1.
Life
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Various forms of life exist, such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. The criteria can at times be ambiguous and may or may not define viruses, viroids, biology is the primary science concerned with the study of life, although many other sciences are involved. The definition of life is controversial, the current definition is that organisms maintain homeostasis, are composed of cells, undergo metabolism, can grow, adapt to their environment, respond to stimuli, and reproduce. However, many other definitions have been proposed, and there are some borderline cases. Modern definitions are more complex, with input from a diversity of scientific disciplines, biophysicists have proposed many definitions based on chemical systems, there are also some living systems theories, such as the Gaia hypothesis, the idea that the Earth itself is alive. Another theory is that life is the property of systems, and yet another is elaborated in complex systems biology. Abiogenesis describes the process of life arising from non-living matter. Properties common to all organisms include the need for certain chemical elements to sustain biochemical functions. Life on Earth first appeared as early as 4.28 billion years ago, soon after ocean formation 4.41 billion years ago, Earths current life may have descended from an RNA world, although RNA-based life may not have been the first. The mechanism by which began on Earth is unknown, though many hypotheses have been formulated and are often based on the Miller–Urey experiment. The earliest known forms are microfossils of bacteria. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes believed to be present in the last universal ancestor of all living organisms. Since its primordial beginnings, life on Earth has changed its environment on a time scale. To survive in most ecosystems, life must often adapt to a range of conditions. Some microorganisms, called extremophiles, thrive in physically or geochemically extreme environments that are detrimental to most other life on Earth, Aristotle was the first person to classify organisms. Later, Carl Linnaeus introduced his system of nomenclature for the classification of species. Eventually new groups and categories of life were discovered, such as cells and microorganisms, cells are sometimes considered the smallest units and building blocks of life. There are two kinds of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, both of which consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane and contain many such as proteins
2.
Robotics
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Robotics is the interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that includes mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, computer science, and others. Robotics deals with the design, construction, operation, and use of robots, as well as systems for their control, sensory feedback. These technologies are used to develop machines that can substitute for humans, Robots can be used in any situation and for any purpose, but today many are used in dangerous environments, manufacturing processes, or where humans cannot survive. Robots can take on any form but some are made to resemble humans in appearance and this is said to help in the acceptance of a robot in certain replicative behaviors usually performed by people. Such robots attempt to replicate walking, lifting, speech, cognition, many of todays robots are inspired by nature, contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics. Throughout history, it has been assumed that robots will one day be able to mimic human behavior. Many robots are built to do jobs that are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, finding survivors in unstable ruins, Robotics is also used in STEM as a teaching aid. The word robotics was derived from the robot, which was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R. U. R. which was published in 1920. The word robot comes from the Slavic word robota, which means labour, the play begins in a factory that makes artificial people called robots, creatures who can be mistaken for humans – very similar to the modern ideas of androids. Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word and he wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother Josef Čapek as its actual originator. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov, published in May 1941 in Astounding Science Fiction. Asimov was unaware that he was coining the term, since the science and technology of electrical devices is electronics, he assumed robotics already referred to the science and technology of robots. In some of Asimovs other works, he states that the first use of the word robotics was in his short story Runaround, however, the original publication of Liar. Predates that of Runaround by ten months, so the former is generally cited as the words origin, in 1942, the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov created his Three Laws of Robotics. In 1948, Norbert Wiener formulated the principles of cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics, fully autonomous only appeared in the second half of the 20th century. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine, commercial and industrial robots are widespread today and used to perform jobs more cheaply, more accurately and more reliably, than humans. They are also employed in jobs which are too dirty, dangerous. For example, a designed to travel across heavy dirt or mud
3.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
4.
