1.
Fingernails
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A nail is a horn-like envelope covering the tips of the fingers and toes in humans, most non-human primates, and a few other mammals. Nails are similar to claws in other animals, fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective protein called keratin. This protein is found in the hooves and horns of different animals. The nail consists of the plate, the nail matrix and the nail bed below it. The matrix, sometimes called the matrix unguis, keratogenous membrane, nail matrix and it is the part of the nail bed that is beneath the nail and contains nerves, lymph and blood vessels. The matrix is responsible for producing cells that become the nail plate. The width and thickness of the plate is determined by the size, length. The matrix will continue to grow as long as it receives nutrition, as new nail plate cells are made, they push older nail plate cells forward, and in this way older cells become compressed, flat, and translucent. This makes the capillaries in the nail bed below visible, resulting in a pink color, the lunula is the visible part of the matrix, the whitish crescent-shaped base of the visible nail. The lunula can best be seen in the thumb and may not be visible in the little finger, the nail bed is the skin beneath the nail plate. The epidermis is attached to the dermis by tiny longitudinal grooves called matrix crests, in old age, the nail plate becomes thinner, and these grooves become more visible. The nail sinus is where the root is, i. e. the base of the nail underneath the skin. It originates from the actively growing tissue below, the matrix, the nail plate is the hard part of the nail, made of translucent keratin protein. Several layers of dead, compacted cells cause the nail to be strong and its shape is determined by the form of the underlying bone. In common usage, the word often refers to this part only. The free margin or distal edge is the margin of the nail plate corresponding to the abrasive or cutting edge of the nail. The hyponychium is the epithelium located beneath the nail plate at the junction between the edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects the nail bed, the onychodermal band is the seal between the nail plate and the hyponychium
2.
Fashion accessories
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A fashion accessory is an item used to contribute, in a secondary manner, to the wearers outfit, often used to complete an outfit and chosen to specifically complement the wearers look. The term came into use in the 19th century, Fashion accessories can be loosely categorized into two general areas, those that are carried and those that are worn. Traditional carried accessories include purses and handbags, eyewear, hand fans, parasols and umbrellas, wallets, canes, in Victorian fashion accessories such as fans, parasols and gloves held significance for how women experienced gender, race and class. In this era, there was a trend for women to adopt, or aspire to, consequently, gloves were often used by women to cover their hands and mask any signs of labor. Also, in the early 16th century in Italy hat badges were worn by men of a higher social status as decorative item. Hat badges were worn in conjunction with a decorative sword. Hat badges were fashioned after plaquettes and often depicted a scene with personal relevance to the wearer, status symbol Media related to Fashion accessory at Wikimedia Commons
3.
Mimicry
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Mimicry may evolve between different species, or between individuals of the same species. Often, mimicry evolves to protect a species from predators, making it an antipredator adaptation, the resemblances that evolve in mimicry can be in appearance, behaviour, sound or scent. Mimicry may be to the advantage of organisms that share a resemblance, in which case it is a mutualism, or mimicry can be to the detriment of one. Mimicry occurs when a group of organisms, the mimics, evolve to share perceived characteristics with another group, the evolutionary convergence between groups is driven by the selective action of a signal-receiver or dupe. Birds, for example, use sight to identify palatable insects, over time, palatable insects may evolve to resemble noxious ones, making them mimics and the noxious ones models. In the case of mutualism, sometimes both groups are referred to as co-mimics, in its broadest definition, mimicry can include non-living models. The specific terms masquerade and mimesis are sometimes used when the models are inanimate, for example, animals such as flower mantises, planthoppers and geometer moth caterpillars that resemble twigs, bark, leaves or flowers practice masquerade. Some authors would consider this mimicry, others would not, many animals bear eyespots, which are hypothesized to resemble the eyes of larger animals. They may not resemble any specific organisms eyes, and whether or not animals respond to them as eyes is also unclear, nonetheless, eyespots are the subject of a rich contemporary literature. It is often thought that models must be more abundant than mimics, though visual mimicry through animal coloration is most obvious to humans, other senses such as olfaction or hearing may be involved, and more than one type of signal may be employed. Mimicry may involve morphology, behaviour, and other properties, in any case, the mimetic signal always functions because it resembles that of another organism. In evolutionary terms, this phenomenon is a form of co-evolution and it can involve an evolutionary arms race if mimicry negatively affects the model, and the model can evolve a different appearance from the mimic. Mimics may have different models for different life stages, or they may be polymorphic. Models themselves may have more than one mimic, though frequency dependent selection favours mimicry where models outnumber mimics, models tend to be relatively closely related organisms, but mimicry of vastly different species is also known. Most known mimics are insects, though many other animal mimics are known, Plants and fungi may also be mimics, though less research has been carried out in this area. Use of the word dates to 1637. It derives from the Greek term mimetikos, imitative, in turn from mimetos, originally used to describe people, mimetic was used in zoology from 1851, mimicry from 1861. Many types of mimicry have been described, an overview of each follows, highlighting the similarities and differences between the various forms
4.
