1.
Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin
–
It is situated in Dublin, Ireland, and is the elder of the capital citys two medieval cathedrals, the other being St Patricks Cathedral. Christ Church is officially claimed as the seat of both the Church of Ireland and Roman Catholic archbishops of Dublin, in law, and in fact it has been the cathedral of only the Church of Irelands Archbishop of Dublin, since the English Reformation. Though nominally claimed as his cathedral, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Dublin uses St Marys in Marlborough Street in Dublin as his pro-cathedral, Christ Church Cathedral is located in the former heart of medieval Dublin, next to Wood Quay at the end of Lord Edward Street. As a result, the cathedral now appears dominant in isolation behind new civil offices along the quays, in recent years the Cathedral has offered a great set for Medieval Dramas such as the CWs hit drama Reign. The Main Building of Christchurch Cathedral was used to film pivotal moments in the dramas pilot, Christ Church is the only one of the three cathedrals or acting cathedrals which can be seen clearly from the River Liffey. The cathedral was founded sometime after 1028 when King Sitric Silkenbeard. The church was built on the ground overlooking the Viking settlement at Wood Quay and Sitric gave the lands of Baldoyle, Raheny. The cathedral was staffed by secular clergy. The second Bishop of Dublin introduced the Benedictines, Henry II attended the Christmas service at the cathedral in 1171. According to the cathedral guidebook this was the first time Henry received Holy Communion following the murder of Thomas Beckett by Henrys knights in Canterbury, Edmund and St. Mary and St. Lô. A chapel to St Laurence OToole was added in the 13th century and its design was inspired by the architecture of the English western school of Gothic, and its wrought stones- of a Somersetshire oolite- were sculpted and laid by craftsmen from the same area. In the 1350s a major extension was undertaken by John de St Paul, by 1358, the nave of the cathedral was partly in use for secular purposes and a long quire was added, extending the old choir area by around 10 metres. St Paul also installed an organ and his works were destroyed by the major rebuilding project in the 1870s. In 1480 the wealthy judge William Sutton bequeathed all his lands, the cathedral was the location of the purported coronation, in 1487, of Lambert Simnel, a boy pretender who sought unsuccessfully to depose Henry VII of England, as King Edward VI. In 1493, the school was founded. In 1539, King Henry VIII converted the priory to a cathedral with a dean and chapter and his immediate successor, Edward VI of England, in 1547, provided funds for an increase in cathedral staffing and annual royal funding for the choir school. King Edward VI formally suppressed St Patricks Cathedral and, on 25 April 1547, its silver, jewels and ornaments were transferred to the dean, belonging to that cathedral and which had been in the possession of the dean and chapter of Christ Church. Queen Mary I of England, and later James I of England, meanwhile, in 1551, divine service was sung for the first time in Ireland in English instead of Latin
Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin
–
The Cathedral Church of the Holy Trinity, commonly called Christ Church, Dublin
Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin
–
Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, Ireland, 1914.
Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin
–
The cathedral's night-time silhouette as it appeared in the 1990s
Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin
–
Interior of Christ Church Cathedral.
2.
Classical music
–
Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions of Western music, including both liturgical and secular music. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period, Western staff notation is used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches, tempo, meter and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for such as improvisation and ad libitum ornamentation. The term classical music did not appear until the early 19th century, the earliest reference to classical music recorded by the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1836. This score typically determines details of rhythm, pitch, and, the written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them, J. S. The use of written notation also preserves a record of the works, Musical notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto with many of the features of the music being reproduced. That said, the score does not provide complete and exact instructions on how to perform a historical work, even if the tempo is written with an Italian instruction, we do not know exactly how fast the piece should be played. Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations, during the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles. During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto, during the Romantic era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano. The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century and they consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a concert band, together with several other solo instruments. The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for music and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass and it generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not have a string section. However, many bands use a double bass. Many of the used to perform medieval music still exist. Medieval instruments included the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ, fiddle, Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note, or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of instruments into haut, during the earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line. Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies, began to develop during the medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th
Classical music
Classical music
–
Nineteenth-century composer and pianist
Clara Schumann is one of only a few female composers mentioned in the Concise Oxford History of Music.
Classical music
–
The Dublin Philharmonic Orchestra performs
Tchaikovsky 's
Fourth Symphony.
Classical music
–
A youth
concert band in performance.
3.
Religious music
–
Religious music is music performed or composed for religious use or through religious influence. Ritual music is music, sacred or not, performed or composed for or as ritual, according to some scholars, the earliest music in the Christian Church came from Jewish worship music, with some additional Syriac influence. It is believed that this music lay somewhere between singing and speaking, or speaking with an understood ritual cadence, however, there is another opinion that the roots of early Christian music come from the early ascetic monastic orders. Hindu music is created for or influenced by Hinduism. The earliest synagogal music was based on the system as that in the Temple in Jerusalem. Shintō music is music for Shinto which is the native religion of Japan. Buddhist music is music for Buddhist ceremony or meditation, Zoroastrian music is a genre of music that accompanies Zoroastrian traditions and rites. Church music Gospel music Liturgical music Music and politics Secular music Spiritual World Sacred Music Festival Conomos, early Christian and Byzantine Music, History and Performance. Reprinted Archdiocesan School of Byzantine Music, Greek Orthodox Archdioces of America,15 November 2012, from Age to Age, How Christians Have Celebrated the Eucharist. The Oxford History of Western Music, fertonani, Cesare, Raffaele Mellace, Cesare Toscani, eds. La Musica Sacra nella Milano del Settecento, Gregorian chant, liturgical music The Gregorian chant of the abbeys of Provence in France New England religious music Hibbas Web Anthology of Traditional Jewish Music Religious Music - Greek
Religious music
–
David playing his harp (unknown artist, c. 960). The book of
Psalms, included in the Jewish and Christian scriptures, and said to have been written largely by David, is one of the earliest collections of sacred music, and still plays a role in the liturgies of the two religions.
4.
Gregorian chant
–
Gregorian chant is the central tradition of Western plainchant, a form of monophonic, unaccompanied sacred song of the western Roman Catholic Church. Gregorian chant developed mainly in western and central Europe during the 9th and 10th centuries, although popular legend credits Pope St. Gregory the Great with inventing Gregorian chant, scholars believe that it arose from a later Carolingian synthesis of Roman chant and Gallican chant. Gregorian chants were organized initially into four, then eight, the scale patterns are organized against a background pattern formed of conjunct and disjunct tetrachords, producing a larger pitch system called the gamut. The chants can be sung by using six-note patterns called hexachords, Gregorian melodies are traditionally written using neumes, an early form of musical notation from which the modern four-line and five-line staff developed. Multi-voice elaborations of Gregorian chant, known as organum, were a stage in the development of Western polyphony. Gregorian chant was sung by choirs of men and boys in churches. It is the music of the Roman Rite, performed in the Mass, although Gregorian chant is no longer obligatory, the Roman Catholic Church still officially considers it the music most suitable for worship. During the 20th century, Gregorian chant underwent a musicological and popular resurgence, singing has been part of the Christian liturgy since the earliest days of the Church. Until the mid-1990s, it was accepted that the psalmody of ancient Jewish worship significantly influenced and contributed to early Christian ritual. However, early Christian rites did incorporate elements of Jewish worship that survived in later chant tradition, canonical hours have their roots in Jewish prayer hours. Amen and alleluia come from Hebrew, and the threefold sanctus derives from the threefold kadosh of the Kedushah, the New Testament mentions singing hymns during the Last Supper, When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives Matthew 26.30. The 3rd-century Greek Oxyrhynchus hymn survived with musical notation, but the connection between this hymn and the plainchant tradition is uncertain, musical elements that would later be used in the Roman Rite began to appear in the 3rd century. The Apostolic Tradition, attributed to the theologian Hippolytus, attests the singing of Hallel psalms with Alleluia as the refrain in early Christian agape feasts, around 375, antiphonal psalmody became popular in the Christian East, in 386, St. Ambrose introduced this practice to the West. In the fifth century, a school, the Schola Cantorum, was founded at Rome to provide training in church musicianship. Scholars are still debating how plainchant developed during the 5th through the 9th centuries, around 410, St. Augustine described the responsorial singing of a Gradual psalm at Mass. 520, Benedict of Nursia established what is called the rule of St. Benedict, around 678, Roman chant was taught at York. Distinctive regional traditions of Western plainchant arose during this period, notably in the British Isles, Spain, Gaul and these traditions may have evolved from a hypothetical year-round repertory of 5th-century plainchant after the western Roman Empire collapsed. John the Deacon, biographer of Pope Gregory I, modestly claimed that the saint compiled a patchwork antiphonary, unsurprisingly and he reorganized the Schola Cantorum and established a more uniform standard in church services, gathering chants from among the regional traditions as widely as he could manage
Gregorian chant
–
The
Introit Gaudeamus omnes, scripted in square notation in the 14th–15th century Graduale Aboense, honors
Henry, patron saint of Finland
Gregorian chant
–
A dove representing the
Holy Spirit sitting on
Pope Gregory I 's shoulder symbolizes Divine Inspiration
Gregorian chant
–
Two plainchants from the Mass Proper, written in adiastematic neumes, from St. Gallen, MS 359
Gregorian chant
–
Antiphonary with Gregorian chants
5.