Emergence
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Emergence is central in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry, in philosophy, theories that emphasize emergent properties have been called emergentism. Almost all accounts of emergentism include a form of epistemic or ontological irreducibility to the lower levels, in philosophy, emergence is often understood to be a claim about the etiology of a systems properties. An emergent property of a system, in context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system. Nicolai Hartmann, one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence and this idea of emergence has been around since at least the time of Aristotle. John Stuart Mill and Julian Huxley are two of many scientists and philosophers who have written on the concept, further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, economist Jeffrey Goldstein provided a current definition of emergence in the journal Emergence. Goldstein initially defined emergence as, the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns, Systems scientist Peter Corning also says that living systems cannot be reduced to underlying laws of physics, Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy, they do not in fact “generate” anything. They serve merely to describe regularities and consistent relationships in nature and these patterns may be very illuminating and important, but the underlying causal agencies must be separately specified. But that aside, the game of chess illustrates, why any laws or rules of emergence and evolution are insufficient. Even in a game, you cannot use the rules to predict “history” – i. e. the course of any given game. Indeed, you cannot even reliably predict the move in a chess game. Because the “system” involves more than the rules of the game and it also includes the players and their unfolding, moment-by-moment decisions among a very large number of available options at each choice point. The game of chess is inescapably historical, even though it is constrained and shaped by a set of rules. Moreover, and this is a key point, the game of chess is also shaped by teleonomic, cybernetic and it is not simply a self-ordered process, it involves an organized, “purposeful” activity. Usage of the notion emergence may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of weak emergence and strong emergence, in terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation. This is opposed to the notion of strong emergence, in which the emergent property cannot be simulated by a computer. Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states, also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive
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Biomimetics
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Biomimetics or biomimicry is the imitation of the models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose of solving complex human problems. The terms biomimetics and biomimicry derive from Ancient Greek, βίος, life, a closely related field is bionics. Living organisms have evolved well-adapted structures and materials over time through natural selection. Biomimetics has given rise to new technologies inspired by biological solutions at macro, humans have looked at nature for answers to problems throughout our existence. Nature has solved engineering problems such as self-healing abilities, environmental exposure tolerance and resistance, hydrophobicity, self-assembly, one of the early examples of biomimicry was the study of birds to enable human flight. The Wright Brothers, who succeeded in flying the first heavier-than-air aircraft in 1903, Biomimetics was coined by the American biophysicist and polymath Otto Schmitt during the 1950s. It was during his research that he developed the Schmitt trigger by studying the nerves in squid. He continued to focus on devices that mimic natural systems and by 1957 he had perceived a converse to the view of biophysics at that time. Biophysics is not so much a matter as it is a point of view. It is an approach to problems of biological science utilizing the theory, conversely, biophysics is also a biologists approach to problems of physical science and engineering, although this aspect has largely been neglected. A similar term, bionics was coined by Jack E. Steele in 1960 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Steele defined bionics as the science of systems which have some function copied from nature, or which represent characteristics of natural systems or their analogues. The term bionic then became associated with the use of electronically operated artificial body parts, because the term bionic took on the implication of supernatural strength, the scientific community in English speaking countries largely abandoned it. The term biomimicry appeared as early as 1982, Biomimicry was popularized by scientist and author Janine Benyus in her 1997 book Biomimicry, Innovation Inspired by Nature. Biomimicry is defined in the book as a new science that studies natures models and then imitates or takes inspiration from these designs, Benyus suggests looking to Nature as a Model, Measure, and Mentor and emphasizes sustainability as an objective of biomimicry. Biomorphic mineralization is a technique that produces materials with morphologies and structures resembling those of living organisms by using bio-structures as templates for mineralization. Compared to other methods of production, biomorphic mineralization is facile, environmentally benign. Morpho butterfly wings contain microstructures that create its coloring effect through structural coloration rather than pigmentation, incident light waves are reflected at specific wavelengths to create vibrant colors due to multilayer interference, diffraction, thin film interference, and scattering properties. The scales of these butterflies consist of such as ridges, cross-ribs, ridge-lamellae
6.
Ecosystem
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An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles, as ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun and it generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have different characteristics simply because they contain different species. The introduction of species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present, although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate. Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance, classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this. The term ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley, Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment. Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates, Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. G. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the driver of the ecosystem. Most mineral nutrients, on the hand, are recycled within ecosystems. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, external factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem
7.
