1.
Fingernails
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A nail is a horn-like envelope covering the tips of the fingers and toes in humans, most non-human primates, and a few other mammals. Nails are similar to claws in other animals, fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective protein called keratin. This protein is found in the hooves and horns of different animals. The nail consists of the plate, the nail matrix and the nail bed below it. The matrix, sometimes called the matrix unguis, keratogenous membrane, nail matrix and it is the part of the nail bed that is beneath the nail and contains nerves, lymph and blood vessels. The matrix is responsible for producing cells that become the nail plate. The width and thickness of the plate is determined by the size, length. The matrix will continue to grow as long as it receives nutrition, as new nail plate cells are made, they push older nail plate cells forward, and in this way older cells become compressed, flat, and translucent. This makes the capillaries in the nail bed below visible, resulting in a pink color, the lunula is the visible part of the matrix, the whitish crescent-shaped base of the visible nail. The lunula can best be seen in the thumb and may not be visible in the little finger, the nail bed is the skin beneath the nail plate. The epidermis is attached to the dermis by tiny longitudinal grooves called matrix crests, in old age, the nail plate becomes thinner, and these grooves become more visible. The nail sinus is where the root is, i. e. the base of the nail underneath the skin. It originates from the actively growing tissue below, the matrix, the nail plate is the hard part of the nail, made of translucent keratin protein. Several layers of dead, compacted cells cause the nail to be strong and its shape is determined by the form of the underlying bone. In common usage, the word often refers to this part only. The free margin or distal edge is the margin of the nail plate corresponding to the abrasive or cutting edge of the nail. The hyponychium is the epithelium located beneath the nail plate at the junction between the edge and the skin of the fingertip. It forms a seal that protects the nail bed, the onychodermal band is the seal between the nail plate and the hyponychium
2.
Fashion accessories
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A fashion accessory is an item used to contribute, in a secondary manner, to the wearers outfit, often used to complete an outfit and chosen to specifically complement the wearers look. The term came into use in the 19th century, Fashion accessories can be loosely categorized into two general areas, those that are carried and those that are worn. Traditional carried accessories include purses and handbags, eyewear, hand fans, parasols and umbrellas, wallets, canes, in Victorian fashion accessories such as fans, parasols and gloves held significance for how women experienced gender, race and class. In this era, there was a trend for women to adopt, or aspire to, consequently, gloves were often used by women to cover their hands and mask any signs of labor. Also, in the early 16th century in Italy hat badges were worn by men of a higher social status as decorative item. Hat badges were worn in conjunction with a decorative sword. Hat badges were fashioned after plaquettes and often depicted a scene with personal relevance to the wearer, status symbol Media related to Fashion accessory at Wikimedia Commons
3.
Mimicry
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Mimicry may evolve between different species, or between individuals of the same species. Often, mimicry evolves to protect a species from predators, making it an antipredator adaptation, the resemblances that evolve in mimicry can be in appearance, behaviour, sound or scent. Mimicry may be to the advantage of organisms that share a resemblance, in which case it is a mutualism, or mimicry can be to the detriment of one. Mimicry occurs when a group of organisms, the mimics, evolve to share perceived characteristics with another group, the evolutionary convergence between groups is driven by the selective action of a signal-receiver or dupe. Birds, for example, use sight to identify palatable insects, over time, palatable insects may evolve to resemble noxious ones, making them mimics and the noxious ones models. In the case of mutualism, sometimes both groups are referred to as co-mimics, in its broadest definition, mimicry can include non-living models. The specific terms masquerade and mimesis are sometimes used when the models are inanimate, for example, animals such as flower mantises, planthoppers and geometer moth caterpillars that resemble twigs, bark, leaves or flowers practice masquerade. Some authors would consider this mimicry, others would not, many animals bear eyespots, which are hypothesized to resemble the eyes of larger animals. They may not resemble any specific organisms eyes, and whether or not animals respond to them as eyes is also unclear, nonetheless, eyespots are the subject of a rich contemporary literature. It is often thought that models must be more abundant than mimics, though visual mimicry through animal coloration is most obvious to humans, other senses such as olfaction or hearing may be involved, and more than one type of signal may be employed. Mimicry may involve morphology, behaviour, and other properties, in any case, the mimetic signal always functions because it resembles that of another organism. In evolutionary terms, this phenomenon is a form of co-evolution and it can involve an evolutionary arms race if mimicry negatively affects the model, and the model can evolve a different appearance from the mimic. Mimics may have different models for different life stages, or they may be polymorphic. Models themselves may have more than one mimic, though frequency dependent selection favours mimicry where models outnumber mimics, models tend to be relatively closely related organisms, but mimicry of vastly different species is also known. Most known mimics are insects, though many other animal mimics are known, Plants and fungi may also be mimics, though less research has been carried out in this area. Use of the word dates to 1637. It derives from the Greek term mimetikos, imitative, in turn from mimetos, originally used to describe people, mimetic was used in zoology from 1851, mimicry from 1861. Many types of mimicry have been described, an overview of each follows, highlighting the similarities and differences between the various forms
4.
Photoinitiator
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A photoinitiator is a molecule that creates reactive species when exposed to radiation. Synthetic photoinitiators are key components in photopolymers, some small molecules in the atmosphere can also act as photoinitiators by decomposing to give free radicals. For instance, nitrogen dioxide is produced in quantities by gasoline-burning internal combustion engines. NO2 in the troposphere gives smog its brown coloration and catalyzes production of toxic ground-level ozone, molecular oxygen also serves as a photoinitiator in the stratosphere, breaking down into atomic oxygen and in order to form the ozone in the ozone layer. Photoinitators can create reactive species by different pathways including photodissociation and electron transfer, as an example of dissociation, hydrogen peroxide can undergo homolytic cleavage, with the O-O bond cleaving to form two hydroxyl radicals. H2O2 →2 ·OH Certain azo compounds, can also photolytically cleave, since molecular oxygen can abstract H atoms from certain radicals, the HOO· radical is easily created. This particular radical can further abstract H atoms, creating H2O2, or hydrogen peroxide, more commonly, HOO can react with free oxygen atoms to yield a hydroxy radical and oxygen gas. In both cases, the ·OH radicals formed can serve to oxidize organic compounds in the atmosphere. H2O2 →2 ·OH HOO· + O → O2 + ·OH ·OH + CH4 → ·CH3 + H2O Nitrogen dioxide can also be cleaved by photons of wavelength less than 400 nm producing atomic oxygen. NO2 → NO + O Atomic oxygen is a reactive species. O + H2O →2 ·OH Nitrogen dioxide can be regenerated through a reaction between certain peroxy-containing radicals and NO, rOO· + NO → NO2 + RO· In the stratosphere, molecular oxygen is an important photoinitiator that begins the ozone-production process in the ozone layer. Oxygen can be photolyzed into atomic oxygen by light with less than 240 nm. O2 → 2O Atomic oxygen can then combine with molecular oxygen to form ozone. O + O2 → O3 However, ozone can also be photolyzed back into O, O3 → O + O2 Furthermore, atomic oxygen and ozone can combine into O and O3. O + O3 →2 O2 This set of reactions govern the production of ozone, azobisisobutyronitrile is a white powder often used as a photoinitiator for vinyl-based polymers such as polyvinyl chloride, also known as PVC. Because this particular photoinitiator produces nitrogen gas upon decomposition, it is used as a blowing agent to change the shape and/or texture of plastics. Benzoyl peroxide, much like azobisisobutyronitrile, is a powder used as a photoinitiator in various commercial and industrial processes. Unlike AIBN, however, benzoyl peroxide produces oxygen gas upon decomposing, giving this compound a host of medical uses as well, upon contact with the skin, benzoyl peroxide breaks down, producing oxygen gas, among other things
5.
Manicure
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A manicure is a cosmetic beauty treatment for the fingernails and hands, performed at home or in a nail salon. A manicure consists of filing and shaping of the edge, pushing and clipping any nonliving tissue, treatments, massage of the hand. When applied to the toenails and feet, this treatment is referred to as a pedicure, some manicures can include the painting of pictures or designs on the nails, or applying small decals or imitation jewels. Other nail treatments may include the application of artificial nail gel nails, tips, or acrylics, in many areas, manicurists are licensed and follow regulations. Since skin is manipulated and is trimmed, there is a certain risk of spreading infection when tools are used across many people, therefore. The English word manicure comes from the French word manucure, meaning care of the hands, which in turn originates from the Latin words manus, for hand, similarly, the English word pedicure comes from the Latin words ped, for foot, and cura, for care. Jeff Pink founder of professional nail brand Orly is famed with creating the Natural nail look later called the French manicure in 1976. French manicures can be made with artificial nails, which are designed to resemble natural ones and are characterized by lack of color, or natural pink base nails with white tips. The nail tips are painted white, while the rest of the nails are polished in a pink or a suitable nude shade, however, it is also as common to perform a French manicure on natural nails. Another technique is to whiten the underside of the nail with white pencil, a hot oil manicure is a specific type of manicure that cleans the cuticles and softens them with oil. Types of oils that can be used are oil, olive oil. Hands can be dipped in melted paraffin wax for softening and moisturizing, paraffin wax is used because it can be heated to temperatures of over 95 °F without burning or injuring the hand. The intense heat allows for deeper absorption of emollients and essential oils. The wax is usually infused with various ingredients such as aloe vera, azulene, chamomile, or tea tree oil, and fruit waxes such as apple, peach. Paraffin wax treatments are often charged in addition to the standard manicure nail treatments, as such, they are often not covered in general training and are a rare treatment in most nail salons. Occasionally, lotion is rubbed on the hand before submersion into the paraffin bath, the hand is usually dipped more than once to allow a thicker wax coat to form, making the coating stay warm longer and less likely to break or tear prematurely. The hands are left for a few minutes before the paraffin is cooled and dried, the kits are often kept in the salon and given to the client to take home, or are thrown away after use. They are only used when that client comes in for a treatment, another option is to give the client the files and wooden cuticle sticks after the manicure
6.