Paide
–
Paide, is the capital of Järva County, Estonia. Paides German name Weißenstein means white stone and this name was derived from the limestone used for the construction of Paide Castle. A Latin translation of that, Albus Lapis, has also been used, the Estonian name Paide was first recorded in 1564 as Paida and is thought to derive from the word paas, pae limestone. A castle was built in Paide by order of Konrad von Mandern, master of the Livonian Order and it was from the beginning constructed around the central tower or keep, locally known as Tall Hermann tower or Vallitorn. With its six storeys, the tower has always been the core of the castle complex, the fortress was strengthened during the 14th and 15th centuries, when the surrounding walls were enlarged and towers added. It was also modernised to be able to meet the new threat of firearms, during the 16th century, the castle was again modified through the addition of outer bastions. During the Livonian War, the castle was besieged by Russian troops. After that, the castle changed several times. It was also involved in the fighting during the 1600-1611 Polish-Swedish War, in 1895-1897 restoration work was carried out on the central tower and some other parts of the castle. However, in 1941, during World War II, retreating Soviet troops blew up the tower and it was not repaired until after Estonia regained its independence. Today the restored central tower houses a part of Järva County museum, Paide is home to Paide linnastaadion, the home ground of Meistriliiga football team Paide Linnameeskond
Paide
–
Paide castle
Paide
–
Coat of arms
Paide
–
Paide castle at night
Paide
–
Paide Church
6.
Rakvere
–
Rakvere is a town in northern Estonia and the county seat of Lääne-Viru County,20 km south of the Gulf of Finland. The earliest signs of settlement dating back to the 3rd–5th centuries AD have been found on the present theatre hill. Probably to protect that settlement, a stronghold was built on the present Vallimägi. When it changed owners in 1220, the Danes started to erect buildings from stone, a settlement called Tarvanpea was first mentioned in the Chronicle of Henry of Livonia in 1226. The new Danish stronghold was called Wesenbergh in Middle Low German for the first time in 1252, the battle of Wesenberg between the Danish and German knights and Russians occurred nearby on 18 February 1268. On 12 June 1302, Rakvere was granted Lübeck rights, when the Danish king sold Danish Estonia to the Livonian Order in 1346, a large castle was built on top of the previous stronghold. The Ordensburg was protected by towers and courtyards, the building of a Franciscan monastery was started in 1508. During the Livonian War from 1558 to 1581, Rakvere was under Russian rule and was heavily damaged, sweden, after the disastrous Siege of Wesenberg, captured the town in 1581 before it passed to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1602, Poles destroyed the castle in 1605. After being returned to Swedish control in that year, a mansion was built on the ruins of the monastery, during the Great Northern War, Rakvere was burned down in 1703. During the first period of independence, many prominent buildings were built, such as the building, the old bank building. In 1930, the stadium was opened. Local newspapers started to emerge, including the county paper Virumaa Teataja, the idea of Rakveres own professional theatre started to take shape as well. The construction of the house was completed at the end of the 1930s. The theatre survived World War II and is active to this day, Rakvere also has a professional theatre and it is believed that it is the smallest town in Europe which has a professional theatre. Its roots date back to 1882 and it is still active, the theatre of Rakvere has given Estonia many famous actors and actresses such as Volli Käro, Üllar Saaremäe, Indrek Saar, Ülle Lichtfeldt, Aarne Üksküla etc. It also holds the biannual event Baltoscandal, which gathers avant-garde plays, Rakvere is also known now for its Tarvas statue of an aurochs, which was made by the Estonian sculptor Tauno Kangro. It is thought to be the largest animal statue in the Baltic countries and it is situated on the edge of Vallimägi hill and was erected for the towns 700th birthday. Along with the block it sits on, the statue is seven meters long and four meters high
Rakvere
–
Rakvere castle
Rakvere
–
Flag
Rakvere
–
Tarvas statue
Rakvere
–
Rakvere central square
7.
Oboe
–
Oboes /ˈoʊboʊ/ OH-boh are a family of double reed woodwind musical instruments. The most common oboe plays in the treble or soprano range, oboes are usually made of wood, but there are also oboes made of synthetic materials. A soprano oboe measures roughly 65 cm long, with keys, a conical bore. Sound is produced by blowing into the reed and vibrating a column of air, the distinctive oboe tone is versatile, and has been described as bright. When the term oboe is used alone, it is taken to mean the standard treble instrument rather than other instruments of the family. In English, prior to 1770, the instrument was called a hautbois, hoboy. The spelling of oboe was adopted into English c.1770 from the Italian oboè, a musician who plays the oboe is called an oboist or simply an oboe player. In comparison to other woodwind instruments, the treble oboe is sometimes referred to as having a clear. The Sprightly Companion, a book published by Henry Playford in 1695, describes the oboe as Majestical and Stately. Humorously, the sound of the oboe is described in the play Angels in America as like that of a if the duck were a songbird. The rich timbre of the oboe is derived from its conical bore, as a result, oboes are readily audible over other instruments in large ensembles. The highest note of the oboe is a lower than the nominally highest note of the B♭ clarinet. Since the clarinet has a range of notes, the lowest note of the B♭ clarinet is significantly deeper than the lowest note of the oboe. Music for the oboe is written in concert pitch. Orchestras normally tune to a concert A played by the oboe, according to the League of American Orchestras, this is done because the pitch of the oboe is secure and its penetrating sound makes it ideal for tuning purposes. The pitch of the oboe is affected by the way in which the reed is made. The reed has a significant effect on the sound of the instrument, Variations in cane and other construction materials, the age of the reed, and differences in scrape and length all affect the pitch of the instrument. German and French reeds, for instance, differ in many ways, weather conditions such as temperature and humidity also affect the pitch
Oboe
–
A modern oboe with a reed
Oboe
–
Classical oboe, copy by Sand Dalton of an original by Johann Friedrich Floth, c. 1805
Oboe
–
The members of the oboe family from top:
heckelphone,
bass oboe,
cor anglais,
oboe d'amore, regular oboe, and
piccolo oboe
Oboe
–
Oboist
Albrecht Mayer preparing reeds for use. Most oboists scrape their own reeds to achieve the desired tone and response
8.
Heino Eller
–
Heino Eller was an Estonian composer and composition teacher. Eller was born in Tartu, where he took lessons in violin and music theory, played in several ensembles and orchestras. In 1907 he entered the Saint Petersburg Conservatory to study violin, from 1908 to 1911 he was a law student. In 1920 Eller graduated from the conservatory renamed to Petrograd Conservatory, from 1920 to 1940, Eller was a professor of music theory and composition at the Tartu Higher School for Music. During this time he formed the Tartu school of composition, which rise to many composers. In 1940 he became a professor of composition at the Tallinn Conservatory and he was named a Peoples Artist of the USSR in 1967. Eller was a teacher of composition, the school he formed in Tartu counterbalanced the so-called Tallinn school headed by Artur Kapp. The list of his pupils offers the best proof of this and his symphonic works, especially Koit and Videvik, break new ground for Estonian symphonic music. His musical language contains many national traits, but he was influenced by 20th-century styles as diverse as impressionism and expressionism, Tallinn, Eesti Teatri- ja Muusikamuuseum, SE&JS,2008. ISBN9985985648, ISBN9789985985649 Heino Eller at the Estonian Music Information Centre Heino Eller discography at MusicBrainz Works by Heino Eller at Open Library
Heino Eller
–
Eller on a Soviet 1987 stamp.
9.
Cantata
–
A cantata is a vocal composition with an instrumental accompaniment, typically in several movements, often involving a choir. Cantatas for use in the liturgy of church services are called church cantata or sacred cantata, several cantatas were, and still are, written for special occasions, such as Christmas cantatas. Johann Sebastian Bach composed cycles of cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year. The term originated in the early 17th century simultaneously with opera, prior to that, all cultured music was vocal. With the rise of music the term appeared, while the instrumental art became sufficiently developed to be embodied in sonatas. From the beginning of the 17th century until late in the 18th, a cantata consisted first of a declamatory narrative or scene in recitative, held together by a primitive aria repeated at intervals. Fine examples may be found in the music of Giacomo Carissimi. With the rise of the da capo aria, the became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative. George Frideric Handels numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a large scale. His Latin motet Silete Venti, for solo, shows the use of this form in church music. This is equally evident whether we examine the church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200 are extant. Cantatas were in demand for the services of the Lutheran church. Many secular cantatas were composed for events in the nobility and they were so similar in form to the sacred ones that many of them were parodied to sacred cantatas, for example in Bachs Christmas Oratorio. The term cantata came to be applied almost exclusively to choral works, Anton Bruckner composed several Name-day cantatas, a Festive Cantata and two secular cantatas. Brucknerss Psalm 146 is also in cantata form, mendelssohns Symphony Cantata, the Lobgesang, is a hybrid work, partly in the oratorio style. Robert Schumann wrote the cantata Paradise and the Peri, the full lyric possibilities of a string of choral songs were realized by Johannes Brahms in his Rinaldo, that—like the Walpurgisnacht—was set to a text by Goethe. The competition for the French Prix de Rome prescribed that each candidate submit a cantata, hector Berlioz failed in three attempts before finally winning in 1830 with Sardanapale. While almost all of the Prix de Rome cantatas have long since been forgotten, cantatas, both of the chamber variety and on a grand scale, were composed after 1900 as well
Cantata
–
Hymns
10.