Photoinitiator
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A photoinitiator is a molecule that creates reactive species when exposed to radiation. Synthetic photoinitiators are key components in photopolymers, some small molecules in the atmosphere can also act as photoinitiators by decomposing to give free radicals. For instance, nitrogen dioxide is produced in quantities by gasoline-burning internal combustion engines. NO2 in the troposphere gives smog its brown coloration and catalyzes production of toxic ground-level ozone, molecular oxygen also serves as a photoinitiator in the stratosphere, breaking down into atomic oxygen and in order to form the ozone in the ozone layer. Photoinitators can create reactive species by different pathways including photodissociation and electron transfer, as an example of dissociation, hydrogen peroxide can undergo homolytic cleavage, with the O-O bond cleaving to form two hydroxyl radicals. H2O2 →2 ·OH Certain azo compounds, can also photolytically cleave, since molecular oxygen can abstract H atoms from certain radicals, the HOO· radical is easily created. This particular radical can further abstract H atoms, creating H2O2, or hydrogen peroxide, more commonly, HOO can react with free oxygen atoms to yield a hydroxy radical and oxygen gas. In both cases, the ·OH radicals formed can serve to oxidize organic compounds in the atmosphere. H2O2 →2 ·OH HOO· + O → O2 + ·OH ·OH + CH4 → ·CH3 + H2O Nitrogen dioxide can also be cleaved by photons of wavelength less than 400 nm producing atomic oxygen. NO2 → NO + O Atomic oxygen is a reactive species. O + H2O →2 ·OH Nitrogen dioxide can be regenerated through a reaction between certain peroxy-containing radicals and NO, rOO· + NO → NO2 + RO· In the stratosphere, molecular oxygen is an important photoinitiator that begins the ozone-production process in the ozone layer. Oxygen can be photolyzed into atomic oxygen by light with less than 240 nm. O2 → 2O Atomic oxygen can then combine with molecular oxygen to form ozone. O + O2 → O3 However, ozone can also be photolyzed back into O, O3 → O + O2 Furthermore, atomic oxygen and ozone can combine into O and O3. O + O3 →2 O2 This set of reactions govern the production of ozone, azobisisobutyronitrile is a white powder often used as a photoinitiator for vinyl-based polymers such as polyvinyl chloride, also known as PVC. Because this particular photoinitiator produces nitrogen gas upon decomposition, it is used as a blowing agent to change the shape and/or texture of plastics. Benzoyl peroxide, much like azobisisobutyronitrile, is a powder used as a photoinitiator in various commercial and industrial processes. Unlike AIBN, however, benzoyl peroxide produces oxygen gas upon decomposing, giving this compound a host of medical uses as well, upon contact with the skin, benzoyl peroxide breaks down, producing oxygen gas, among other things
5.