Ming dynasty
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The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China – then known as the Empire of the Great Ming – for 276 years following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming, described by some as one of the greatest eras of orderly government, although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng, regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1683. He rewarded his supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia, the rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances, the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade, haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from Japanese pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced an influx of Japanese. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was defeated by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty, consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351, the Red Turbans were affiliated with the White Lotus, a Buddhist secret society. Zhu Yuanzhang was a peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352. In 1356, Zhus rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, with the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang, arguably the largest naval battle in history. Known for its ambitious use of ships, Zhus force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful Yangtze River Valley, Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or Vastly Martial, as his era name. Hongwu made an effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km long wall around Nanjing, as well as new palaces, Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the Jinyiwei, some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule
7.
Nobility
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The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
8.
Status symbol
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A status symbol is a perceived visible, external denotation of ones social position and perceived indicator of economic or social status. Many luxury goods are considered status symbols. Status symbol is also a sociological term – as part of social and sociological symbolic interactionism – relating to how individuals and groups interact, as people aspire to high status, they often seek also its symbols. As with other symbols, status symbols may change in value or meaning over time, for example, before the invention of the printing press, possession of a large collection of laboriously hand-copied books was a symbol of wealth and scholarship. In later centuries, books became common, so a private library became less-rarefied as a status symbol. In some past cultures of East Asia, pearls and jade were major status symbols, similar legal exclusions applied to the toga and its variants in ancient Rome, and to cotton in the Aztec Empire. Special colors, such as yellow or royal purple were reserved for royalty. Another common status symbol of the European medieval past was heraldry, status symbols also indicate the cultural values of a society or a subculture. For example, in a society, having money or wealth and things that can be bought by wealth, such as cars, houses. In a society that values honor or bravery, a battle scar would be more of a status symbol, among intellectuals being able to think in an intelligent and educated way is an important status symbol regardless of material possessions. In academic circles, a long list of publications and a tenured position at a prestigious university or research institute are a mark of high status. It has been speculated that the earliest foods to be domesticated were luxury feast foods used to cement ones place as a rich person. A uniform symbolizes membership in an organization, and may display additional insignia of rank, specialty, tenure, a state decoration medal or badge can show that the wearer has heroic or official status. Elaborate color-coded academic regalia is worn during commencement ceremonies, indicating academic rank. In many cultures around the world, diverse visual markers of marital status are widely used, coming of age rituals and other rites of passage may involve granting and display of symbols of a new status. Dress codes may specify who ought to wear particular kinds or styles of clothing, and when, the condition and appearance of ones body can be a status symbol. In times past, when most workers did physical labor outdoors under the sun and often had little food, being pale and fat was a symbol, indicating wealth. Now that workers usually do less-physical work indoors and find time for exercise, being tanned
9.
Commoner
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The terms common people, common man, commoners, or the masses denote a broad social division referring to ordinary people who are members of neither royalty nor nobility nor the priesthood. Since the 20th century, the common people has been used in a more general sense to refer to typical members of society in contrast to highly privileged. In Europe, a concept analogous to common people arose in the Classical civilization of ancient Rome around the 6th century BC. The division may have been instituted by Servius Tullius, as an alternative to the clan based divisions that had been responsible for internecine conflict. The ancient Greeks generally had no concept of class and their leading social divisions were simply non-Greeks, free-Greeks, with the growth of Christianity in the 4th century AD, a new world view arose that would underpin European thinking on social division until at least early modern times. Saint Augustine postulated that social division was a result of the Fall of Man, the three leading divisions were considered to be the priesthood, the nobility, and the common people. Sometimes this would be expressed as those who prayed, those who fought, the Latin terms for the three classes – oratores, bellatores and laboratores – are often found even in modern textbooks, and have been used in sources since the 9th century. This threefold division was formalised in the system of social stratification. They were the third of the Three Estates of the Realm in medieval Europe, consisting of peasants, social mobility for commoners was limited throughout the Middle Ages. Generally, the serfs were unable to enter the group of the bellatores, commoners could sometimes secure entry for their children into the oratores class, usually they would serve as rural parish priests. There were cases of serfs becoming clerics in the Holy Roman Empire, though from the Carolingian era, of the two thousand bishops serving from the 8th to the 15th century, just five came from the peasantry. Up until the late 15th-century European social order was relatively stable, there were periods where the common people felt oppressed in certain regions, but often they were content with their lot. The social and political order of medieval Europe was shaken by the development of the cannon in the 15th century. Up until that time a noble with a force could hold their castle or walled town for years even against large armies -. Once effective cannons were available, walls were of far less defensive value and this change of orientation among the nobles left the common people less content with their place in society. A similar trend occurred regarding the clergy, where many priests began to abuse the power they had due to the sacrament of contrition. An early major social upheaval driven in part by the common peoples mistrust of both the nobility and clergy occurred in Great Britain with the English Revolution of 1642, after the forces of Oliver Cromwell triumphed, movements like the Levellers rose to prominence demanding equality for all. According to historian Roger Osbourne, the Colonels speech was the first time a prominent person spoke in favour of male suffrage
10.
Manual labour
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Manual labour or manual work is physical work done by people, most especially in contrast to that done by machines, and to that done by working animals. It is most literally work done with the hands, and, by figurative extension, for most of human prehistory and history, manual labour and its close cousin, animal labour, have been the primary ways that physical work has been accomplished. To be implemented, they require that sufficient technology exist and that its capital costs be justified by the amount of wages that they will obviate. Thus there is a partial but significant correlation between manual labour and unskilled or semiskilled workers, throughout human existence the latter has involved a spectrum of variants, from slavery, to caste or caste-like systems, to subtler forms of inequality. Economic competition often results in trying to buy labour at the lowest possible cost or to obviate it entirely. It has always been the case for humans that many workers begin their working lives lacking any special level of skill or experience and these conditions have assured the correlations strength and persistence. The phrase hard labour has become a legal euphemism for penal labour. Throughout human existence, but most especially since the Age of Enlightenment, humans have not yet succeeded in instantiating any such utopia, but some social systems have been designed that go far enough toward the goal that hope yet remains for further improvement. Concepts such as the Three-fifths compromise and the Untermensch defined slaves as less than human, one interesting historical trend that is true of all of the systems above is that they began crumbling in the 20th century and have continued crumbling since. Todays forms of them are mostly greatly weakened compared to past generations versions, at the lowest extreme, such distortion produces subtler forms of racism and de facto inequality of opportunity. The more plausible the deniability, the easier the rationalisation and perpetuation, at such areas of the spectrum, it becomes ever harder to justify efforts that use de jure methods to fight de facto imbalances, because valid instances can be highlighted by all sides. A willingness to recognise that manual labour can involve skill and intelligence can take a variety of forms, in its healthier forms, it recognises the dignity and intelligence of blue-collar workers, and it recognises their civil equality with white-collar workers. Yet it simultaneously leaves room in society for meritocracy, allowing both upward and downward social mobility. In its more pathological forms, it may admit that there can be a science of manual labour. Some people would have only the first, others, only the second, therefore, players usually should not be their own coaches. Whether Taylor was capable of predicting and preventing that problem is unclear, an example of the second pathology are 20th-century variants of communism, such as Leninism and Stalinism. Mechanisation and automation strive to reduce the amount of labour required for production. Automation helps to bring mechanisation to more complicated tasks that require dexterity, decision making based on visual input
11.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
12.