Simulation
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Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time, Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance optimization, safety engineering, testing, training, education, and video games. Often, computer experiments are used to study simulation models, Simulation is also used with scientific modelling of natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their functioning, as in economics. Simulation can be used to show the real effects of alternative conditions. Physical simulation refers to simulation in which objects are substituted for the real thing. These physical objects are chosen because they are smaller or cheaper than the actual object or system. Simulation Fidelity is used to describe the accuracy of a simulation, Fidelity is broadly classified as 1 of 3 categories, low, medium, and high. Simulation in failure analysis refers to simulation in which we create environment/conditions to identify the cause of equipment failure and this was the best and fastest method to identify the failure cause. A computer simulation is an attempt to model a real-life or hypothetical situation on a computer so that it can be studied to see how the system works, by changing variables in the simulation, predictions may be made about the behaviour of the system. It is a tool to investigate the behaviour of the system under study. A good example of the usefulness of using computers to simulate can be found in the field of network traffic simulation, in such simulations, the model behaviour will change each simulation according to the set of initial parameters assumed for the environment. Computer simulation is used as an adjunct to, or substitution for. Several software packages exist for running computer-based simulation modeling that makes all the modeling almost effortless, modern usage of the term computer simulation may encompass virtually any computer-based representation. The computer simulates the subject machine, accordingly, in theoretical computer science the term simulation is a relation between state transition systems, useful in the study of operational semantics. Less theoretically, an application of computer simulation is to simulate computers using computers. For example, simulators have been used to debug a microprogram or sometimes commercial application programs, simulators may also be used to interpret fault trees, or test VLSI logic designs before they are constructed. Symbolic simulation uses variables to stand for unknown values, in the field of optimization, simulations of physical processes are often used in conjunction with evolutionary computation to optimize control strategies. Simulation is extensively used for educational purposes and it is frequently used by way of adaptive hypermedia
8.
Computer hardware
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Computer hardware is the collection of physical components that constitute a computer system. By contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware, hardware is directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, the template for all modern computers is the Von Neumann architecture, detailed in a 1945 paper by Hungarian mathematician John von Neumann. The meaning of the term has evolved to mean a stored-program computer in which an instruction fetch and this is referred to as the Von Neumann bottleneck and often limits the performance of the system. For the third year, U. S. business-to-business channel sales increased. The impressive growth was the fastest sales increase since the end of the recession, sales growth accelerated in the second half of the year peaking in fourth quarter with a 6.9 percent increase over the fourth quarter of 2012. There are a number of different types of system in use today. The personal computer, also known as the PC, is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility, laptops are generally very similar, although they may use lower-power or reduced size components, thus lower performance. The computer case is a plastic or metal enclosure that houses most of the components, a case can be either big or small, but the form factor of motherboard for which it is designed matters more. A power supply unit converts alternating current electric power to low-voltage DC power for the components of the computer. Laptops are capable of running from a battery, normally for a period of hours. The motherboard is the component of a computer. It is usually cooled by a heatsink and fan, or water-cooling system, most newer CPUs include an on-die Graphics Processing Unit. The clock speed of CPUs governs how fast it executes instructions, many modern computers have the option to overclock the CPU which enhances performance at the expense of greater thermal output and thus a need for improved cooling. The chipset, which includes the bridge, mediates communication between the CPU and the other components of the system, including main memory. Random-Access Memory, which stores the code and data that are being accessed by the CPU. For example, when a web browser is opened on the computer it takes up memory, RAM usually comes on DIMMs in the sizes 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB, but can be much larger. Read-Only Memory, which stores the BIOS that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution, the BIOS includes boot firmware and power management firmware
9.