Tikhon Khrennikov
–
Tikhon Nikolayevich Khrennikov was a Russian and Soviet composer, pianist, and leader of the Union of Soviet Composers, who was also known for his political activities. He wrote three symphonies, four concertos, two violin concertos, two cello concertos, operas, operettas, ballets, chamber music, incidental music and film music. During the 1930s, Khrennikov was already being hailed as a leading official Soviet composer, in 1948, Andrei Zhdanov, the leader of the anti-formalism campaign, nominated Khrennikov as Secretary of the Union of Soviet Composers. He held this influential post until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Tikhon Khrennikov was the youngest of ten children, born into a family of horse traders in the town of Yelets, Oryol Governorate, Russian Empire. He learned guitar and mandolin from members of his family and sang in a choir in Yelets. There he also played in an orchestra and learned the piano. As a teenager he moved to Moscow, from 1929 to 1932, he studied composition at the Gnessin State Musical College under Mikhail Gnessin and Yefraim Gelman. From 1932 to 1936, he attended the Moscow Conservatory, there he studied composition under Vissarion Shebalin and piano under Heinrich Neuhaus. As a student, he wrote and played his Piano Concerto No,1, and his graduation piece was the Symphony No.1. His first symphony was conducted by Leopold Stokowski and he became popular with the series of songs and serenades that he composed for the 1936 production of Much Ado About Nothing at the Vakhtangov Theatre in Moscow. By the 1930s, Khrennikov was already treated as a leading official Soviet composer, Soviet artists had not withstood scrutiny. After 23rd April, youth was inspired to study, the problem was, we had to master the skills and techniques of composition. We developed an enthusiasm for modern western composers, the names of Hindemith and Krenek came to be symbols of advanced modern artists. After the enthusiasm for western tendencies came an attraction to simplicity, influenced by composing for the theatre and we grew, our consciousness also grew, as well as the aspiration to be genuine Soviet composers, representatives of our epoch. Compositions by Hindemith satisfied us no more, soon after that Prokofiev arrived, declaring Soviet music to be provincial and naming Shostakovich as the most up-to-date composer. Critics wrote laudatory odes to Shostakovich, how did young composers react to Lady Macbeth. This opera contains several large fragments which opened some creative perspectives to us. But the entre‘actes and other things aroused complete hostility, in 1941, Khrennikov was appointed Music Director of the Central Theatre of the Red Army, a position he would keep for 25 years
Tikhon Khrennikov
–
This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2014)
Tikhon Khrennikov
–
Stamped envelope issued to commemorate the 100th birth anniversary of Tikhon Khrennikov.
Russian Post, 2013.
11.
Serialism
–
In music, serialism is a method or technique of composition that uses a series of values to manipulate different musical elements. Serialism began primarily with Arnold Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique, though some of his contemporaries were working to establish serialism as a form of post-tonal thinking. The idea of serialism is also applied in ways in the visual arts, design, and architecture. Integral serialism or total serialism is the use of series for such as duration, dynamics. Other terms, used especially in Europe to distinguish post–World War II serial music from music and its American extensions, are general serialism. Serialism is a method, highly specialized technique, or way of composition and it may also be considered, a philosophy of life, a way of relating the human mind to the world and creating a completeness when dealing with a subject. However, serialism is not by itself a system of composition, neither is pitch serialism necessarily incompatible with tonality, though it is most often used as a means of composing atonal music. It is sometimes used specifically to apply only to music where at least one element other than pitch is subjected to being treated as a row or series. In such usages post-Webernian serialism will be used to denote works that extend serial techniques to other elements of music, other terms used to make the distinction are twelve-note serialism for the former, and integral serialism for the latter. A row may be assembled pre-compositionally, or it may be derived from a spontaneously invented thematic or motivic idea, the structure of the row, however, does not in itself define the structure of a composition, which requires development of a comprehensive strategy. The basic set may have restrictions, such as the requirement that it use each interval only once. The series is not an order of succession, but indeed a hierarchy—which may be independent of order of succession. Stockhausen, for example, in early serial compositions such as Kreuzspiel and Formel and this provides an exemplary demonstration of that logical principle of seriality, every situation must occur once and only once. Prohibited intervals, like the octave, and prohibited successional relations, such as premature note repetitions, frequently occur, the number twelve no longer plays any governing, defining rôle, the pitch constellations no longer hold to the limitation determined by their formation. The dodecaphonic series loses its significance as a model of shape is played out. And the chromatic total remains active only, and provisionally, as a general reference, in the 1960s Pousseur took this a step further, applying a consistent set of predefined transformations to pre-existent music. In his opera Votre Faust Pousseur used a number of different quotations, themselves arranged into a scale for serial treatment, so as to bring coherence. He extended this serial polyphony of styles in a series of works in the late 1960s, as well as later in portions of Licht
Serialism
–
Six-element
row of rhythmic values used in Variazioni canoniche by
Luigi Nono (Whittall 2008, 165)
12.
Medieval music
–
Medieval music consists of songs and instrumental pieces from about 400 A. D. to 1400. Medieval music was an era of Western music, including music used for the church. Medieval music includes vocal music, such as Gregorian chant and choral music, solely instrumental music. Gregorian chant was sung by monks during Catholic Mass, the Mass is a reenactment of Christs Last Supper, intended to provide a spiritual connection between man and God. Part of this connection was established through music and this era begins with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century and ends sometime in the early fifteenth century. Establishing the end of the era and the beginning of the Renaissance music era is difficult. The date range in this article is the one adopted by musicologists. S. Bach and Classical music period composers from the 1700s such as W. A. Mozart, the most obvious of these is the development of a comprehensive music notational system which enabled composers to write out their song melodies and instrumental pieces on parchment or paper. Prior to the development of musical notation, songs and pieces had to be learned by ear and this greatly limited how many people could be taught new music and how wide music could spread to other regions or countries. The development of music made it easier to disseminate songs and musical pieces to a larger number of people. Many instruments used to perform medieval music still exist in the 21st century, the flute was made of wood in the medieval era] rather than silver or other metal, and could be made as a side-blown or end-blown instrument. While modern orchestral flutes are made of metal and have complex key mechanisms and airtight pads. The recorder was made of wood during the Medieval era, and despite the fact that in the 2000s, it may be made of synthetic materials, it has more or less retained its past form. The gemshorn is similar to the recorder as it has holes on its front. One of the predecessors, the pan flute, was popular in medieval times. This instruments pipes were made of wood, and were graduated in length to produce different pitches, Medieval music used many plucked string instruments like the lute, a fretted instrument with a pear-shaped hollow body which is the predecessor to the modern guitar. Other plucked stringed instruments included the mandore, gittern, citole, the bowed lyra of the Byzantine Empire was the first recorded European bowed string instrument. Like the modern violin, a performer produced sound by moving a bow with tensioned hair over tensioned strings, the hurdy-gurdy was a mechanical violin using a rosined wooden wheel attached to a crank to bow its strings
Medieval music
–
Christian and Muslim playing
lutes in a miniature from
Cantigas de Santa Maria of
Alfonso X
Medieval music
–
A musician plays the
vielle in a fourteenth-century
Medieval manuscript
Medieval music
–
The chanson Belle, bonne, sage by
Baude Cordier, an Ars subtilior piece included in the
Chantilly Codex
13.
Renaissance music
–
Renaissance music is vocal and instrumental music written and performed in Europe during the Renaissance era. From this changing society emerged a common, unifying musical language, in particular the style of the Franco-Flemish school. The invention of the press in 1440 made it cheaper and easier to distribute music and musical theory texts on a wider geographic scale. Prior to the invention of printing, songs and music that were written down and music theory texts had to be hand-copied, demand for music as entertainment and as a leisure activity for educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a bourgeois class. These musicians were sought throughout Europe, particularly in Italy, where churches and aristocratic courts hired them as composers, performers. This reversed the situation from a hundred years earlier, opera, a dramatic staged genre in which singers are accompanied by instruments, arose at this time in Florence. Opera was developed as an attempt to resurrect the music of ancient Greece. Music was increasingly freed from constraints, and more variety was permitted in range, rhythm, harmony, form. In the Renaissance, music became a vehicle for personal expression, composers found ways to make vocal music more expressive of the texts they were setting. Secular music absorbed techniques from sacred music, and vice versa, popular secular forms such as the chanson and madrigal spread throughout Europe. Courts employed virtuoso performers, both singers and instrumentalists, Music also became more self-sufficient with its availability in printed form, existing for its own sake. Precursor versions of familiar modern instruments developed into new forms during the Renaissance. These instruments were modified to responding to the evolution of musical ideas, Early forms of modern woodwind and brass instruments like the bassoon and trombone also appeared, extending the range of sonic color and increasing the sound of instrumental ensembles. From the Renaissance era, notated secular and sacred music survives in quantity, including vocal and instrumental works, an enormous diversity of musical styles and genres flourished during the Renaissance. These can be heard on recordings made in the 20th and 21st century, including masses, motets, madrigals, chansons, accompanied songs, instrumental dances, beginning in the late 20th century, numerous early music ensembles were formed. One of the most pronounced features of early Renaissance European art music was the reliance on the interval of the third. Polyphony – the use of multiple, independent melodic lines, performed simultaneously – became increasingly elaborate throughout the 14th century, the beginning of the 15th century showed simplification, with the composers often striving for smoothness in the melodic parts. The modal characteristics of Renaissance music began to break down towards the end of the period with the use of root motions of fifths or fourths
Renaissance music
–
Musicians, ca 1600
Renaissance music
–
1611
woodcut of Josquin des Prez, copied from a now-lost oil painting done during his lifetime
Renaissance music
–
San Marco in the evening. The spacious, resonant interior was one of the inspirations for the music of the Venetian School.