Manicure
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A manicure is a cosmetic beauty treatment for the fingernails and hands, performed at home or in a nail salon. A manicure consists of filing and shaping of the edge, pushing and clipping any nonliving tissue, treatments, massage of the hand. When applied to the toenails and feet, this treatment is referred to as a pedicure, some manicures can include the painting of pictures or designs on the nails, or applying small decals or imitation jewels. Other nail treatments may include the application of artificial nail gel nails, tips, or acrylics, in many areas, manicurists are licensed and follow regulations. Since skin is manipulated and is trimmed, there is a certain risk of spreading infection when tools are used across many people, therefore. The English word manicure comes from the French word manucure, meaning care of the hands, which in turn originates from the Latin words manus, for hand, similarly, the English word pedicure comes from the Latin words ped, for foot, and cura, for care. Jeff Pink founder of professional nail brand Orly is famed with creating the Natural nail look later called the French manicure in 1976. French manicures can be made with artificial nails, which are designed to resemble natural ones and are characterized by lack of color, or natural pink base nails with white tips. The nail tips are painted white, while the rest of the nails are polished in a pink or a suitable nude shade, however, it is also as common to perform a French manicure on natural nails. Another technique is to whiten the underside of the nail with white pencil, a hot oil manicure is a specific type of manicure that cleans the cuticles and softens them with oil. Types of oils that can be used are oil, olive oil. Hands can be dipped in melted paraffin wax for softening and moisturizing, paraffin wax is used because it can be heated to temperatures of over 95 °F without burning or injuring the hand. The intense heat allows for deeper absorption of emollients and essential oils. The wax is usually infused with various ingredients such as aloe vera, azulene, chamomile, or tea tree oil, and fruit waxes such as apple, peach. Paraffin wax treatments are often charged in addition to the standard manicure nail treatments, as such, they are often not covered in general training and are a rare treatment in most nail salons. Occasionally, lotion is rubbed on the hand before submersion into the paraffin bath, the hand is usually dipped more than once to allow a thicker wax coat to form, making the coating stay warm longer and less likely to break or tear prematurely. The hands are left for a few minutes before the paraffin is cooled and dried, the kits are often kept in the salon and given to the client to take home, or are thrown away after use. They are only used when that client comes in for a treatment, another option is to give the client the files and wooden cuticle sticks after the manicure
6.
Ming dynasty
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The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China – then known as the Empire of the Great Ming – for 276 years following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming, described by some as one of the greatest eras of orderly government, although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng, regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1683. He rewarded his supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia, the rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances, the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade, haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from Japanese pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced an influx of Japanese. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was defeated by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty, consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351, the Red Turbans were affiliated with the White Lotus, a Buddhist secret society. Zhu Yuanzhang was a peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352. In 1356, Zhus rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, with the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang, arguably the largest naval battle in history. Known for its ambitious use of ships, Zhus force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful Yangtze River Valley, Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or Vastly Martial, as his era name. Hongwu made an effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km long wall around Nanjing, as well as new palaces, Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the Jinyiwei, some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule
7.
Nobility
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The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
8.
Status symbol
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A status symbol is a perceived visible, external denotation of ones social position and perceived indicator of economic or social status. Many luxury goods are considered status symbols. Status symbol is also a sociological term – as part of social and sociological symbolic interactionism – relating to how individuals and groups interact, as people aspire to high status, they often seek also its symbols. As with other symbols, status symbols may change in value or meaning over time, for example, before the invention of the printing press, possession of a large collection of laboriously hand-copied books was a symbol of wealth and scholarship. In later centuries, books became common, so a private library became less-rarefied as a status symbol. In some past cultures of East Asia, pearls and jade were major status symbols, similar legal exclusions applied to the toga and its variants in ancient Rome, and to cotton in the Aztec Empire. Special colors, such as yellow or royal purple were reserved for royalty. Another common status symbol of the European medieval past was heraldry, status symbols also indicate the cultural values of a society or a subculture. For example, in a society, having money or wealth and things that can be bought by wealth, such as cars, houses. In a society that values honor or bravery, a battle scar would be more of a status symbol, among intellectuals being able to think in an intelligent and educated way is an important status symbol regardless of material possessions. In academic circles, a long list of publications and a tenured position at a prestigious university or research institute are a mark of high status. It has been speculated that the earliest foods to be domesticated were luxury feast foods used to cement ones place as a rich person. A uniform symbolizes membership in an organization, and may display additional insignia of rank, specialty, tenure, a state decoration medal or badge can show that the wearer has heroic or official status. Elaborate color-coded academic regalia is worn during commencement ceremonies, indicating academic rank. In many cultures around the world, diverse visual markers of marital status are widely used, coming of age rituals and other rites of passage may involve granting and display of symbols of a new status. Dress codes may specify who ought to wear particular kinds or styles of clothing, and when, the condition and appearance of ones body can be a status symbol. In times past, when most workers did physical labor outdoors under the sun and often had little food, being pale and fat was a symbol, indicating wealth. Now that workers usually do less-physical work indoors and find time for exercise, being tanned
9.