Pistachio
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The pistachio, a member of the cashew family, is a small tree originating from Central Asia and the Middle East. The tree produces seeds that are consumed as food. Pistacia vera often is confused with species in the genus Pistacia that are also known as pistachio. These other species can be distinguished by their distributions and their seeds which are much smaller and have a soft shell. Archaeology shows that pistachio seeds were a food as early as 6750 BC. The early sixth-century manuscript De observatione ciborum by Anthimus implies that pistacia remained well known in Europe in Late Antiquity, archaeologists have found evidence from excavations at Jarmo in northeastern Iraq for the consumption of Atlantic pistachio. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were said to have contained pistachio trees during the reign of King Merodach-Baladan about 700 BC, the modern pistachio P. vera was first cultivated in Bronze Age Central Asia, where the earliest example is from Djarkutan, modern Uzbekistan. It appears in Dioscurides as pistakia πιστάκια, recognizable as P. vera by its comparison to pine nuts. David Fairchild of the United States Department of Agriculture introduced hardier cultivars collected in China to California in 1904 and 1905, walter T. Swingle’s pistachios from Syria had already fruited well at Niles, California, by 1917. The earliest records of pistachio in English are around roughly year 1400, with the spellings pistace, later in Persian, the word is attested as pesteh. As mentioned, the tree came to the ancient Greeks from Western Asia, Pistachio is a desert plant, and is highly tolerant of saline soil. It has been reported to grow well when irrigated with water having 3, Pistachio trees are fairly hardy in the right conditions, and can survive temperatures ranging between −10 °C in winter and 48 °C in summer. They need a sunny position and well-drained soil, Pistachio trees do poorly in conditions of high humidity, and are susceptible to root rot in winter if they get too much water and the soil is not sufficiently free-draining. Long, hot summers are required for proper ripening of the fruit and they have been known to thrive in warm, moist environments. The bush grows up to 10 m tall and it has deciduous pinnate leaves 10–20 centimeters long. The plants are dioecious, with male and female trees. The flowers are apetalous and unisexual, and borne in panicles, the fruit is a drupe, containing an elongated seed, which is the edible portion. The seed, commonly thought of as a nut, is a culinary nut, the fruit has a hard, creamish exterior shell
13.
Toluene
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Toluene /ˈtɒljuːiːn/, also known as toluol /ˈtɒljuːɒl/, is a colorless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated with paint thinners. It is a benzene derivative, consisting of a CH3 group attached to a phenyl group. As such, its IUPAC systematic name is methylbenzene, Toluene is widely used as an industrial feedstock and a solvent. In 2013, worldwide sales of toluene amounted to about 24.5 billion US-dollars, as the solvent in some types of paint thinner, contact cement and model airplane glue, toluene is sometimes used as a recreational inhalant and has the potential of causing severe neurological harm. The compound was first isolated in 1837 through a distillation of oil by a Polish chemist named Filip Walter. In 1843, Jöns Jacob Berzelius recommended the name toluin, in 1850, French chemist Auguste Cahours isolated from a distillate of wood a hydrocarbon which he recognized as similar to Devilles benzoène and which Cahours named toluène. Toluene reacts as an aromatic hydrocarbon in electrophilic aromatic substitution. Because the methyl group has greater electron-releasing properties than an atom in the same position. It undergoes sulfonation to give p-toluenesulfonic acid, and chlorination by Cl2 in the presence of FeCl3 to give ortho, importantly, the methyl side chain in toluene is susceptible to oxidation. Toluene reacts with Potassium permanganate to yield benzoic acid, and with chromyl chloride to yield benzaldehyde, the methyl group undergoes halogenation under free radical conditions. For example, N-bromosuccinimide heated with toluene in the presence of AIBN leads to benzyl bromide, the same conversion can be effected with elemental bromine in the presence of UV light or even sunlight. Toluene may also be brominated by treating it with HBr and H2O2 in the presence of light. C6H5CH3 + Br2 → C6H5CH2Br + HBr C6H5CH2Br + Br2 → C6H5CHBr2 + HBr The methyl group in toluene undergoes deprotonation only with strong bases. Catalytic hydrogenation of toluene gives methylcyclohexane, the reaction requires a high pressure of hydrogen and a catalyst. Final separation and purification is done by any of the distillation or solvent extraction processes used for BTX aromatics, Toluene is so inexpensively produced industrially that it is not prepared in the laboratory. In principle it could be prepared by a variety of methods, Toluene is mainly used as a precursor to benzene via hydrodealkylation, C6H5CH3 + H2 → C6H6 + CH4 The second ranked application involves its disproportionation to a mixture of benzene and xylene. When oxidized it yields benzaldehyde and benzoic acid, two important intermediates in chemistry, in addition to the synthesis of benzene and xylene, toluene is a feedstock for toluene diisocyanate, trinitrotoluene, and a number of synthetic drugs. Toluene is a solvent, e. g. for paints, paint thinners, silicone sealants, many chemical reactants, rubber, printing ink, adhesives, lacquers, leather tanners
14.
Dibutyl phthalate
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Dibutyl phthalate is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks and it is soluble in various organic solvents, e. g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide, DBP is also a putative endocrine disruptor The use of this substance in cosmetics, including nail polishes, is banned in the European Union under Directive 76/768/EEC1976. The use of DBP has been restricted in the European Union for use in childrens toys since 1999, an EU Risk Assessment has been conducted on DBP and the final outcome has now been published in the EU Official Journal. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 list of suspected teratogens in November 2006 and it is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in nail polishes, all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. DBP was permanently banned in childrens toys, in concentrations of 1000 ppm or greater, under section 108 of the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008, DBP is produced by the reaction of n-butanol with phthalic anhydride. It is or was produced in the United States by Eastman Chemical Company, the white rot fungus Polyporus brumalis degrades DBP
15.
Stringed instrument
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String instruments, stringed instruments, or chordophones are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when the performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner. Musicians play some string instruments by plucking the strings with their fingers or a plectrum—and others by hitting the strings with a wooden hammer or by rubbing the strings with a bow. In some keyboard instruments, such as the harpsichord or piano, with bowed instruments, the player rubs the strings with a horsehair bow, causing them to vibrate. With a hurdy-gurdy, the musician operates a wheel that rubs the strings. Bowed instruments include the string instruments of the Classical music orchestra. All of the string instruments can also be plucked with the fingers. Some types of string instrument are mainly plucked, such as the harp, in the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, used in organology, string instruments are called chordophones. Other examples include the sitar, rebab, banjo, mandolin, ukulele, in most string instruments, the vibrations are transmitted to the body of the instrument, which often incorporates some sort of hollow or enclosed area. The body of the instrument also vibrates, along with the air inside it, the vibration of the body of the instrument and the enclosed hollow or chamber make the vibration of the string more audible to the performer and audience. The body of most string instruments is hollow, some, however—such as electric guitar and other instruments that rely on electronic amplification—may have a solid wood body. Archaeological digs have identified some of the earliest stringed instruments in Ancient Mesopotamian sites, like the lyres of Ur, the development of lyre instruments required the technology to create a tuning mechanism to tighten and loosen the string tension. During the medieval era, instrument development varied from country to country, Middle Eastern rebecs represented breakthroughs in terms of shape and strings, with a half a pear shape using three strings. Early versions of the violin and fiddle, by comparison, emerged in Europe through instruments such as the gittern, a four stringed precursor to the guitar and these instruments typically used catgut and other materials, including silk, for their strings. String instrument design refined during the Renaissance and into the Baroque period of musical history, violins and guitars became more consistent in design, and were roughly similar to what we use in the 2000s. At the same time, the 19th century guitar became more associated with six string models. In big bands of the 1920s, the guitar played backing chords. The development of guitar amplifiers, which contained a power amplifier, the development of the electric guitar provided guitarists with an instrument that was built to connect to guitar amplifiers. Electric guitars have magnetic pickups, volume control knobs and an output jack, in the 1960s, larger, more powerful guitar amplifiers were developed, called stacks
16.
Don Ross (guitarist)
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Donald James Ross, or Don Ross, is a Canadian fingerstyle guitarist. He is the person to win the National Fingerstyle Guitar Championship twice. His album Huron Street reached the top ten on the Billboard New-age chart, Ross was born in Montreal, Quebec to Scottish and Mikmaq parents. He studied composition at the department of York University in Toronto with David Mott, James Tenney. After receiving his Bachelor of Fine Arts in Music in 1983, he studied philosophy at St. Francis Friary in Staten Island and he decided to leave that pursuit and become a musician. In 1986 Ross produced and published his first album, Kehewin, on cassette and he performed as a duo with his wife, singer Kelly McGowan, in 1986 and 1987, and then in a trio called Harbord Trio with her and violinist Oliver Schroer. At the same time he was member of a New Age jazz quartet called Eye Music and he composed music for several theatre productions in Toronto dealing with First Nations life in Canada, such as The Ecstasy of Rita Joe, Dreaming Beauty and Big Buck City. He has also composed music for the CBC radio serial Dead Dog Café, in 1987 some of his compositions were played by the Toronto Symphony Orchestra. Since then he has released several mostly instrumental CDs, though some of them feature him as a singer and he published three instructional videos, several single transcriptions and a book with nine of his pieces, and worked with the magazine Canadian Musician. At the Ontario Council of Folk Festivals he won a prize with his wife Kelly, since 1997 he guides the Don Ross Cannington Guitar Weekend, a guitar workshop. In 2001 his wife Kelly died and Ross was left with his kids, in 2005 he married Brooke Miller, a singer-songwriter from Prince Edward Island. Don Ross was the first artist to sign with record label, Candyrat Records. The labels roster includes Andy McKee, Nicholas Barron, Antoine Dufour, The Reign of Kindo, Ross has done three tours with the Men of Steel guitar group, the last of which was mounted in 2006. The band is a mix of members including bluegrass maestro Dan Crary, acoustic guitarist Beppe Gambetta. Ross performs most of his concerts solo, but has regularly performed with Andy McKee, Brooke Miller. In 2010–2011 Ross was a Dalhousie University professor teaching history of guitar and techniques and he did not renew his contract for the following year due to high demand for concert appearances around the world. In 2012, Ross moved back to his hometown of Montreal, rosss music borrows from blues, jazz, folk and classical music creating a style that he describes as heavy wood. Ross names Bruce Cockburn, John Renbourn, Pierre Bensusan, Keith Jarrett, Egberto Gismonti, one of his songs, Michael, Michael, Michael, is dedicated to Michael Hedges, and Ross has performed straight covers of his compositions
17.