Renaissance music
–
Hurdy-gurdy
14.
Lutheranism
–
Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestant Christianity which identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German friar, ecclesiastical reformer and theologian. Luthers efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation in the German-speaking territories of the Holy Roman Empire. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone on the basis of Scripture alone and this is in contrast to the belief of the Catholic Church, defined at the Council of Trent, concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and Tradition. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first seven ecumenical councils of the undivided Christian Church, unlike Calvinism, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the Eucharist, or Lords Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of Gods Law, the grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints. Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest denominations of Protestantism, with approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant denomination after historically Pentecostal denominations and Anglicanism. The Lutheran World Federation, the largest communion of Lutheran churches, Other Lutheran organizations include the International Lutheran Council and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference, as well as independent churches. The name Lutheran originated as a term used against Luther by German Scholastic theologian Dr. Johann Maier von Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519. Eck and other Catholics followed the practice of naming a heresy after its leader. Martin Luther always disliked the term Lutheran, preferring the term Evangelical, which was derived from euangelion, the followers of John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and other theologians linked to the Reformed tradition also began to use that term. To distinguish the two groups, others began to refer to the two groups as Evangelical Lutheran and Evangelical Reformed. As time passed by, the word Evangelical was dropped, Lutherans themselves began to use the term Lutheran in the middle of the 16th century, in order to distinguish themselves from other groups such as the Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg defined the title Lutheran as referring to the true church, Lutheranism has its roots in the work of Martin Luther, who sought to reform the Western Church to what he considered a more biblical foundation. Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark–Norway, through Baltic-German and Swedish rule, Lutheranism also spread into Estonia and Latvia. Since 1520, regular Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen, under the reign of Frederick I, Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers. During Fredericks reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads in Denmark, at an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted, We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore. Fredericks son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his fathers death, however, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway
Lutheranism
–
Martin Luther initiated the
Protestant Reformation in 1517.
Lutheranism
–
Lutheran Rose Cross, in the middle we can see
Luther's seal.
Lutheranism
–
Title page of the Swedish
Gustav Vasa Bible, translated by the Petri brothers, along with
Laurentius Andreae
Lutheranism
–
The
University of Jena around 1600. Jena was the center of Gnesio-Lutheran activity during the controversies leading up to the Formula of Concord.
15.
Russian Orthodox
–
The Russian Orthodox Church, alternatively legally known as the Moscow Patriarchate, is one of the autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches, in full communion with other Eastern Orthodox patriarchates. The Primate of the ROC is the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus and it also exercises ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the autonomous Church of Japan and the Orthodox Christians resident in the Peoples Republic of China. The ROC branches in Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Moldova and Ukraine since the 1990s enjoy various degrees of self-government, in Ukraine, ROC has tensions with schismatic groups supported by the current government, while it enjoys the position of numerically dominant religious organisation. The ROC should also not be confused with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, headquartered in New York, New York, the two Churches reconciled on May 17,2007, the ROCOR is now a self-governing part of the Russian Orthodox Church. According to one of the legends, Andrew reached the location of Kiev. The spot where he erected a cross is now marked by St. Andrews Cathedral. By the end of the first millennium AD, eastern Slavic lands started to come under the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatios, by the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Byzantine Greek priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus′ to convert to Christianity and her grandson, Vladimir of Kiev, made Rus officially a Christian state. The Kievan church was a metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch appointed the metropolitan, who usually was a Greek. The Metropolitans residence was located in Kiev itself, the capital of the medieval Rus state. Following the tribulations of the Mongol invasion, the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival, despite the politically motivated murders of Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver, the Mongols were generally tolerant and even granted tax exemption to the Church. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tatar oppression, the Trinity monastery founded by Sergius of Radonezh became the setting for the flourishing of spiritual art, exemplified by the work of Andrey Rublev, among others. The followers of Sergius founded four hundred monasteries, thus extending the geographical extent of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. However, the Moscow Prince Vasili II rejected the act of the Council of Florence brought to Moscow by Isidore in March 1441, Isidore was in the same year removed from his position as an apostate and expelled from Moscow. The Russian metropolitanate remained effectively vacant for the few years due largely to the dominance of Uniates in Constantinople then. In December 1448, Jonas, a Russian bishop, was installed by the Council of Russian bishops in Moscow as Metropolitan of Kiev and All Russia without the consent from Constantinople. Subsequently, there developed a theory in Moscow that saw Moscow as the Third Rome, the successor to Constantinople
Russian Orthodox
–
The
Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in
Moscow Russian: Храм Христа Спасителя [Khram Khrista Spasitelya]
Russian Orthodox
–
Russian Orthodox monks defended the
Trinity Lavra monastery against Polish-Lithuanian troops during the
Time of Troubles.
Russian Orthodox
–
An Old Believer Priest,
Nikita Pustosviat, Disputing with Patriarch Joachim the Matters of Faith. Painting by
Vasily Perov
16.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
17.
Vienna
–
Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
Vienna
18.
Berlin
–
Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
19.
Tallinn
–
Tallinn is the capital and largest city of Estonia. It is situated on the northern coast of the country, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland,80 km south of Helsinki, east of Stockholm, from the 13th century until 1918, the city was known as Reval. Tallinn occupies an area of 159.2 km2 and has a population of 444,591, approximately 33% of Estonias total population lives in Tallinn. Tallinn was founded in 1248, but the earliest human settlements date back 5,000 years, making it one of the oldest capital cities of Northern Europe. The initial claim over the land was laid by the Danes in 1219 after a raid of Lyndanisse led by Valdemar II of Denmark. Due to its location, the city became a major trade hub, especially from the 14th to the 16th century. Tallinns Old Town is one of the best preserved cities in Europe and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Tallinn is the political, financial, cultural and educational center of Estonia. Often dubbed the Silicon Valley of Europe, it has the highest number of startups per person in Europe and is a birthplace of international companies. The city is to house the headquarters of the European Unions IT agency, providing to the global cybersecurity it is the home to the NATO Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence. It is ranked as a city and has been listed among the top 10 digital cities in the world. The city was a European Capital of Culture for 2011, along with Turku in Finland and it has been suggested that Quwri may have denoted a predecessor of the modern city. The earliest names of Tallinn include Kolyvan, which is known from East Slavic chronicles, up to the 13th century, the Scandinavians and Henry of Livonia in his chronicle called the town Lindanisa (or Lyndanisse in Danish, Lindanäs in Swedish and Ledenets in Old East Slavic. It has been suggested that the archaic Estonian word linda is similar to the Votic word lidna. According to this suggestion, nisa would have the meaning niemi, producing Kesoniemi, another ancient historical name for Tallinn in Finnish is Rääveli. The Icelandic Njals saga mentions Tallinn and calls it Rafala, which is a variant of the name Raphael, after the Danish conquest in 1219, the town became known in the German, Swedish and Danish languages as Reval. The name originated from Revelia Revala or Rävala, the adjacent ancient name of the surrounding area and it is usually thought to be derived from Taani-linn, after the Danes built the castle in place of the Estonian stronghold at Lindanisse. However, it could also have come from tali-linna, or talu-linna, the element -linna, like Germanic -burg and Slavic -grad / -gorod, originally meant fortress, but is used as a suffix in the formation of town names
Tallinn
–
A collage of Tallinn showing a view from the sea, the Old Town and a night view of the downtown
Tallinn
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Tallinn
–
The Danish flag falling from the sky in the 1219
Battle of Lyndanisse.
20.