John von Neumann
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John von Neumann was a Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, inventor, computer scientist, and polymath. He made major contributions to a number of fields, including mathematics, physics, economics, computing, and statistics. He published over 150 papers in his life, about 60 in pure mathematics,20 in physics, and 60 in applied mathematics and his last work, an unfinished manuscript written while in the hospital, was later published in book form as The Computer and the Brain. His analysis of the structure of self-replication preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA, also, my work on various forms of operator theory, Berlin 1930 and Princeton 1935–1939, on the ergodic theorem, Princeton, 1931–1932. During World War II he worked on the Manhattan Project, developing the mathematical models behind the lenses used in the implosion-type nuclear weapon. After the war, he served on the General Advisory Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, along with theoretical physicist Edward Teller, mathematician Stanislaw Ulam, and others, he worked out key steps in the nuclear physics involved in thermonuclear reactions and the hydrogen bomb. Von Neumann was born Neumann János Lajos to a wealthy, acculturated, Von Neumanns place of birth was Budapest in the Kingdom of Hungary which was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was the eldest of three children and he had two younger brothers, Michael, born in 1907, and Nicholas, who was born in 1911. His father, Neumann Miksa was a banker, who held a doctorate in law and he had moved to Budapest from Pécs at the end of the 1880s. Miksas father and grandfather were both born in Ond, Zemplén County, northern Hungary, johns mother was Kann Margit, her parents were Jakab Kann and Katalin Meisels. Three generations of the Kann family lived in apartments above the Kann-Heller offices in Budapest. In 1913, his father was elevated to the nobility for his service to the Austro-Hungarian Empire by Emperor Franz Joseph, the Neumann family thus acquired the hereditary appellation Margittai, meaning of Marghita. The family had no connection with the town, the appellation was chosen in reference to Margaret, Neumann János became Margittai Neumann János, which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann. Von Neumann was a child prodigy, as a 6 year old, he could multiply and divide two 8-digit numbers in his head, and could converse in Ancient Greek. When he once caught his mother staring aimlessly, the 6 year old von Neumann asked her, formal schooling did not start in Hungary until the age of ten. Instead, governesses taught von Neumann, his brothers and his cousins, Max believed that knowledge of languages other than Hungarian was essential, so the children were tutored in English, French, German and Italian. A copy was contained in a private library Max purchased, One of the rooms in the apartment was converted into a library and reading room, with bookshelves from ceiling to floor. Von Neumann entered the Lutheran Fasori Evangelikus Gimnázium in 1911 and this was one of the best schools in Budapest, part of a brilliant education system designed for the elite
10.
TechnoSphere (virtual environment)
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TechnoSphere was an online digital environment launched on September 1,1995 and hosted on a computer at a UK university. This online program was one of many digital artificial life simulations that evolved as the World Wide Web began to grow, many museums and classrooms found the tool to be a valuable complement to learning material on natural selection and ecosystems. The experiment operated online until 2002 and was unavailable until January 15,2007 when it was launched again, TechnoSphere was a real-time, 3D simulation of an environment that was populated by virtual creatures. Users across the globe had the capability to create their own creatures through a website, the program was capable of modeling such concepts as simple evolution and carrying capacity. Despite limited available creature designs, no two would behave in the same way, due to chance interactions with its environment. Physically, the landscape of TechnoSphere consisted of 16 km² of terrain. It was capable of supporting approximately 4,000 creatures, though sources suggest that as many as 20,000 creatures typically would coexist in the virtual environment at one time. After the relaunch, it was stated that the software limited the number of creatures at 200,000. Because each creatures behavior was unique, no single event could have been predicted, for example, even though there was no explicit flocking algorithm written into the program, creatures could be found organizing themselves into groups, most likely impelled by urges to mate and eat. The programs that supported the website were scalable, and could be modified to support a larger or smaller community of creatures, users accessing the site were able to create their own artificial life forms, building carnivores or herbivores from a select few component parts. Their digital DNA was linked to each component and the completed creatures attributes was determined by the combination of each features strengths, once a creature design was finished, users would name their digital creature, tag it with their e-mail address, and enter it into the digital environment. There they chased or evaded each other, ate, grew and they also produced offspring, which were variants of the parents, sometimes incorporating aspects of both parents and other times favoring one parent creatures attributes over the others. General behavior patterns had emerged, but it was difficult to predict what was going to happen based solely on a creatures design, the one thing all TechnoSphere creatures did have in common was that they would all eventually die. There was only one gender in TechnoSphere, so the creature that initiated mating was the parent that ended up carrying and caring for the offspring, Creature behavior was directed by a set of algorithms called Creature Comforts, designed by Julian Saunderson. It dictated, for example, that behavior could only be initiated if both creatures hunger was at least 50% satiated. When significant events occurred in the TechnoSphere, a users creature would send brief email messages home, users were also able to visit the website and view 2D snapshots of their creature, check family trees, world statistics, and search for other creatures and their users. One report described the popularity by citing that the online version had attracted over a 100,000 users who had created 3,286,148. Over the years in which the website was operating, the growing popularity facilitated necessary updates to the software and hardware, causing website downtime
11.