Doyle Dykes
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Doyle Dykes is an American country acoustic guitarist from Jacksonville, Florida. He is influenced by a variety of musical styles and musicians such as Chet Atkins. Some of his works and interpretations are Wabash Canonball, Country Fried Pickin, Tricky Pickin, Chet Stuff, Be Still, Amazing Grace. Dykes is a devout Christian and has served as a minister in a church in Florida. He was an endorser of Taylor Guitars and Rivera Sedona amplifiers. In 2013 he began endorsing the Guild Guitar Company, Dykes grew up in Jacksonville, Florida in a Christian community. His father is referred to as Bubba Dykes and he has a brother named Aubrey and his first guitar was a $30 Sears Roebuck Silvertone acoustic. Dykes claims a sailor named Barry Lackey was the most important influence in his development as a guitarist. Lackey attended his church one day, and using a thumbpick from his pocket, completely blew him away with his spider picking, playing just like Chet Atkins and Merle Travis, Doyles heroes. He later reunited with Lackey at a Taylor Guitars event in Detroit in 2002, Dykes early years as a guitarist took him around the world as he toured with The Stamps Quartet and later with Grand Ole Opry star Grandpa Jones. Dykes has since returned to the Grand Ole Opry for numerous performances, although a world-renowned guitarist, Dykes frequently still plays church venues with small audiences, stating, “I’ve been blessed with the opportunity to play music for people. Dykes was an endorser of Taylor Guitars. According to owner Bob Taylor, If I had to pick the artist who most represented the Taylor Guitars brand, Doyle has represented Taylor Guitars to more players for more years than anyone. The Doyle Dykes Signature Model Taylor guitar features a system by L. R. On December 23,2004, Dykes had an operation on a tumor in which the surgeon compressed his brain. The operation left him with a loss of balance and suffered from extreme headaches and nausea for several years afterwards. He has resided for many years in the Nashville area and is a friend of Duane Eddy. Dykes is a collector of old Western movies, including the films of John Wayne, Gene Autry, Roy Rogers
18.
James Taylor
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James Vernon Taylor is an American singer-songwriter and guitarist. A five-time Grammy Award winner, he was inducted into the Rock and he is one of the best-selling music artists of all time, having sold more than 100 million records worldwide. Taylor achieved his breakthrough in 1970 with the No.3 single Fire and Rain and had his first No.1 hit the year with Youve Got a Friend. His 1976 Greatest Hits album was certified Diamond and has sold 12 million US copies, following his 1977 album, JT, he has retained a large audience over the decades. Every album that he released from 1977 to 2007 sold over a million copies and his chart performance had a resurgence during the late 1990s and 2000s, when he recorded some of his most-awarded work. He achieved his first number one album in the US in 2015 with his recording Before This World. He is notable for his covers of other peoples songs, such as How Sweet It Is. James Vernon Taylor was born at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston on March 12,1948 and his father was from a well-off family of Southerners of Scottish ancestry. His mother, the former Gertrude Woodard, studied singing with Marie Sundelius at the New England Conservatory of Music and was an opera singer before the couples marriage in 1946. James was the second of five children, the others being Alex, Kate, Livingston and they built a house in the Morgan Creek area off the present Morgan Creek Road, which was sparsely populated. James would later say, Chapel Hill, the Piedmont, the hills, were tranquil, rural, beautiful. Thinking of the red soil, the seasons, the way things smelled down there, I feel as though my experience of coming of age there was more a matter of landscape, James attended public primary school in Chapel Hill. Isaacs career prospered, but he was away from home, on military service at Bethesda Naval Hospital in Maryland. Isaac Taylor later rose to dean of the UNC School of Medicine from 1964 to 1971. The Taylors spent summers on Marthas Vineyard beginning in 1953, Taylor first learned to play the cello as a child in North Carolina and switched to the guitar in 1960. He began attending Milton Academy, a boarding school in Massachusetts in fall 1961. Summering before then with his family on Marthas Vineyard, he met Danny Kortchmar, the two began listening to and playing blues and folk music together, and Kortchmar quickly realized that Taylors singing had a natural sense of phrasing, every syllable beautifully in time. I knew James had that thing, Taylor wrote his first song on guitar at 14, and he continued to learn the instrument effortlessly
19.
Chinese instruments
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This is an introduction to and list of traditional Chinese instruments. Chinese musical instruments were classified into 8 categories known as bayin. The eight categories are, silk, bamboo, wood, stone, metal, clay, gourd, there are other instruments which may not fit these classifications. This is one of the first musical classifications ever devised, silk instruments are mostly stringed instruments. Since ancient times the Chinese have used twisted silk for strings, wenqin 文琴-a combination of the erhu, konghou, sanxian and gusheng with 50 or more strings made of silk. Wenzhenqin 文枕琴-a zither with 25 or more strings either plucked or bowed Huobosi霍波斯- A rare 4 string acoustic guitar that has been electrified since today,1 playing string and 12 sympathetic strings. Shaoqin an erhu with an electric pickup, normally, there is no conductor in traditional Chinese music, nor any use of musical scores or tablature in performance. Music was generally learned aurally and memorized by the musician beforehand, as of the 20th century, musical scores have become more common, as has the use of conductors in larger orchestral-type ensembles. Chinese Music Society of North America Press, Chinese Music in the 20th Century. Chinese Music Society of North America Press, ISBN 1-880464-04-7 Yuan, Bingchang, and Jizeng Mao. Zhongguo Shao Shu Min Zu Yue Qi Zhi, Beijing, Xin Shi Jie Chu Ban She/Xin Hua Shu Dian Beijing Fa Xing Suo Fa Xing
20.
Guqin
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The guqin is a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family. It is sometimes referred to by the Chinese as the father of Chinese music or the instrument of the sages, the guqin is not to be confused with the guzheng, another Chinese long zither also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. The prefix gu- was later added for clarification, thus, the instrument is called guqin today. It can also be called qixian-qin, because Robert Hans van Guliks book about the qin is called The Lore of the Chinese Lute, the guqin is sometimes inaccurately called a lute. Other incorrect classifications, mainly from music compact discs, include harp or table-harp, the guqin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register. Its lowest pitch is two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello. Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, the use of glissando—sliding tones—gives it a sound reminiscent of a pizzicato cello, fretless double bass or a slide guitar. The qin is also capable of a lot of harmonics, of which 91 are most commonly used and indicated by the dotted positions, by tradition the qin originally had five strings, but ancient qin-like instruments with 10 or more strings have been found. The modern form has been standardized for about two millennia, legend has it that the qin, the most revered of all Chinese musical instruments, has a history of about 5,000 years. This legend states that the figures of Chinas pre-history — Fuxi, Shennong and Huang Di. Nearly all qin books and tablature collections published prior to the twentieth century state this as the origins of the qin. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, the exact origins of the qin is still a very much continuing subject of debate over the past few decades. It is the longest excerpt included on the disc, in 2003, guqin music was proclaimed as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. There are a number of ancient sources that discuss qin lore, qin theory, some of these books are available inserted into certain qinpu. The detail can be very concise to extremely detailed and thorough, some are mostly philosophical or artistic musings, others are scientific and technical. As with any other tradition, there are differences in ideals. Therefore, there exist different schools and societies which transmit these different ideas, many qin schools known as qin pai developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest, some schools have come and gone, and some have offshoots
21.