The Daily Telegraph
–
It was founded by Arthur B. Sleigh in 1855 as The Daily Telegraph and Courier, the papers motto, Was, is, and will be, appears in the editorial pages and has featured in every edition of the newspaper since April 19,1858. The paper had a circulation of 460,054 in December 2016 and its sister paper, The Sunday Telegraph, which started in 1961, had a circulation of 359,287 as of December 2016. The Daily Telegraph has the largest circulation for a newspaper in the UK. The two sister newspapers are run separately, with different editorial staff, but there is cross-usage of stories, articles published in either may be published on the Telegraph Media Groups www. telegraph. co. uk website, under the title of The Telegraph. However, critics, including an editor, accuse it of being unduly influenced by advertisers. The Daily Telegraph and Courier was founded by Colonel Arthur B, Sleigh in June 1855 to air a personal grievance against the future commander-in-chief of the British Army, Prince George, Duke of Cambridge. Joseph Moses Levy, the owner of The Sunday Times, agreed to print the newspaper, the paper cost 2d and was four pages long. Nevertheless, the first edition stressed the quality and independence of its articles and journalists, however, the paper was not a success, and Sleigh was unable to pay Levy the printing bill. Levy took over the newspaper, his aim being to produce a newspaper than his main competitors in London. The same principle should apply to all other events—to fashion, to new inventions, in 1876, Jules Verne published his novel Michael Strogoff, whose plot takes place during a fictional uprising and war in Siberia. In 1937, the newspaper absorbed The Morning Post, which espoused a conservative position. Originally William Ewart Berry, 1st Viscount Camrose, bought The Morning Post with the intention of publishing it alongside The Daily Telegraph, for some years the paper was retitled The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post before it reverted to just The Daily Telegraph. As an result, Gordon Lennox was monitored by MI5, in 1939, The Telegraph published Clare Hollingworths scoop that Germany was to invade Poland. In November 1940, with Fleet Street subjected to almost daily bombing raids by the Luftwaffe, The Telegraph started printing in Manchester at Kemsley House, Manchester quite often printed the entire run of The Telegraph when its Fleet Street offices were under threat. The name Kemsley House was changed to Thomson House in 1959, in 1986 printing of Northern editions of the Daily and Sunday Telegraph moved to Trafford Park and in 2008 to Newsprinters at Knowsley, Liverpool. During the Second World War, The Daily Telegraph covertly helped in the recruitment of code-breakers for Bletchley Park, the ability to solve The Telegraphs crossword in under 12 minutes was considered to be a recruitment test. The competition itself was won by F. H. W. Hawes of Dagenham who finished the crossword in less than eight minutes, both the Camrose and Burnham families remained involved in management until Conrad Black took control in 1986
The Daily Telegraph
–
The Sunday Telegraph
The Daily Telegraph
–
The Daily Telegraph front page on 29 June 2015
The Daily Telegraph
–
In 1882 The Daily Telegraph moved to new
Fleet Street premises, which were pictured in the
Illustrated London News.
The Daily Telegraph
–
The Daily Telegraph building in 1974
21.
Kalevipoeg
–
Kalevipoeg is an epic poem by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald held to be the Estonian national epic. There existed a tradition within Ancient Estonia of legends explaining the origin of the world. Within old Estonian folklore, a malevolent giant by the name of Kalev, Kalevine, Kalevipoiss, Kalevine posikine and Kalevin Poika appears, battling with other giants or enemies of the nation. The earliest written references are found in Leyen Spiegel in 1641 as Kalliweh, the main material is taken from Estonian folklore of a giant hero named Kalevipoeg. In 1839, Friedrich Robert Faehlmann read a paper at the Learned Estonian Society about the legends of Kalevipoeg and he sketched the plot of a national romantic epic poem. In 1850, after Faehlmanns death, Kreutzwald started writing the poem and he collected oral stories and wove them together into a unified whole. The first version of Kalevipoeg could not be printed due to censorship, the second, thoroughly revised version was published in sequels as an academic publication by the Learned Estonian Society in 1857–1861. The publication included a translation into German, in 1862, the third, somewhat abridged version came out. This was a book for common readers and it was printed in Kuopio, Finland. In Estonian legends, Kalevipoeg carries stones or throws them at enemies and he also forms surface structures on landscape and bodies of water and builds towns. Kalevipoeg eventually dies after his feet are cut off by his own sword owing to his own prior—and fatally ambiguous—instructions, Kalevipoeg was the youngest son of Kalev and Linda, born after his fathers death and surpassed his brothers in intelligence and strength. It is often thought that Kalevipoegs real name was Sohni/Soini, but it means simply son. Alevipoeg, Olevipoeg and Sulevipoeg were his friends and more distant relatives, the character only rarely appears in folk songs. In literature, he was first mentioned by Heinrich Stahl in the 17th century, Kalevipoeg travels to Finland in search of his kidnapped mother. During his travel he purchases a sword but kills the blacksmiths eldest son in an argument, the blacksmith places a curse on the sword and is thrown in the river. On returning to Estonia Kalevipoeg becomes king after defeating his brothers in a hurling competition. He constructs towns and forts and tills the land in Estonia, Kalevipoeg then journeys to the ends of the earth to expand his knowledge. He defeats Satan in a trial of strength and rescues three maidens from hell, war breaks out and destruction visits Estonia and Kalevipoegs faithful comrades are killed, he hands rule over to his brother Olev and withdraws to the forest depressed
Kalevipoeg
–
Illustration to "Kalevipoeg" by
Oskar Kallis
Kalevipoeg
–
Kalevipoeg in the Netherworld
Kalevipoeg
–
Scene from the Kalevipoeg featured on the Kreutzwald Memorial in Kadbiorg Park, Tallinn.
Kalevipoeg
–
A scene from the epic on the Kreutzwald Monument in Tallinn
22.
Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten
–
Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten is a short canon in A minor, written in 1977 by the Estonian composer Arvo Pärt, for string orchestra and bell. The work is an example of Pärts tintinnabuli style, which he based on his reactions to early chant music. Its appeal is often ascribed to its simplicity, a single melodic motif dominates. However, as the critic Ivan Hewett observes, while it may be simple in concept. the concept produces a tangle of lines which is hard for the ear to unravel. And even where the music really is simple in its audible features, a typical performance lasts about six and a half minutes. The cantus was composed as an elegy to mourn the December 1976 death of the English composer Benjamin Britten, Pärt described Britten as possessing the unusual purity that he himself sought as a composer. Pärt viewed the Englishman as a spirit, however, he gained access to the latters music only in 1980, after emigrating from Soviet Estonia to Austria. When Britten died, Pärt felt that he had lost hope of meeting the only composer whose musical outlook. It is perhaps Pärts most popular piece, and a 1997 recording by the Hungarian State Opera Orchestra conducted by Tamas Benedek has been widely distributed, due to its evocative and cinematic feel, the piece has been used extensively as background accompaniment in both film and television documentaries. Scored for string orchestra and bell, Cantus exemplifies Pärts tintinnabuli style, the work is based on a simple idea, a descending A-minor scale, and is in the form of a prolation canon, an old technique which Pärt also uses in the work Festina Lente. It is in 6/4 meter and alternates long and short notes, Pärt has said of tintinnabulation, The complex and many-faceted only confuses me, and I must search for unity. What is it, this one thing, and how do I find my way to it, traces of this perfect thing appear in many guises – and everything that is unimportant falls away. Here I am alone with silence, I have discovered that it is enough when a single note is beautifully played. This one note, or a silent beat, or a moment of silence, each part except the viola is split into two, with one playing notes from the A minor scale, and the other playing only notes from an A minor chord. These choices have a definite symbolism for Pärt, the latter always signifies the subjective world, the daily egoistic life of sin and suffering, meanwhile, is the objective realm of forgiveness. For Pärt, there is only an apparent dualism here, he believes all is one. The A natural minor scale has some historical connections, before major and minor scales became prevalent in Western art music, music, especially the early liturgical music that has been so influential on Pärt, used a system of modes. The idea of musical modes was known to the ancient Greeks, the church modes are formed by using the notes of the C major scale but starting at different notes in each mode
Cantus in Memoriam Benjamin Britten
–
Arvo Pärt photographed in
Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin, 2008
23.
String quintet
–
A string quintet is a musical composition for five string players. As an extension to the quartet, a string quintet includes a fifth string instrument, usually a second viola or a second cello. Notable examples of classic viola quintets, in four movement form include those of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, other examples were written by composers including Johannes Brahms and Felix Mendelssohn. A famous cello quintet is Franz Schuberts Quintet in C major, antonín Dvořáks Quintet Op.77 uses a double bass, and Mozarts famous Eine kleine Nachtmusik may be performed with this instrumentation. Alternative additions include clarinet or piano, and other closely related chamber music genres include the string quartet, the trio. A more unusual form of string quintet is the violin quintet composed of 3 violins, a viola, the term string quintet may refer to a group of five players that performs such works. The ensemble was standard in 17th century Italy and can be seen as early as 1607 in Claudio Monteverdis opera and it can also be applied to the standard five-part orchestral string section, first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and double basses. The third movement Minuet of the Cello Quintet Op.11 No.5 is extremely well known, darius Milhaud – Quintet Op. post
String quintet
–
Viola quintet
24.
