he became lieutenant colonel on November 17 of that year and colonel on June 27,1862. Sweitzer served in the Seven Days Battles, being wounded and captured at the Battle of Gainess Mill. After being exchanged on August 15,1862, he led his regiment in the First Division, V Corps at the Second Battle of Bull Run and at Antietam in the brigade of Brig. Gen. Charles Griffin. When Griffin became commander of the First Division, Sweitzer was temporarily his successor in brigade command, subsequently, Sweitzer returned to his regimental role. He resumed command of the brigade at the Battle of Chancellorsville, at the Battle of Gettysburg, the V Corps arrived early on July 2,1863, after a hard march from Unionville, Maryland. The First Division, temporarily led by Brig. Gen. James Barnes, was sent to the flank to aid III Corps. Sweitzer’s brigade and that of Col. William S. Tilton went into action between the Wheatfield and the Peach Orchard, the two brigades were deployed at a perpendicular angle to one another, which made their position hard to maintain under attack. After enduring Confederate assaults, General Barnes decided to withdraw from an exposed position, sweitzer’s report describes the order to withdraw as peremptory. Sweitzer’s command, however, was sent back into the fight and it was flanked, however, by Confederate Brig. Gen. William T. Woffords brigade, suffering serious losses. Col. Harrison Jeffords of the 4th Michigan Infantry was killed when Confederate soldiers tried to capture his regiment’s flag, the brigade withdrew toward Little Round Top and was positioned in that vicinity for the remainder of the battle. It later participated in the retreat of the Confederate army, Sweitzer had only three regiments present. He reported that his regiments lost 466 out of 1,010 present on the field, Sweitzer retained his brigade in the autumn of 1863, participating in the earlier stages of Bristoe Campaign and in the Mine Run Campaign. When the Army of the Potomac was reorganized preceding Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grants Overland Campaign and his brigade absorbed Tilton’s 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry
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Devil's Den
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Devils Den is a boulder-strewn hill at Gettysburg Battlefield, once used by artillery and infantry on the second day of the 1863 Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. On July 2,1863, Smiths Union battery, with six Napoleon smooth-bores, against Hoods Assault that started at 4 pm, Devils Den was defended by Birneys 1st Division as the far left position from The Peach Orchard Salient of the III Corps. From near the Slaughter Pen, the 40th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment forced the 2nd & 17th Georgia regiments of Bennings Brigade to retreat to Devils Den. Confederate sharpshooters were stationed between the rocks to fire upon Union soldiers at Little Round Top, among their victims being General Weed, hazletts guns counter-fired upon them, and many were killed from the concussion of air. The 124th NY monument with Ellis statue was dedicated near Devils Den in 1884, postbellum avenues were constructed to Devils Den such as Sickles Avenue from the west, Crawford Avenue in 1895, and Warren Avenue across Plum Run. From 1894-1916, the Gettysburg Electric Railway operated on a curve crossing Plum Run around the base of the hill with the Tipton Station providing Devils Den services. In 1916, a Devils Den boulder was used as a Satterlee Hospital memorial at Philadelphias Clark Park, the nearby 1933 comfort station was demolished in 2009, and its access bridge over Plum Run remains to the east. In 1952, ROTC students conducted a battle at the site
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Old soldiers' home
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The first national veterans home in the United States was the United States Naval Home approved in 1811 but not opened until 1834 in the Philadelphia Naval Yard. The Naval Home was moved to Gulfport, Mississippi in 1976 and it was subsequently opened to veterans of other services and is now the Gulfport Campus of the Armed Forces Retirement Home. The first Army national old soldiers home in the U. S. was established in Washington, president Lincolns Cottage has been designated a National Monument, and recently underwent renovation. It reopened to the public on Presidents Day,18 February 2008, the Home has remained in continuous use since its establishment in 1851. It is located on a beautiful 250-acre wooded campus overlooking the U. S. Capitol in the heart of D. C. and continues to serve as a retirement home for U. S. enlisted men and women. Both the Washington D. C. and Gulfport soldiers and sailors homes are funded through a monthly contribution from the pay of members of the U. S. Following the American Civil War the federal government increased the number of National Military Homes, by 1933 there were 17 federally managed veterans homes. Caring for the disabled and elderly, and the widows and orphans of men who died in the war became a concern even before the Civil War ended, for example, in 1864 Fitchs Home for Soldiers and Their Orphans was opened with private donations in Connecticut. Various female benevolent societies pushed for the creation of a long-term care federal or state soldier home system at the end of the war, in a few cases veterans organizations on their own raised the money to buy property and build veterans homes. Most of these were turned over to the state government to fund. The majority of state legislatures established veterans homes paid for by state monies from the start,43 states managed 55 functioning state veterans homes before 1933. Fourteen of those states also had a federal veterans home open at the time as their state veterans home. Eleven states had two or more state veterans homes in operation at the same time, some states simply had several homes at once. A few states admitted veterans widows, and a few other states established separate homes for the widows, a few states had separate Union and Confederate old soldiers homes. The first of 16 Confederate homes was opened in 1881 in Georgetown, Confederate soldiers homes were supported entirely by subscribers or by the states, with no funds from the federal government against which the Confederates had fought. A few state-run old soldiers homes were eventually folded into the veterans home system. As their last few Civil War veterans were dying in the 1930s, some chose to close their old soldiers homes. Several of these state old soldiers homes have been modernized and stop serve veterans, soldier homes in major cities were among the earliest, usually starting more as hotels for men passing through town, but increasingly taking on disabled servicemen
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Shelter Island, New York
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Shelter Island is a town and island at the eastern end of Long Island in the U. S. state of New York. It is part of Suffolk County, although it is separated from the rest of the county by water, the population was 2,392 at the 2010 census. Shelter Island is nestled between the North and South Forks of Long Island and it is surrounded on three sides by Shelter Island Sound and on the fourth side by Gardiners Bay. It can be reached via ferry from Greenport to the north or from North Haven to the south, New York State Route 114 runs through the island. Shelter Island is around 8,000 acres in size, vast tracts are protected wetlands, a nature preserve marshland. Nearly one-third of the island is owned by The Nature Conservancy to be preserved in a wild state, the Preserve has four nature and bird-watching trails, varying in length from 1.5 miles to 11 miles, as well as a barrier-free Braille trail for the visually impaired. According to the United States Census Bureau, Shelter Island has an area of 27.1 square miles. As of the 2000 census, there were 2,228 people,996 households, however, during the summer months the population can exceed 8,000. The population density was 183.6 people per square mile, there were 2,370 housing units at an average density of 195.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 32% White,0. 72% Black or African American,0. 04% Native American,0. 49% Asian,0. 09% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 38% of the population. 28. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.75. In the town, the population was out with 18. 1% under the age of 18,4. 0% from 18 to 24,20. 1% from 25 to 44,29. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 49 years, for every 100 females there were 91.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males, the median income for a household in the town was $53,011, and the median income for a family was $63,750. Males had an income of $41,508 versus $36,316 for females. The per capita income for the town was $30,346, about 4. 7% of families and 7. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14. 0% of those under age 18 and 1. 4% of those age 65 or over. Dering Harbor, on the side of the island. Harbor View is on the west side of the island overlooking West Neck Harbor, the neighborhood, made up of homes built since the 1950s, was originally part of a large egg farm called Cackle Hill