Pipa
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The pipa is a four-stringed Chinese musical instrument, belonging to the plucked category of instruments. Sometimes called the Chinese lute, the instrument has a wooden body with a varying number of frets ranging from 12 to 26. Another Chinese four-string plucked lute is the liuqin, which looks like a version of the pipa. The pipa is one of the most popular Chinese instruments and has played for almost two thousand years in China. Several related instruments in East and Southeast Asia are derived from the pipa, these include the Japanese biwa, the Vietnamese đàn tỳ bà, there are considerable confusion and disagreements about the origin of pipa. Some researchers such as Laurence Picken and John Myers suggest a non-Chinese origin, the earliest mention of pipa in Chinese texts appeared late in the Han Dynasty around the 2nd century AD. Liu Xi also stated that the instrument called pipa, though written differently in the earliest texts, originated from amongst the Hu people. An instrument called xiantao, made by stretching strings over a drum with handle, was said to have been played by labourers who constructed the Great Wall of China during the late Qin Dynasty. Yet another term used in ancient text was Qinhanzi, perhaps similar to Qin pipa, the pear-shaped pipa is likely to have been introduced to China from Central Asia, Gandhara, and/or India. Pear-shaped lutes have been depicted in Kusana sculptures from the 1st century AD, Pipa from the Han Dynasty is referred to as Han pipa. However, depictions of the pear-shaped pipas in China only appeared after the Han Dynasty during the Jin Dynasty in the late 4th to early 5th century, there are therefore differing opinions about the form of the Han Dynasty pipa. Apart from the pipa, other instruments introduced include the five-stringed, straight-necked, wuxian pipa. From the 3rd century onwards, through the Sui and Tang Dynasty, by the Song Dynasty the word pipa was used to refer exclusively to the four-stringed pear-shaped instrument. The pipa reached a height of popularity during the Tang Dynasty and it may be played as a solo instrument or as part of the imperial orchestra for use in productions such as daqu, an elaborate music and dance performance. During this time Persian and Kuchan performers and teachers were in demand in the capital, some delicately carved pipas with beautiful inlaid patterns date from this period, with particularly fine examples preserved in the Shosoin Museum in Japan. It had close association with Buddhism and often appeared in mural and sculptural representations of musicians in Buddhist contexts, for example, masses of pipa-playing Buddhist semi-deities are depicted in the wall paintings of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. Pipa fell from favour in the court during the Song Dynasty. During the Ming period, the plectrum was replaced by fingernails, the early instrument had 4 frets on the neck, but during the early Ming Dynasty extra bamboo frets were affixed onto the soundboard, increasing the range of the instrument
22.
Ruan
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The ruan is a traditional Chinese plucked string instrument. It is a lute with a neck, a circular body. Its four strings were made of silk but since the 20th century they have been made of steel. The modern ruan has 24 frets with 12 semitones on each string, the frets are commonly made of ivory or in recent times of metal mounted on wood. The metal frets produce a tone as compared to the ivory frets. It is sometimes called ruanqin, particularly in Taiwan, the instrument can be played using a plectrum similar to a guitar pick, or using a set of two or five acrylic nails that are affixed to the fingers with adhesive tape. Mainstream ruan players use plectrums, though there are schools which teach the fingernail technique. Pipa players who play ruan as a second instrument also use their fingernails. Plectrums produce a louder and more clear tone, while fingernails allow the performance of solo music. The instrument produces a mellow tone, in Chinese orchestras, only the zhongruan and daruan are commonly used, to fill in the tenor and bass section of the plucked string section. Occasionally the gaoyinruan is used to substitute the high-pitched liuqin, daruan soloists generally use the D-A-D-A tuning, as it allows for the easy performance of diatonic chords. Some orchestral players tune to C-G-D-A, which is exactly the same as cello tuning, the advantage of using C-G-D-A in orchestras is so that the daruan can easily double the cello part. A ruan ensemble consists of two or more members of the family, for instance, an ensemble of the xiaoruan, zhongruan and daruan. With a history of over 2,000 years, the ruan has gone by several names, in ancient China, the ruan was called Qin pipa. The name of pipa is associated with tantiao, a right hand techniques of playing a string instrument. Pi, which means tan, is the movement of plucking the string. Pa, which means tiao, is the movement of plucking the string. The present name of the Qin pipa, which is ruan, was not given until the Tang Dynasty, during the reign of Empress Wu Zetian, a copper instrument that looked like the Qin pipa was discovered in an ancient tomb in Sichuan
23.
Sarod
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The sarod is a stringed instrument of India, used mainly in Indian classical music. Along with the sitar, it is among the most popular, the sarod is known for a deep, weighty, introspective sound, in contrast with the sweet, overtone-rich texture of the sitar, with sympathetic strings that give it a resonant, reverberant quality. It is an instrument able to produce the continuous slides between notes known as meend, which are important in Indian music. The sarod is believed by some to have descended from the Afghan rubab, many scholars of Indian classical music believe that sarod is a combination of the ancient Chitra veena, the medieval Rabab and modern Sursingar. Some scholars even contend that an instrument may have existed about two thousand years ago in ancient India during the ages of the Gupta kings. In fact, a Gupta period coin depicts the great king Samudragupta playing a Veena, traces of similar Rabab style instruments can also be found in southern India, especially in the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, where it is known as the Swarbat. The folk Rabab, an instrument popular in north India, had a fingerboard, its strings were made of silk, cotton or gut. In history, reference is made to a Sharadiya Veena from which the name Sarod may have been derived. The word sarod roughly translates to sound or melody in Persian. Although the sarod has been referred to as a bass rubab its tonal bandwidth is actually greater than that of the rubab, especially in the middle. Lalmani Misra opines in his Bharatiya Sangeet Vadya that the sarod is a combination of the ancient chitra veena, there is also speculation that the oud may be the origin of the sarod. Among the many conflicting and contested histories of the sarod, there is one that attributes its invention to the ancestors of the present-day sarod maestro, Amjad Ali Khan. Amjad Ali Khan’s ancestor Mohammad Hashmi Khan Bangash, a musician and horse trader, came to India with the Afghan rubab in the mid-18th century, and became a court musician to the Maharajah of Rewa. It was his descendants, notably his grandson Ghulam Ali Khan Bangash, a musician in Gwalior. A parallel theory credits descendants of Madar Khan, Niyamatullah Khan in particular, the sarod in its present form dates back to approximately 1820, when it started gaining recognition as a serious instrument in Rewa, Shahjahanpur, Gwalior and Lucknow. In the 20th century, the sarod received some finishing touches from Allauddin Khan and this reflects the general state of Indian instrument-making in the present day. The design of the instrument depends on the school of playing, the design of this early model is generally credited to Niyamatullah Khan of the Lucknow Gharana as well as Ghulam Ali Khan of the Gwalior-Bangash Gharana. Among the contemporary sarod players, this design is kept intact by two streams of sarod playing
24.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
25.
Cosmetics
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Cosmetics, also known as make-up, are substances or products used to enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of the body. Many cosmetics are designed for use of applying to the face and they are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources, and some being synthetics. Common cosmetics include lipstick, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, rouge, skin cleansers and skin lotions, shampoo, hairstyling products, perfume and this broad definition includes any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category, Egyptian women and men also used makeup. They were very fond of eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colors including blue, red, Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick, about 5,000 years ago. They crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians extracted red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. Six thousand year old relics of the hollowed out tombs of the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs are discovered, according to one source, early major developments include, Kohl used by ancient Egypt as a protective of the eye kohl Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protective balm. Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rose water, vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century. The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics as the Ancient Romans did, Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9,30, where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described. One of the most popular traditional Chinese medicines is the fungus Tremella fuciformis, used as a beauty product by women in China, the fungus reportedly increases moisture retention in the skin and prevents senile degradation of micro-blood vessels in the skin, reducing wrinkles and smoothing fine lines. Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history, for example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared make-up improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors. During the sixteenth century, the attributes of the women who used make-up created a demand for the product among the upper class. As of 2016, the worlds largest cosmetics company is LOréal, the market was developed in the US during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II, during the 18th century, there was a high number of incidences of lead-poisoning because of the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder. This led to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, attacked tooth enamel, heavy use was known to lead to death. Concealer is commonly used by men, Cosmetics brands release products especially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them. Cosmetics are intended to be applied externally, a subset of cosmetics is called make-up, refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the users appearance
26.
BB cream
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BB cream stands for blemish balm, blemish base, beblesh balm, and in Western markets, beauty balm. Compared to a cream which would be just a cream with a very light tint. On top of that, it provides a sunblock. The CC cream came later on and describes a Color Correction cream, a CC cream has all the benefits of a BB cream but with the specific feature of homogenizing the coloration of the skin, by correcting the complexion concerns such as redness or dullness. What became BB cream was originally formulated in the 1960s in Germany by dermatologist Dr. Christine Schrammek to protect her patients skin after facial peels, BB creams come in a variety of different formulations. Because Korean companies focused initially on the Korean and East Asian markets, instead of offering multiple shades for different skin colors, most formulae are designed to oxidize to match the users skin tone. The skin-whitening properties of the cream as sold in the Asian market are an important element in its popularity, the coverage is often mineral-based, and is intended to both cover and treat blemishes such as acne, sun spots and age spots. It also has anti-wrinkle, anti-inflammatory and soothing effects, several contain hyaluronic acid and Vitamin C. BB creams make up 13 percent of the market in South Korea. Some Korean brands also offer BB creams for men, notable Korean brands include Etude House, Missha, Nature Republic, Skin Food, Sulhwasoo, and The Face Shop. Early arrivals included Boscia, Clinique, Dior, Estée Lauder, Garnier, Marcelle, Maybelline, Revlon, lab Series makes a BB cream for men. Certain BB creams have been tailored for Western markets, Estée Lauder, BB creams advertised as cruelty-free include Smashbox and The Body Shop. As of May 2013, Amore Pacific, which has as its subsidiaries Etude House and Laneige, has ended animal testing on all ingredients, products certified as cruelty-free may still contain animal products and may not be suitable for vegans. Miracle creams we can believe in, Hull Daily Mail, March 31,2012, beauty for dark skin, the BB cream debate, The Guardian, March 15,2013. Learn your BB CCs, Global Times, March 24,2013,10 Best BB Creams, Vogue, January 17,2013. The BB cream is here to stay, The Times of India, beautys all in one, The balm that claims to be a moisturiser, sun block, primer AND foundation, but does it work. The Daily Mail, June 14,2011, for it being introduced to South Korea and Japan in the 1980s, see Macleans, January 11,2012. For the rest, see Koh Young-aah, perfect your look in Korea, The Korea Herald/Naver News, September 2,2009
27.