John Tavener
–
Sir John Kenneth Tavener was an English composer, known for his extensive output of religious works, including The Protecting Veil, Song for Athene and The Lamb. Tavener first came to prominence with his cantata The Whale, premiered in 1968, then aged 24, he was described by The Guardian as the musical discovery of the year, while The Times said he was among the very best creative talents of his generation. The Lamb featured in the soundtrack for Paolo Sorrentinos film The Great Beauty, Tavener was knighted in 2000 for his services to music and won an Ivor Novello Award. Tavener was born on 28 January 1944 in Wembley, London and his parents ran a family building firm and his father was also an organist at St Andrews Presbyterian Church in Frognal, Hampstead. At the age of 12, Tavener was taken to Glyndebourne to hear Mozarts The Magic Flute and that same year he heard Stravinsky’s most recent work, Canticum Sacrum, which he later described as the piece that woke me up and made me want to be a composer. Tavener became a scholar at Highgate School. The school choir was often employed by the BBC in works requiring boys voices, so Tavener gained choral experience singing in Mahlers Third Symphony and he also became organist and choirmaster in 1961 at St Johns Presbyterian Church, Kensington, a post he held for 14 years. Tavener entered the Royal Academy of Music in 1962, where his tutors included Sir Lennox Berkeley, during his studies there he decided to give up the piano and devote himself to composition. Tavener first came to prominence in 1968 with his dramatic cantata The Whale and it was premièred at the London Sinfoniettas début concert, which was also the opening concert of the Queen Elizabeth Hall. The following year Tavener began teaching at Trinity College of Music, when staged in 1979 the opera was thought too static to be a successful drama. Tavener had also been affected by his brief 1974 marriage to the Greek dancer Victoria Maragopoulou. His chamber opera A Gentle Spirit, with a libretto by McLarnon based on a story by Fyodor Dostoyevsky and it has been deemed far superior to Thérèse, with the internal drama more suited to the stage. Significantly, it touched on Russian Orthodoxy, to which McLarnon had been a convert for several years. Tavener converted to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1977, Orthodox theology and liturgical traditions became a major influence on his work. Of more lasting success was Taveners short unaccompanied four-part choral setting of William Blakes poem The Lamb and this simple homophonic piece is usually performed as a Christmas carol. The two choral works were settings of texts by Mother Thekla, a Russian Orthodox abbess who was Taveners long-time spiritual adviser until her death in 2011, Song for Athene in particular gained worldwide exposure when performed at the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997. Taveners Fall and Resurrection, first performed in 2000, used such as rams horn, ney flute. It was dedicated to the Prince of Wales, with whom Tavener formed a lasting friendship, in 2003 Tavener composed the exceptionally large work The Veil of the Temple, based on texts from a number of religions
John Tavener
–
Sir John Tavener in 2005
John Tavener
–
John Tavener's choral arrangement of
William Blake 's "
The Lamb " from his collection
Songs of Innocence and of Experience is a continually popular work. This image represents copy C, object 8 of that original poem, currently held by the
Library of Congress.
25.
Choral
–
A choir is a musical ensemble of singers. Choral music, in turn, is the music specifically for such an ensemble to perform. Choirs may perform music from the classical repertoire, which spans from the Medieval era to the present. Most choirs are led by a conductor, who leads the performances with arm, a body of singers who perform together as a group is called a choir or chorus. The former term is often applied to groups affiliated with a church and the second to groups that perform in theatres or concert halls. Choirs may sing without instrumental accompaniment, with the accompaniment of a piano or pipe organ, with a small ensemble, choirs are often led by a conductor or choirmaster. Other than four, the most common number of parts are three, five, six, and eight, choirs can sing with or without instrumental accompaniment. Singing without accompaniment is called a cappella singing, many choirs perform in one or many locations such as a church, opera house, or school hall. In some cases choirs join up to become one mass choir that performs for a special concert, in this case they provide a series of songs or musical works to celebrate and provide entertainment to others. Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as a concert, by way of visible gestures with the hands, arms, face. The primary duties of the conductor or choirmaster are to unify performers, set the tempo, execute clear preparations and beats, and to listen critically and shape the sound of the ensemble. The conductor or choral director typically stands on a raised platform, many choral conductors use their hands to conduct. In the 2010s, most conductors do not play an instrument when conducting, although in earlier periods of music history. In Baroque music from the 1600s to the 1750s, conductors performing in the 2010s may lead an ensemble while playing a harpsichord or the violin, conducting while playing a piano may also be done with musical theatre pit orchestras. Communication is typically non-verbal during a performance, however, in rehearsals, frequent interruptions allow the conductor to give verbal directions as to how the music should be sung. Conductors act as guides to the choirs they conduct and they choose the works to be performed and study their scores, to which they may make certain adjustments, work out their interpretation, and relay their vision to the singers. Choral conductors may also have to conduct instrumental ensembles such as if the choir is singing a piece for choir. They may also attend to matters, such as scheduling rehearsals, planning a concert season, hearing auditions
Choral
–
Evensong rehearsal in the
quire of
York Minster, showing carved choirstalls
Choral
–
Amelia Nagoski, DMA conducting a choral ensemble at Western New England University
Choral
–
Egyptian Alexandria Jewish choir of Rabbin Moshe Cohen at Samuel Menashe synagogue,
Alexandria, Egypt
Choral
–
An English school choir
26.
Soviet occupation of Estonia
–
On 22 June 1941 Nazi Germany attacked the USSR and within weeks occupied the Baltic territories. In July 1941, the Baltic territory was incorporated into the Reichskommissariat Ostland of the Third Reich, the Soviet annexation occupation of the Baltic states lasted until August 1991, when the Baltic states regained independence. In its reassessment of Soviet history that began during perestroika in 1989, however, Russia agreed to Europes demand to assist persons deported from the occupied Baltic states upon joining the Council of Europe. De facto independence was restored to the Baltic states in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia started to withdraw its troops from the Baltics in August 1993. The full withdrawal of troops deployed by Moscow was completed in August 1994, Russia officially ended its military presence in the Baltics in August 1998 by decommissioning the Skrunda-1 radar station in Latvia. The dismantled installations were repatriated to Russia and the returned to Latvian control. Early in the morning of August 24,1939, the Soviet Union and Germany signed a ten-year non-aggression pact, the pact contained a secret protocol by which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet spheres of influence. In the north, Finland, Estonia and Latvia were assigned to the Soviet sphere, Poland was to be partitioned in the event of its political rearrangement—the areas east of the Narev, Vistula and San Rivers going to the Soviet Union while Germany would occupy the west. According to this protocol, Lithuania would regain its historical capital Vilnius. Following the end of Soviet invasion of Poland on 6 October, the Soviets pressured Finland, the Soviets questioned the neutrality of Estonia after the escape of an interned Polish submarine on 18 September. A week later on 24 September, the Estonian foreign minister was given an ultimatum in Moscow, the Soviets demanded the conclusion of a treaty of mutual assistance to establish military bases in Estonia. The Estonians had no choice but to accept naval, air, the corresponding agreement was signed on 28 September 1939. Latvia followed on 5 October 1939 and Lithuania shortly thereafter, on 10 October 1939, in September and October 1939, the Soviet government compelled the Baltic states to conclude mutual assistance pacts which gave it the right to establish Soviet military bases. In May 1940, the Soviets turned to the idea of military intervention. Their model was the Finnish Democratic Republic, a puppet regime set up by the Soviets on the first day of the Winter War, the Soviets organised a press campaign against the allegedly pro-Allied sympathies of the Baltic governments. In May 1940, the Germans invaded France, which was overrun, in late May and early June 1940, the Baltic states were accused of military collaboration against the Soviet Union by holding meetings the previous winter. On 15 June 1940, the Lithuanian government had no choice but to agree to the Soviet ultimatum, president Antanas Smetona proposed armed resistance to the Soviets but the government refused, proposing their own candidate to lead the regime. However, the Soviets refused this offer and sent Vladimir Dekanozov to take charge of affairs while the Red Army occupied the state, on 16 June 1940, Latvia and Estonia also received ultimata
Soviet occupation of Estonia
–
Schematics of the Soviet military blockade and invasion of Estonia in 1940. (Russian State Naval Archives)
Soviet occupation of Estonia
–
Monument to Lithuanian victims of Soviet occupation in
Gediminas Avenue,
Vilnius. 54°41′18.9″N 25°16′14.0″E / 54.688583°N 25.270556°E / 54.688583; 25.270556
27.
Nazis
–
National Socialism, more commonly known as Nazism, is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and Nazi Germany, as well as other far-right groups. Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and Social Darwinism, identifying Germans as part of what Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race and it aimed to overcome social divisions and create a homogeneous society, unified on the basis of racial purity. The term National Socialism arose out of attempts to create a nationalist redefinition of socialism, the Nazi Partys precursor, the Pan-German nationalist and anti-Semitic German Workers Party, was founded on 5 January 1919. By the early 1920s, Adolf Hitler assumed control of the organisation, following the Holocaust and German defeat in World War II, only a few fringe racist groups, usually referred to as neo-Nazis, still describe themselves as following National Socialism. The full name of Adolf Hitlers party was Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, the shorthand Nazi was formed from the first two syllables of the German pronunciation of the word national. The term was in use before the rise of the NSDAP as a colloquial and derogatory word for a peasant, characterizing an awkward. It derived from Ignaz, being a version of Ignatius, a common name in Bavaria. Opponents seized on this and shortened the first word of the name, Nationalsozialistische. The NSDAP briefly adopted the Nazi designation, attempting to reappropriate the term, the use of Nazi Germany, Nazi regime, and so on was popularised by German exiles abroad. From them, the spread into other languages and was eventually brought back to Germany after World War II. In English, Nazism is a name for the ideology the party advocated. The majority of scholars identify Nazism in practice as a form of far-right politics, far-right themes in Nazism include the argument that superior people have a right to dominate over other people and purge society of supposed inferior elements. Adolf Hitler and other proponents officially portrayed Nazism as being neither left- nor right-wing, but the politicians of the Right deserve exactly the same reproach. It was through their miserable cowardice that those ruffians of Jews who came into power in 1918 were able to rob the nation of its arms, a major inspiration for the Nazis were the far-right nationalist Freikorps, paramilitary organisations that engaged in political violence after World War I. The Nazis stated the alliance was purely tactical and there remained substantial differences with the DNVP, the Nazis described the DNVP as a bourgeois party and called themselves an anti-bourgeois party. After the elections in 1932, the alliance broke after the DNVP lost many of its seats in the Reichstag, the Nazis denounced them as an insignificant heap of reactionaries. The DNVP responded by denouncing the Nazis for their socialism, their violence. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who was pressured to abdicate the throne and flee into exile amidst an attempted communist revolution in Germany, there were factions in the Nazi Party, both conservative and radical
Nazis
–
Foreground, left to right: Führer
Adolf Hitler;
Hermann Göring; Minister of Propaganda
Joseph Goebbels;
Rudolf Hess
Nazis
–
Nazis alongside members of the far-right
reactionary and
monarchist German National People's Party (DNVP), during the brief Nazi-DNVP alliance in the
Harzburg Front from 1931 to 1932
Nazis
–
Johann Gottlieb Fichte, considered one of the fathers of German nationalism
28.