Biochemistry
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Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of energy through metabolism. Biochemistry is closely related to biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate. The chemistry of the cell depends on the reactions of smaller molecules. These can be inorganic, for water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism, the findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of diseases, in nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control. However, biochemistry as a scientific discipline has its beginning sometime in the 19th century, or a little earlier. Gowland Hopkins on enzymes and the nature of biochemistry. The term biochemistry itself is derived from a combination of biology, the German chemist Carl Neuberg however is often cited to have coined the word in 1903, while some credited it to Franz Hofmeister. Then, in 1828, Friedrich Wöhler published a paper on the synthesis of urea and these techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and metabolic pathways of the cell, such as glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. Another significant historic event in biochemistry is the discovery of the gene and this part of biochemistry is often called molecular biology. In the 1950s, James D. Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, in 1958, George Beadle and Edward Tatum received the Nobel Prize for work in fungi showing that one gene produces one enzyme. In 1988, Colin Pitchfork was the first person convicted of murder with DNA evidence, mello received the 2006 Nobel Prize for discovering the role of RNA interference, in the silencing of gene expression. Around two dozen of the 92 naturally occurring elements are essential to various kinds of biological life. Most rare elements on Earth are not needed by life, while a few common ones are not used, most organisms share element needs, but there are a few differences between plants and animals
12.
Artificial intelligence
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Artificial intelligence is intelligence exhibited by machines. Colloquially, the artificial intelligence is applied when a machine mimics cognitive functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as learning. As machines become increasingly capable, mental facilities once thought to require intelligence are removed from the definition, for instance, optical character recognition is no longer perceived as an example of artificial intelligence, having become a routine technology. AI research is divided into subfields that focus on specific problems or on specific approaches or on the use of a tool or towards satisfying particular applications. The central problems of AI research include reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, general intelligence is among the fields long-term goals. Approaches include statistical methods, computational intelligence, and traditional symbolic AI, Many tools are used in AI, including versions of search and mathematical optimization, logic, methods based on probability and economics. The AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, the field was founded on the claim that human intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it. Some people also consider AI a danger to humanity if it progresses unabatedly, while thought-capable artificial beings appeared as storytelling devices in antiquity, the idea of actually trying to build a machine to perform useful reasoning may have begun with Ramon Llull. With his Calculus ratiocinator, Gottfried Leibniz extended the concept of the calculating machine, since the 19th century, artificial beings are common in fiction, as in Mary Shelleys Frankenstein or Karel Čapeks R. U. R. The study of mechanical or formal reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity, in the 19th century, George Boole refined those ideas into propositional logic and Gottlob Frege developed a notational system for mechanical reasoning. Around the 1940s, Alan Turings theory of computation suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1 and this insight, that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning, is known as the Church–Turing thesis. Along with concurrent discoveries in neurology, information theory and cybernetics, the first work that is now generally recognized as AI was McCullouch and Pitts 1943 formal design for Turing-complete artificial neurons. The field of AI research was born at a conference at Dartmouth College in 1956, attendees Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky and Arthur Samuel became the founders and leaders of AI research. At the conference, Newell and Simon, together with programmer J. C, shaw, presented the first true artificial intelligence program, the Logic Theorist. This spurred tremendous research in the domain, computers were winning at checkers, solving problems in algebra, proving logical theorems. By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U. S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense and laboratories had been established around the world. AIs founders were optimistic about the future, Herbert Simon predicted, machines will be capable, within twenty years, Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, within a generation. The problem of creating artificial intelligence will substantially be solved and they failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks
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