Botulinum toxin
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Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxic protein produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum and related species. It prevents the release of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine from axon endings at the neuromuscular junction, infection with the bacterium causes the disease botulism. The toxin is used commercially in medicine, cosmetics. Botulinum is the most acutely lethal toxin known, with an estimated median lethal dose of 1. 3–2.1 ng/kg intravenously or intramuscularly. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration requires a warning stating that when locally administered the toxin may spread from the injection site to other areas of the body. The warning was the result of associated with its uses. There are seven types of toxin, named type A–G. Type A and B are capable of causing disease in humans, types C–G are less common, types E and F can cause disease in humans, while the other types cause disease in other animals. Botulinum toxin types A and B are used in medicine to treat muscle spasms. The commercial form is marketed under the brand name Botox, among others, botulinum toxin is used to treat a number of problems. Similarly, botulinum toxin is used to relax clenching of muscles, including those of the oesophagus, jaw, lower urinary tract and bladder and it may also be used for improper eye alignment. In cosmetic applications, botulinum toxin is considered safe and effective for reduction of facial wrinkles, injection of botulinum toxin into the muscles under facial wrinkles causes relaxation of those muscles, resulting in the smoothing of the overlying skin. Smoothing of wrinkles is usually three days after treatment and is maximally visible two weeks following injection. The treated muscles gradually regain function, and generally return to their former appearance three to four months after treatment, muscles can be treated repeatedly to maintain the smoothed appearance. Botulinum toxin is used to treat disorders of hyperactive nerves including excessive sweating, neuropathic pain. In addition to uses, botulinum toxin is being evaluated for use in treating chronic pain. While botulinum toxin is considered safe in a clinical setting. Most commonly, botulinum toxin can be injected into the muscle group or spread from the injection site
28.
Concealer
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A concealer or colour corrector is a type of cosmetic that is used to mask dark circles, age spots, large pores, and other small blemishes visible on the skin. It is similar to foundation, but thicker and used to hide different pigments by blending the imperfection into the skin tone. It is normally applied after primer, after foundation and used on the face, both concealer and foundation are typically used to make skin appear more uniform in color, and make a clean base for all the other cosmetics. These two types of cosmetics differ in that concealers tend to be heavily pigmented, though they are available in a wide range of opacity. It also comes in different forms from liquid to solid, also, foundation is usually applied to larger areas. The first commercially available concealer was Max Factors Erace, launched in 1954, concealer can be used alone or with foundations. Camouflage makeup is a much heavier pigmented form of concealer and it is used to cover serious skin discolorations such as birthmarks, scars and vitiligo. An example of a modern camouflage makeup is Colortration, which is a liquid cover makeup, concealer is available in a variety of shades, from lightest to deepest. When picking a concealer, people tend to one or two shades lighter than their skin tone to better hide their blemishes and dark circles under the eye. Some colors are intended to look like a skin tone. Concealers with yellow undertones are used to hide dark circles, green and blue can counteract red patches on the skin, such as those caused by pimples, broken veins, or rosacea. A purple-tinted concealer can make sallow complexions look brighter, colored concealers such as these are usually applied sparingly beneath a concealer or foundation that matches the wearers skin tone. Skin-toned concealers are not only the most common type, but are often sufficient on their own at hiding or blurring imperfections, baking, a make-up technique http, //bestconcealerreview. com/ http, //beauty. about. com/od/concealers/qt/concealershade. htm http, //www. quinceanerasmagazine. com/articles/what-is-concealer-used-for
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Cotton pad
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Cotton pads are pads made of cotton which are used for medical or cosmetic purposes. For medical purposes, cotton pads are used to stop or prevent bleeding from minor punctures such as injections or venipuncture and they may be secured in place with tape. Cotton pads are used in the application and the removal of makeup. Cotton pads are soft enough that they can be used to clean babies, Cotton balls have much of the same applications as cotton pads, and can be used interchangeably. Despite their name, most modern cotton balls and pads are not made out of cotton at all but are made out of cheaper, bleached synthetic fibers such as polyester. The specific phobia of cotton balls has been reported, buts its prevalence is unknown, use of cotton for sanitary purposes likely dates back to its domestication. There is evidence that toilet paper, made in part of cotton and/or other plant fibers such as hemp, was used at least as early as 589 AD in China, Cotton balls have been used for applying gold leaf since at least as far back as 1801. An artists manual from that year using a squirrels tail. In 1891 The Laredo Times ran a story about women who put cotton balls in their cheeks to make themselves appear less thin, an 1898 patent by Jerome B. Dillon for a new type of bandage used an antiseptic. In 1937, Joseph A. Voss invented a machine which unraveled rolls of cotton and cut them at a fixed interval into cotton pads, starting the widespread consumption of cotton balls and pads. Companies producing cotton balls took out ads in newspapers as early as 1948 to promote their uses to the public, in 1965, it was reported in the Opelousas Daily World that the sanitary cotton industry in the United States was worth US$60 million. In 1986, Johnson & Johnson, a manufacturer of cotton balls, by 2013 however, most consumer cotton balls and pads outside of specifically labeled 100% Cotton organic brands contained mostly polyester and only nominal amounts of cotton. The change could be due to increases of sales of cheaper store brands, in 1999, only 50. 1% of sold cotton balls were store branded, the top three cotton ball brands in the United States are Swisspers, Swiss Beauty, and Cotton Cloud
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Facial
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A facial is a family of skin care treatments for the face, including steam, exfoliation, extraction, creams, lotions, facial masks, peels, and massage. They are normally performed in beauty salons, but are also a spa treatment. They are used for skin health as well as for specific skin conditions. Types of facials include European facial, LED light therapy facials, some masks are designed to dry or solidify on the face, almost like plaster, others just remain wet. The perceived effects of a facial mask treatment include revitalizing, healing, or refreshing, masks are removed by either rinsing the face with water, wiping off with a damp cloth, or peeling off of the face. Duration for wearing a mask varies with the type of mask, the time can range from a few minutes to overnight. Those with sensitive skin are advised to first test out the mask on a portion of the skin, in order to check for any irritations. Some facial masks are not suited to frequent use, a glycolic mask can only be used once a month without the risk of burning the skin. Masks can be anywhere from drugstores to department stores, and can vary in consistency. Non-setting facial masks include warm oil and paraffin wax masks and these different forms are made to suit different skin types, and different skincare goals or needs. Clay and mud masks suit oily and some combination skin types, while cream-based masks tend to suit dry and sensitive skin types
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Foundation (cosmetics)
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Foundation is a skin coloured makeup applied to the face to create an even, uniform colour to the complexion, to cover flaws and, sometimes, to change the natural skintone. Some foundations also function as a moisturizer, sunscreen, astringent or base layer for more complex cosmetics, foundation applied to the body is generally referred to as body painting. The use of cosmetics to enhance complexion reaches back into antiquity, “Face painting” is mentioned in the Old Testament. In 200 B. C. ancient Greek women applied white lead powder and it was considered fashionable for Greek women to have a pale complexion. Roman women also favoured a pale complexion, wealthy Romans favoured white lead paste, which could lead to disfigurements and death. Men also wore makeup to lighten their skin tone and they used white lead powder, chalk, and creams to lighten their skin tone. The cream was made from fat, starch, and tin oxide. The fat was rendered from animal carcasses and heated to remove the color, tin oxide was made out of heating tin metal in open air. The animal fat provided a smooth texture, while the tin oxide provided color to the cream, in the 6th century, women would often bleed themselves to achieve a pale complexion. During the Italian Renaissance, many women applied water–soluble lead paint to their faces, throughout the 17th century and the Elizabethan era, women wore ceruse, a lethal mixture of vinegar and white lead. They also applied egg whites to their faces to create a shiny complexion, many men and women died from wearing lead-based make-up. In the 18th century, Louis XV made it fashionable for men to wear lead-based makeup, theatrical actors wore heavy white base. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Victorian women wore little or no makeup, queen Victoria abhorred make-up and deemed that it was only appropriate for prostitutes and loose women to wear it. It was only acceptable for actors or actresses to wear make-up, in the late 19th century, women would apply a whitening mixture made out of zinc oxide, mercury, lead, nitrate of silver, and acids. Some women stayed out of the sun, ate chalk, in the Edwardian era, women wore base and did not bleach their skin as much as they did in previous centuries. Modern foundation can trace its roots to Carl Baudin of the Leipziger Stadt theatre in Germany and he is the inventor of greasepaint. He wanted to conceal the joint between his wig and forehead, so he developed a flesh-coloured paste made of zinc, ochre and this formulation was so popular with other actors that Baudin began producing it commercially, and, as such, gave birth to the first theatrical makeup. This would be the standard for theatrical make-up until 1914, when makeup artist Max Factor created Flexible Greasepaint that was more reflective under the lighting on movie sets
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Moisturizer