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
–
The pact delineated the spheres of interest between the two powers, confirmed by the supplementary protocol of the German-Soviet Frontier Treaty amended after the joint invasion of Poland. Thereafter, Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, Soviet Union leader Joseph Stalin ordered the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September, one day after a Soviet-Japanese ceasefire at the Khalkhin Gol came into effect. In November, parts of the Karelia and Salla regions in Finland were annexed by the Soviet Union after the Winter War and this was followed by Soviet annexations of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Romania. Advertised concern about ethnic Ukrainians and Belarusians had been proffered as justification for the Soviet invasion of Poland, Stalins invasion of Bukovina in 1940 violated the pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence agreed with the Axis. The territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union after the 1939 Nazi-Soviet invasion of Poland remained in the USSR at the end of World War II, the new border was set up along the Curzon Line. Only the region around Białystok and a part of Galicia east of the San river around Przemyśl were returned to the Polish state from that line. Northern Bukovina, Southern Bessarabia and Hertza remain part of Ukraine, the existence of the secret protocol was denied by the Soviet government until 1989, when it was finally acknowledged and denounced. Vladimir Putin has also defended the pact, the outcome of World War I was disastrous for both the German Reich and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. During the war, the Bolsheviks struggled for survival, and Vladimir Lenin recognised the independence of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. Moreover, facing a German military advance, Lenin and Trotsky were forced to enter into the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, after Germanys collapse, a multinational Allied-led army intervened in the Russian Civil War. On 16 April 1922, Germany and the Soviet Union entered the Treaty of Rapallo, the parties further pledged neutrality in the event of an attack against one another with the 1926 Treaty of Berlin. While trade between the two countries fell sharply after World War I, trade agreements signed in the mid-1920s helped to increase trade to 433 million Reichsmarks per year by 1927. Moreover, the anti-Semitic Nazis associated ethnic Jews with both communism and financial capitalism, both of which they opposed, Nazi theory held that Slavs in the Soviet Union were being ruled by Jewish Bolshevik masters. The resulting manifestation of German anti-Bolshevism and an increase in Soviet foreign debts caused German–Soviet trade to dramatically decline, in 1936, Germany and Fascist Italy supported Spanish Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War, while the Soviets supported the partially socialist-led Second Spanish Republic. Thus the Spanish Civil War became a war between Germany and the USSR. In 1936, Germany and Japan entered the Anti-Comintern Pact, and were joined a year later by Italy and this policy immediately raised the question of whether the Soviet Union could avoid being next on Hitlers list. Moreover, an expected British blockade in the event of war would create massive shortages for Germany in a number of key raw materials. After the Munich agreement, the increase in German military supply needs and Soviet demands for military machinery
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
–
Stalin and Ribbentrop after the signature of the Soviet–Nazi German pact. August 23, 1939
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
–
"The
Prussian Tribute in
Moscow ", satirical newspaper "Mucha", September 8, 1939,
Warsaw
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
–
Common parade of Wehrmacht and Red Army in
Brest at the end of the Invasion of Poland. At the center Major General
Heinz Guderian and Brigadier
Semyon Krivoshein
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
–
Soviet and German soldiers in
Lublin
29.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Estonia)
–
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Estonia is a Cabinet-level governmental agency in Estonia in charge of conducting and designing Estonian Foreign policy. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Estonia was established in 1919 soon after the declaration of independence of Estonia on February 23,1918, after the occupation of Estonia by the Soviet Army in September 1939 following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in August of the same year. After establishment of the Soviet rule in Estonia, the government in exile assumed the duties of the foreign service. This government promoted and called for Estonian independence abroad, among the Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs in exile were August Rei, Aleksander Warma, August Koern, Elmar Lipping, Olev Olesk. After restoration of independence of Estonia in 1990, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was reestablished in Tallinn, Minister of Foreign Affairs Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Estonia
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Estonia)
–
Coat of Arms of Estonia
30.
Neoclassicism (music)
–
Neoclassicism had two distinct national lines of development, French and German. Neoclassicism was a trend rather than an organized movement, even many composers not usually thought of as neoclassicists absorbed elements of the style. Although the term refers to a 20th-century movement, there were important 19th-century precursors. Sergei Prokofievs Symphony No.1 is sometimes cited as a precursor of neoclassicism, prokofiev himself thought that his composition was a passing phase whereas Stravinskys neoclassicism was by the 1920s becoming the basic line of his music. Igor Stravinskys first foray into the style began in 1919/20 when he composed the ballet Pulcinella, Stravinskys neoclassicism culminated in his opera The Rakes Progress, with a libretto by W. H. Auden. Neoclassicism found an audience in Europe and America, as the school of Nadia Boulanger promulgated ideas about music based on her understanding of Stravinskys music. In the first movement of the concerto, Falla quotes fragments of the 15th-century villancico De los álamos and he had similarly incorporated quotations from 17th-century music when he first embraced neoclassicism in the puppet-theatre piece El retablo de maese Pedro, an adaptation from Cervantess Don Quixote. Later neoclassical compositions by Falla include the 1924 chamber cantata Psyché and incidental music for Pedro Calderón de la Barcas, El gran teatro del mundo, written in 1927. Other important Spanish neoclassical composers are found amongst the members of the Generación de la República, including Julián Bautista, Fernando Remacha, Salvador Bacarisse,1 in D of 1939 consciously follows Mozarts concerto style. Portuguese representatives of neoclassicism include two members of the Grupo de Quatro, Armando José Fernandes and Jorge Croner de Vasconcellos, argentine composers associated with neoclassicism include Jacobo Ficher, José María Castro, Luis Gianneo, and Juan José Castro. Roberto Caamaño, professor of Gregorian chant at the Institute of Sacred Music in Buenos Aires, employed a dissonant neoclassical style in some works and a serialist style in others. Neoclassical traits figure in Guarnieris music starting with the movement of the Piano Sonatina of 1928. The Chilean composer Domingo Santa Cruz Wilson was so influenced by the German variety of neoclassicism that he became known as the Chilean Hindemith. In Cuba, José Ardévol initiated a school, though he himself moved on to a modernistic national style later in his career. Even the atonal school, represented by Arnold Schoenberg, showed the influence of neoclassical ideas, the forms of Schoenbergs works after 1920, beginning with opp. 23,24, and 25, have described as openly neoclassical. Schoenberg attempted in those works to offer listeners structural points of reference with which they could identify, beginning with the Serenade,24, and the Suite for piano, op. Schoenbergs pupil Alban Berg actually came to neoclassicism before his teacher, in his Three Pieces for Orchestra,6, and the opera Wozzeck, which uses closed forms such as suite, passacaglia, and rondo as organizing principles within each scene
Neoclassicism (music)
–
Igor Stravinsky
31.
Dmitri Shostakovich
–
Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich was a Russian pianist and composer of the Soviet period. He is regarded as one of the composers of the 20th century. Shostakovich achieved fame in the Soviet Union under the patronage of Soviet chief of staff Mikhail Tukhachevsky, nevertheless, he received accolades and state awards and served in the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR and the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. A polystylist, Shostakovich developed a voice, combining a variety of different musical techniques into his works. Shostakovichs orchestral works include 15 symphonies and six concerti and his chamber output includes 15 string quartets, a piano quintet, two piano trios, and two pieces for string octet. His solo piano works include two sonatas, an set of preludes, and a later set of 24 preludes and fugues. Born at Podolskaya street in Saint Petersburg, Russia, Shostakovich was the second of three children of Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich and Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina, Shostakovichs paternal grandfather, originally surnamed Szostakowicz, was of Polish Roman Catholic descent, but his immediate forebears came from Siberia. When his term of exile ended, Szostakowicz decided to remain in Siberia and he eventually became a successful banker in Irkutsk and raised a large family. His son, Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich, the father, was born in exile in Narim in 1875 and studied physics and mathematics in Saint Petersburg University. He then went to work as an engineer under Dmitri Mendeleev at the Bureau of Weights, in 1903 he married another Siberian transplant to the capital, Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina, one of six children born to a Russian Siberian native. Their son, Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich, displayed significant musical talent after he began lessons with his mother at the age of nine. In 1918 he wrote a march in memory of two leaders of the Kadet party, murdered by Bolshevik sailors. In 1919, at the age of thirteen, he was allowed to enter the Petrograd Conservatory, then headed by Alexander Glazunov, Shostakovich also attended Alexander Ossovskys history of music classes. Steinberg tried to guide Shostakovich in the path of the great Russian composers and he also suffered for his perceived lack of political zeal, and initially failed his exam in Marxist methodology in 1926. His first major achievement was the First Symphony, written as his graduation piece at the age of nineteen. After graduation, Shostakovich initially embarked on a career as concert pianist and composer. He nevertheless won a mention at the First International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1927. He explained the disappointment at the competition to suffering from appendicitis and he later had his appendix removed in April 1927
Dmitri Shostakovich
–
Dmitri Shostakovich in 1950
Dmitri Shostakovich
–
Birthplace of Shostakovich (now School No. 267). Commemorative plaque at left
Dmitri Shostakovich
–
Shostakovich in 1925
Dmitri Shostakovich
–
Muddle instead of music, article published on Pravda on January 18, 1936, harshly criticizing Shostakovich's Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk.