Commoner
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The terms common people, common man, commoners, or the masses denote a broad social division referring to ordinary people who are members of neither royalty nor nobility nor the priesthood. Since the 20th century, the common people has been used in a more general sense to refer to typical members of society in contrast to highly privileged. In Europe, a concept analogous to common people arose in the Classical civilization of ancient Rome around the 6th century BC. The division may have been instituted by Servius Tullius, as an alternative to the clan based divisions that had been responsible for internecine conflict. The ancient Greeks generally had no concept of class and their leading social divisions were simply non-Greeks, free-Greeks, with the growth of Christianity in the 4th century AD, a new world view arose that would underpin European thinking on social division until at least early modern times. Saint Augustine postulated that social division was a result of the Fall of Man, the three leading divisions were considered to be the priesthood, the nobility, and the common people. Sometimes this would be expressed as those who prayed, those who fought, the Latin terms for the three classes – oratores, bellatores and laboratores – are often found even in modern textbooks, and have been used in sources since the 9th century. This threefold division was formalised in the system of social stratification. They were the third of the Three Estates of the Realm in medieval Europe, consisting of peasants, social mobility for commoners was limited throughout the Middle Ages. Generally, the serfs were unable to enter the group of the bellatores, commoners could sometimes secure entry for their children into the oratores class, usually they would serve as rural parish priests. There were cases of serfs becoming clerics in the Holy Roman Empire, though from the Carolingian era, of the two thousand bishops serving from the 8th to the 15th century, just five came from the peasantry. Up until the late 15th-century European social order was relatively stable, there were periods where the common people felt oppressed in certain regions, but often they were content with their lot. The social and political order of medieval Europe was shaken by the development of the cannon in the 15th century. Up until that time a noble with a force could hold their castle or walled town for years even against large armies -. Once effective cannons were available, walls were of far less defensive value and this change of orientation among the nobles left the common people less content with their place in society. A similar trend occurred regarding the clergy, where many priests began to abuse the power they had due to the sacrament of contrition. An early major social upheaval driven in part by the common peoples mistrust of both the nobility and clergy occurred in Great Britain with the English Revolution of 1642, after the forces of Oliver Cromwell triumphed, movements like the Levellers rose to prominence demanding equality for all. According to historian Roger Osbourne, the Colonels speech was the first time a prominent person spoke in favour of male suffrage
10.
Manual labour
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Manual labour or manual work is physical work done by people, most especially in contrast to that done by machines, and to that done by working animals. It is most literally work done with the hands, and, by figurative extension, for most of human prehistory and history, manual labour and its close cousin, animal labour, have been the primary ways that physical work has been accomplished. To be implemented, they require that sufficient technology exist and that its capital costs be justified by the amount of wages that they will obviate. Thus there is a partial but significant correlation between manual labour and unskilled or semiskilled workers, throughout human existence the latter has involved a spectrum of variants, from slavery, to caste or caste-like systems, to subtler forms of inequality. Economic competition often results in trying to buy labour at the lowest possible cost or to obviate it entirely. It has always been the case for humans that many workers begin their working lives lacking any special level of skill or experience and these conditions have assured the correlations strength and persistence. The phrase hard labour has become a legal euphemism for penal labour. Throughout human existence, but most especially since the Age of Enlightenment, humans have not yet succeeded in instantiating any such utopia, but some social systems have been designed that go far enough toward the goal that hope yet remains for further improvement. Concepts such as the Three-fifths compromise and the Untermensch defined slaves as less than human, one interesting historical trend that is true of all of the systems above is that they began crumbling in the 20th century and have continued crumbling since. Todays forms of them are mostly greatly weakened compared to past generations versions, at the lowest extreme, such distortion produces subtler forms of racism and de facto inequality of opportunity. The more plausible the deniability, the easier the rationalisation and perpetuation, at such areas of the spectrum, it becomes ever harder to justify efforts that use de jure methods to fight de facto imbalances, because valid instances can be highlighted by all sides. A willingness to recognise that manual labour can involve skill and intelligence can take a variety of forms, in its healthier forms, it recognises the dignity and intelligence of blue-collar workers, and it recognises their civil equality with white-collar workers. Yet it simultaneously leaves room in society for meritocracy, allowing both upward and downward social mobility. In its more pathological forms, it may admit that there can be a science of manual labour. Some people would have only the first, others, only the second, therefore, players usually should not be their own coaches. Whether Taylor was capable of predicting and preventing that problem is unclear, an example of the second pathology are 20th-century variants of communism, such as Leninism and Stalinism. Mechanisation and automation strive to reduce the amount of labour required for production. Automation helps to bring mechanisation to more complicated tasks that require dexterity, decision making based on visual input
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