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Moisturizers or emollients are complex mixtures of chemical agents specially designed to make the external layers of the skin softer and more pliable. They increase the skins hydration by reducing evaporation, naturally occurring skin lipids and sterols, as well as artificial or natural oils, humectants, emollients, lubricants, etc. may be part of the composition of commercial skin moisturizers. They usually are available as products for cosmetic and therapeutic uses. Moisturizers prevent and treat dry skin, protect sensitive skin, improve skin tone and texture, moisturizers can be used to prevent the skin from becoming too dry or oily, such as with light, non-greasy water-based moisturizers. Such moisturizers often contain lightweight oils, such as alcohol, or silicone-derived ingredients. For treating skin dryness, the most appropriate moisturizers are heavier, oil-based moisturizers that contain ingredients such as antioxidants, for very dry, cracked skin, petrolatum-based products are preferable, as they are longer-lasting than creams and are more effective in preventing water evaporation. For oily skin, moisturizers can still be useful after activities causing skin dryness, such as skin care products. For oily skin, water-based moisturizers that are specifically non-comedogenic are preferable, appropriate moisturizers to keep aging skin soft and well hydrated are oil-based ones that contain petrolatum as the base, along with antioxidants or alpha hydroxy acids against wrinkles. In eczema it is generally best to match thicker ointments to the driest, flakiest skin, light emollients such as aqueous cream may not have any effect on severely dry skin. Some common emollients for the relief of eczema include Oilatum, Balneum, Medi Oil, Diprobase, bath oils, sebexol, Epaderm ointment, Exederm and Eucerin lotion or cream may also be helpful with itching. Lotions or creams may be applied directly to the skin after bathing to lock in moisture, moisturizing gloves can be worn while sleeping. Generally, twice-daily applications of emollients work best, while creams are easy to apply, they are quickly absorbed into the skin, and therefore need frequent reapplication. Ointments, with water content, stay on the skin for longer and need fewer applications. Recently, ceramides, which are the major constituent of the stratum corneum, have been used in the treatment of eczema. They are often one of the ingredients of modern moisturizers and these lipids were also successfully produced synthetically in the laboratory. Emollients are best applied immediately after bathing when the skin is well hydrated, three methods are used to moisturize skin, Occlusives, These work by forming a thin film on the surface of the skin to prevent loss of moisture. Humectants, These attract water vapor from the air to moisturize the skin, restoration of deficient materials, These are more complex and try to restore natural moisturizing factors on the skin, such as amino-lipids. Four popular moisturizers were tested, providing the same result and it is not yet known if the same applies to humans
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Permanent makeup
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It is also used to restore or enhance the breasts areola, such as after breast surgery. Permanent makeup dates back at least to the start of the 20th century, of injecting vegetable dyes under the top layer of the skin. Permanent makeup results in enhanced features of the face—definition is rendered to eyebrows, eyes, results can imitate topically applied cosmetics or can be quite unnoticeable, depending upon the design, color value and amount of pigment used. At first, permanent makeup results may look darker and this is due to colour remaining in the outermost epidermal layers of skin at the start. Colour softens within a few days during the process as the upper layers of epidermis slough and are replaced by new epidermal cells. The best possible colour results can perform for many years or may begin to fade over time, the amount of time required for this, depends per person. While permanent makeup pigment remains in the dermis its beauty-span may be influenced by several possible factors and these can be environmental, procedural and/or individual factors. The amount and colour of pigment deposit at the level can affect the length of time that permanent makeup looks its best. Very natural-looking applications are likely to require a touch-up before more dramatic ones for this reason, individual influences include lifestyles that find an individual in the sun regularly such as with gardening or swimming. Skin tones are a factor in colour value changes over time, there are cases of undesired results. The four most common complaints are too dark, wrong colour, uneven, a skilled, experienced, permanent makeup professional is able to adjust the colour and evenness of permanent makeup results in most cases. A design that is too large presents a challenge, however. Costly pigment lightening techniques and/or removal may be the only solutions, as with tattoos, permanent makeup can be difficult to remove. Common techniques used for this are laser resurfacing, dermabrasion, camouflaging—adding a new pigment which counteracts the tattoo color and attempts to emulate normal skin color is considered a poor choice by professionals. Removal is more painful and laborious than the tattooing itself, as with tattoos, permanent makeup may have complications, such as allergies to the pigments, formation of scars, granulomas and keloids, skin cracking, peeling, blistering and local infection. The use of unsterilized tattooing instruments may infect the patient with serious diseases such as HIV, removal problems may also ensue, due to patient dissatisfaction or regret, and they may be particularly difficult to remove in places such as eyelids and lips without leaving permanent sequelae. Compliance with standard precautions and a code of safe practice should be insisted upon by a person considering undergoing a cosmetic tattoo procedure. The causes of a change of colour after cosmetic tattooing are both complex and varied and this client had her eyebrows and top eyeliner permanently tattooed
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Face powder
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Face powder is a cosmetic powder applied to the face to set a foundation after application. It can also be reapplied throughout the day to minimize shininess caused by oily skin, there is translucent sheer powder, and there is pigmented powder. Certain types of pigmented facial powders are meant be worn alone with no base foundation, powder tones the face and gives an even appearance. Besides toning the face, some powders with sunscreen can also reduce damage from sunlight. It comes packaged either as a compact or as loose powder and it can be applied with a sponge, brush, or powder puff. Uniform distribution over the face is achieved more easily when a powder is applied. Because of the variation among human skin tones, there is a corresponding variety of colors of face powder. There are also types of powder. A common powder used in beauty products is talc, which is absorbent and it can also be applied generously to the higher points of the face to brighten, colour correct and highlight, through a technique termed baking. This technique also helps to increase the coverage of the make-up whilst helping the makeup stay in place for longer, face powder should be carefully chosen to match the skin tone in order to show the best results
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Rouge (cosmetics)
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Rouge, also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic typically used by women to redden the cheeks so as to provide a more youthful appearance, and to emphasize the cheekbones. Rouge was used as early as in ancient Egypt and it was also applied on the lips, the way lipstick would be used today. In some times and places, such as the English Regency, in Britain in the late Victorian Age, wearing visible makeup such as rouge was associated with low morals. Ladies resorted to pinching their cheeks to make them appear red instead, various substances have been used as rouge. In ancient Greece for example, crushed mulberries were favoured, while red beet juice, crushed strawberries, modern rouge generally consists of a red-coloured talcum-based powder that is applied with a brush to the cheek. The colouring is usually either the substance of safflor, or a solution of carmine in ammonium hydroxide, a cream-based variant of rouge is schnouda, a colourless mixture of Alloxan with cold cream, which also colours the skin red. The majority of blushes found in drugstore or high-end stores are in the form of pressed-powder, the blush lies flat on the pan, unlike baked blushes. These are best suited for people with oily skin, using a pressed-powder blush for people with dry skin is not recommended because the powder might cling to dry patches of their skin. Pressed-powder blushes usually last long on the skin, are easily blended and are very buildable, for these reasons, pressed powder blushes are usually used by makeup artists during special occasions like weddings or events that project harsh lighting. Pressed-powder blushes come in many finishes, including matte, shimmer, cream blushes usually come in a short, round container, much like a lip balm or solid perfume. These blushes are best suited for people with dry skin, cream blush is typically blended using fingers or a stippling brush. Since the nature of the blush is a cream, it can be layered with a blush to improve longevity of use. Mineral baked blush can be differentiated from pressed-powder blushes mainly because of its appearance on the pan and it is luminous, has shimmery veins and shaped like a dome. Mineral baked blushes are made from a liquid that is baked into solid form and this means that there is less talc and more pigment. Because it is originally liquid form, spraying the pan with water can make the blush creamy, however, it does change back to its solid form when it dries. Mineral baked powder is very sheer when applied, but is buildable and can be the choice for someone who is going for a more flushed. Stippling brush, suitable for softening out harsh lines and blend together blush, bronzer and it is most suitable for applying cream blush. Fluffy brush, suitable for dispersing the colour of the blush, flat brush, The type of brush included with many, especially drugstore, blushes
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Skin whitening
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Skin whitening is the practice of using substances, mixtures, or physical treatments to lighten skin color. Skin whitening treatments work by reducing the content of melanin of the skin, many agents have been shown to be effective in skin whitening, some have beneficial side effects, some are a significant risk to health. Specific zones of abnormally high such as lentigo spots, moles. In cases of vitiligo, unaffected skin may be lightened to achieve a uniform appearance. Thus, the development and discovery of melanogenesis inhibitors illustrates many of the used in drug design. Some of the most potent competitive reversible tyrosinase inhibitors are synthetic compounds with a potency hundreds of times that of kojic acid, for a review of mechanism of action of skin whitening agents, see Chang or Ebanks, Wickett, Boissy. Melanin is the substance responsible for the color of the skin. Melanin is class of dark polymers generated by the body through the process of melanogenesis, the variation of skin color among individuals is mostly because of variation of the content of melanin in the skin. Skin with little or no melanin is almost white, other factors influence skin color in a lesser degree, including the amount of blood in blood vessels, skin thickness and content of carotenoids in skin. Melanin in synthesized in melanosomes which are produced in melanocytes. Melanocytes are cells dedicated to this function that are present in the skin, hair follicles, the synthesis of melanin involves a chain of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions and non-enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The main precursor to melanin is L-tyrosine, L-tyrosine is taken by the melanocytes from the intercellular medium, then transported to the melanosomes. L-tyrosine is also synthesized within the melanocytes from L-phenylalanine by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase.1164 Melanosomes are transferred to keratinocytes, most of the melanin of skin is found in keratinocytes. Additionally, melanocytes interact with keratinocytes through chemical signaling, see § Preventing the transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes. Skin whitening agents work by reducing the presence of melanin in the skin, to accomplish this, there are several possible mechanism of actions, Inhibition of the activity of tyrosinase, The catalytic action of tyrosinase is inhibited by the skin whitening agent. Inhibition of the expression or activation of tyrosinase, The antimelanogenic agent causes that less tyrosinase is generated or that tyrosinase is not activated to its functional form, scavenging of the intermediate products of melanin synthesis. Preventing the transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes, many tyrosinase inhibitors have been discovered or developed. Very many inhibitors of tyrosinase are known, most are of the reversible type, for a review of tyrosinase inhibitors see Chang
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Sindoor
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Sindoor or sindooram is a traditional vermilion red or orange-red colored cosmetic powder from India, usually worn by married women along the parting of their hair. Use of sindoor denotes that a woman is married in Hindu communities, the main component of traditional sindooram is usually turmeric. Commercial sindoor contains synthetic dyes and chemicals some of which not manufactured to proper standards may contain mercury, Sindoor is traditionally applied at the beginning or completely along the parting-line of a woman’s hair or as a dot on the forehead or bottu in Telugu. Sindoor is the mark of a woman in Hinduism. Single women wear the dot in different colors but do not apply sindoor in their parting of the hairline, widows do not wear sindoor, signifying that their husband is no longer alive. The sindoor is first applied to the woman by her husband on the day of her wedding, after this, she applies it herself every day. A similar coloring ritual is known as pasupu kumkuma, named after another name for sindoor, the wiping off of the sindoor is very significant for a widow. There are many associated with this practice. The most common is when a mother-in-law or older sister-in-law wipes off the sindoor when a woman becomes a widow, the widow will break her bangles and remove her bottu as well, and many will also remove their nose ring and toe rings. The parting of hair is symbolic of a river of red blood full of life, when the sindoor is removed then the river becomes barren, dry and empty. This custom is prevalent in areas and is followed by all castes. The red sindoor is significant for the woman as she is full of colour. When she becomes a widow she adopts plain white dress and removes all colour from her including the bright red sindoor. Methods and styles of applying the sindoor vary from personal choice to regional customs, many new brides will fill the whole hair line with sindoor, while other married women may just apply a red spot at the end of the hair line and forehead. Recently, a shape on the forehead pointing towards the nose. Female figurines excavated at Mehrgarh, Baluchistan seem to imply application of sindoor to the partition of womens hair in Harappa culture, according to the legends, Radha the consort of Lord Krishna turned the kumkum into a flame-like design on her forehead. In the famous epic Mahabharata, Draupadi the wife of the Pandavas wipes off her sindoor in disgust, use of sindoor is frequently mentioned in the puranas Lalitha Sahasranama and Soundarya Lahari. Adi Shankaracharya writes in Soundarya Lahari, Jain women apply the sindoor, Jain nuns are forbidden to apply this to their hair line or foreheads
38.
Venetian ceruse
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Venetian Ceruse, also known as Spirits of Saturn, was a 16th-century cosmetic used as a skin whitener. It was in demand and considered the best available at that time. The cosmetics use of lead as a pigment caused lead poisoning, damaging the skin. Usage over an extended period could cause death, elizabeth I of England is popularly imagined to have been a notable user, although critics Anna Riehl and Kate Maltby have argued that little historical evidence exists to support this claim. Ceruse was what killed the Countess of Coventry, aged 27, Ceruse caused blemishes, which she applied more makeup on, which in turn caused more blemishes. Eventually she died of lead poisoning
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Lipstick
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Lipstick is a cosmetic product containing pigments, oils, waxes, and emollients that apply color, texture, and protection to the lips. Many colors and types of lipstick exist, as with most other types of makeup, lipstick is typically, but not exclusively, worn by women. Some lipsticks are also lip balms, to add color and hydration, ancient Americas oldest manual from the 13th century The Grolier Codex shows two Mayan woman wearing lipstick. Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick and they crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips and around the eyes. Also Egyptians like Cleopatra crushed bugs to create a colour of red on their lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians wore lipstick to show social status rather than gender and they extracted the red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, but this dye resulted in serious illness. Lipsticks with shimmering effects were made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. In Australia, Aboriginal girls would paint their mouths red with ocher for puberty rituals, lip colouring started to gain some popularity in 16th-century England. During the time of Queen Elizabeth I bright red lips and a white face became fashionable. At that time, lipstick was made from a blend of beeswax, only upper class women and male actors wore makeup. It was considered brazen and uncouth to wear makeup, in the 1850s, reports were being published warning women of the dangers of using lead and vermilion in cosmetics applied to the face. By the end of the 19th century, Guerlain, a French cosmetic company, the first commercial lipstick had been invented in 1884, by perfumers in Paris, France. It was covered in paper and made from deer tallow, castor oil. Prior to this, lipstick had been created at home, complete acceptance of the undisguised use of cosmetics in England appears to have arrived for the fashionable Londoner at least by 1921. In the 19th century, lipstick was colored with carmine dye, Carmine dye was extracted from cochineal, scale insects native to Mexico and Central America which live on cactus plants. Cochineal insects produce carminic acid to deter predation by other insects, carminic acid, which forms 17% to 24% of the weight of the dried insects, can be extracted from the insects body and eggs. Mixed with aluminum or calcium salts it makes carmine dye and this lipstick did not come in a tube, it was applied with a brush. Carmine dye was expensive and the look of carmine colored lipstick was considered unnatural and theatrical, only actors and actresses could get away with wearing lipstick
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Lip balm
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Lip balm or lip salve is a wax-like substance applied topically to the lips of the mouth to moisturize and relieve chapped or dry lips, angular cheilitis, stomatitis, or cold sores. Lip balm often contains beeswax or carnauba wax, camphor, cetyl alcohol, lanolin, paraffin, some varieties contain dyes, flavor, fragrance, phenol, salicylic acid, and sunscreens. The primary purpose of lip balm is to provide a layer on the lip surface to seal moisture in lips. Dry air, cold temperatures, and wind all have an effect on skin by drawing moisture away from the body. Lips are particularly vulnerable because the skin is so thin, lip balm can be applied where a finger is used to apply it to the lips, or in a lipstick-style tube from which it can be applied directly. Lip balm was first marketed in the 1880s by Charles Browne Fleet, child observed that, Those who are troubled with cracked lips have found this remedy successful when others have failed. It is one of those sorts of cures, which are likely to be laughed at. Lip balm manufacturers sometimes state in their FAQs that there is nothing addictive in their products or that all ingredients are listed and approved by the FDA. Snopes found the claim there are substances in Carmex that are irritants necessitating reapplication, such as ground glass
41.
Lip gloss
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Lip gloss is a product used primarily to give lips a glossy lustre, and sometimes to add a subtle color. It is distributed as a liquid or a solid or lipstick. The product is available in ranges of opacity from translucent to solid, and can have various frosted, glittery, glossy, like lipstick, lip gloss comes in a variety of forms and may be applied in different ways. It can be contained in a cylinder and applied with a rounded or sloped applicator wand or with a built in lip brush. It can come in a small, soft, squeezable plastic tube designed to be passed over the lips or applied with a fingertip or lip brush, solid or semisolid glosses come in boxes or tubes and sometimes blur the distinction between lip gloss and lip balm. Basic lip gloss, adds basic shine to your lips without color, colored lip gloss, adds a combination of color and shine. Glittery lip gloss, can be with or without color, but has a glitter base, new types of plumping lip gloss contain ingredients that make the lips appear softer and plumper. These are a cheap, easy, and usually harmless alternative if compared to collagen, Restylane, Juvederm and they are not as effective, however because the effects are temporary. Lip gloss is used when a person wants to have some color on their lips. Lip gloss is often used as an introduction to makeup. It is often used by preteen and young girls who want to wear some makeup. Lip gloss is also common for women who dont like to wear makeup but have to attend a formal occasion. Lip gloss can be applied on top of lipstick to increase the gloss of a color, or to add depth as in the case of glitter gloss, like lipstick, lip gloss is a mixture of waxes, oils, and pigments. However, lip gloss contains less pigments, and those used are often pale in color or diluted, furthermore, the free-flowing nature of the product requires less wax. The principal components are lanolin, which feels good on the due to its moisturizing qualities and imparts gloss. Lip gloss was invented by Max Factor in 1930 and he wanted to create a lip product that would make lips shiny and glossy for films. Factor created makeup for the movie industry and he developed makeup specifically for actresses starring in black and white films. Women were inspired by movie actresses to embrace this makeup trend and this led to the popularity of lip gloss
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