32.
Sergei Prokofiev
–
Sergei Sergeyevich Prokofiev was a Russian and Soviet composer, pianist and conductor. As the creator of acknowledged masterpieces across numerous genres, he is regarded as one of the major composers of the 20th century. Prokofievs greatest interest, however, was opera, and he composed works in that genre, including The Gambler. Prokofievs one operatic success during his lifetime was The Love for Three Oranges, composed for the Chicago Opera and subsequently performed over the decade in Europe. During that time he married a Spanish singer, Carolina Codina, in the early 1930s, the Great Depression diminished opportunities for Prokofievs ballets and operas to be staged in America and western Europe. He enjoyed some success there – notably with Lieutenant Kijé, Peter and the Wolf, Romeo and Juliet, the Nazi invasion of the USSR spurred him to compose his most ambitious work, an operatic version of Leo Tolstoys War and Peace. Prokofiev was born in 1891 in Sontsovka, a rural estate in the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of the Russian Empire. His father, Sergei Alexeyevich Prokofiev, was an agronomist, Prokofievs mother, Maria, came from a family of former serfs who had been owned by the Sheremetev family, under whose patronage serf-children were taught theatre and arts from an early age. She was described by Reinhold Glière as a woman with beautiful. Who knew how to create an atmosphere of warmth and simplicity about her, after their wedding in the summer of 1877, the Prokofievs had moved to a small estate in the Smolensk governorate. Eventually Sergei Alexeyevich found employment as a engineer, employed by one of his former fellow-students, Dmitri Sontsov. By seven, he had learned to play chess. At the age of nine, he was composing his first opera, The Giant, as well as an overture, unable to arrange that, Tanayev instead arranged for composer and pianist Reinhold Glière to spend the summer of 1902 in Sontsovka teaching Prokofiev. The first series of lessons culminated, at the 11-year-old Prokofievs insistence, the following summer, Glière revisited Sontsovka to give further tuition. By 1904, his mother had decided instead on Saint Petersburg, glazunov was so impressed that he urged Prokofievs mother to have her son apply for admission to the Conservatory. He passed the tests and enrolled that year. Several years younger than most of his class, Prokofiev was viewed as eccentric and arrogant and he also shared classes with the composers Boris Asafyev and Nikolai Myaskovsky, the latter becoming a relatively close and lifelong friend. As a member of the Saint Petersburg music scene, Prokofiev developed a reputation as a rebel, while getting praise for his original compositions
Sergei Prokofiev
–
Sergei Prokofiev in New York, 1918
Sergei Prokofiev
–
Prokofiev as drawn by
Henri Matisse for the premiere of
Chout (1921)
Sergei Prokofiev
–
Prokofiev and his second wife, Mira Mendelson
Sergei Prokofiev
–
Sergei Prokofiev with
Mstislav Rostropovich
33.
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Arnold Franz Walter Schoenberg or Schönberg was an Austrian composer, music theorist, and painter. He was associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, by 1938, with the rise of the Nazi Party, Schoenbergs works were labeled degenerate music, because he was Jewish. He moved to the United States in 1934, Schoenbergs approach, both in terms of harmony and development, has been one of the most influential of 20th-century musical thought. Many European and American composers from at least three generations have consciously extended his thinking, whereas others have reacted against it. Schoenberg was known early in his career for simultaneously extending the traditionally opposed German Romantic styles of Brahms, later, his name would come to personify innovations in atonality that would become the most polemical feature of 20th-century art music. In the 1920s, Schoenberg developed the technique, an influential compositional method of manipulating an ordered series of all twelve notes in the chromatic scale. He also coined the term developing variation and was the first modern composer to embrace ways of developing motifs without resorting to the dominance of a melodic idea. Schoenbergs archival legacy is collected at the Arnold Schönberg Center in Vienna, Arnold Schoenberg was born into a lower middle-class Jewish family in the Leopoldstadt district of Vienna, at Obere Donaustraße 5. His father Samuel, a native of Bratislava, was a shopkeeper and he took only counterpoint lessons with the composer Alexander Zemlinsky, who was to become his first brother-in-law. In his twenties, Schoenberg earned a living by orchestrating operettas, while composing his own works and he later made an orchestral version of this, which became one of his most popular pieces. Strauss turned to a more conservative idiom in his own work after 1909, Mahler adopted him as a protégé and continued to support him, even after Schoenbergs style reached a point Mahler could no longer understand. Mahler worried about who would look after him after his death, Schoenberg, who had initially despised and mocked Mahlers music, was converted by the thunderbolt of Mahlers Third Symphony, which he considered a work of genius. Afterward he spoke of Mahler as a saint, in 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald this was partly to strengthen his attachment to Western European cultural traditions and he would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life. In October 1901, he married Mathilde Zemlinsky, the sister of the conductor and composer Alexander von Zemlinsky and he and Mathilde had two children, Gertrud and Georg. Gertrud would marry Schoenbergs pupil Felix Greissle in 1921, during the summer of 1908, his wife Mathilde left him for several months for a young Austrian painter, Richard Gerstl. This period marked a change in Schoenbergs work. This was the first composition without any reference at all to a key, also in this year, he completed one of his most revolutionary compositions, the String Quartet No
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Arnold Schoenberg, Los Angeles, 1948
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Arnold Schönberg in Payerbach, 1903
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Schoenberg's Der Rote Blick (Red Gaze), 1910
Arnold Schoenberg
–
Arnold Schoenberg, by
Egon Schiele 1917
34.
Twelve-tone technique
–
All 12 notes are thus given more or less equal importance, and the music avoids being in a key. Over time, the technique increased greatly in popularity and eventually became widely influential on 20th century composers, many important composers who had originally not subscribed to or even actively opposed the technique, such as Aaron Copland and Igor Stravinsky, eventually adopted it in their music. Schoenberg himself described the system as a Method of composing with twelve tones which are related only with one another and it is commonly considered a form of serialism. Schoenbergs countryman and contemporary Josef Matthias Hauer also developed a system using unordered hexachords or tropes—but with no connection to Schoenbergs twelve-tone technique. Other composers have created systematic use of the scale. The twelve tone technique was preceded by freely atonal pieces of 1908–23 which, though free, the twelve-tone technique was also preceded by nondodecaphonic serial composition used independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin, Igor Stravinsky, Béla Bartók, Carl Ruggles, and others. Oliver Neighbour argues that Bartók was the first composer to use a group of twelve notes consciously for a structural purpose, essentially, Schoenberg and Hauer systematized and defined for their own dodecaphonic purposes a pervasive technical feature of modern musical practice, the ostinato. In Hauers breakthrough piece Nomos, Op. Schoenbergs idea in developing the technique was for it to replace those structural differentiations provided formerly by tonal harmonies, Some of these composers extended the technique to control aspects other than the pitches of notes, thus producing serial music. Some even subjected all elements of music to the serial process, the basis of the twelve-tone technique is the tone row, an ordered arrangement of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale. There are four postulates or preconditions to the technique which apply to the row, on which a work or section is based, no note is repeated within the row. The row may be subjected to interval-preserving transformations -—that is, it may appear in inversion, retrograde, or retrograde-inversion, the row in any of its four transformations may begin on any degree of the chromatic scale, in other words it may be freely transposed. A particular transformation together with a choice of transpositional level is referred to as a set form or row form, every row thus has up to 48 different row forms. However, not all prime series will yield so many variations because transposed transformations may be identical to each other. A simple case is the chromatic scale, the retrograde inversion of which is identical to the prime form. In the above example, as is typical, the retrograde inversion contains three points where the sequence of two pitches are identical to the prime row, thus the generative power of even the most basic transformations is both unpredictable and inevitable. Motivic development can be driven by such internal consistency, note that rules 1–4 above apply to the construction of the row itself, and not to the interpretation of the row in the composition. While a row may be expressed literally on the surface as thematic material, it need not be, however, individual composers have constructed more detailed systems in which matters such as these are also governed by systematic rules. The tone row chosen as the basis of the piece is called the prime series, untransposed, it is notated as P0
Twelve-tone technique
–
Schoenberg, inventor of twelve-tone technique
35.
Paul Hillier
–
Paul Douglas Hillier is a conductor, music director and baritone. He specializes in music and contemporary art music, especially that by composers Steve Reich. He studied at the Guildhall School of Music, beginning his career while a vicar-scholar at St Pauls Cathedral. His concert debut was in 1974 in Londons Purcell Room, born in Dorchester, England in 1949, Hillier co-founded the Hilliard Ensemble along with fellow vicar-scholar Paul Elliott and counter-tenor David James. Hillier remained the director of the ensemble until 1990, when he founded Theatre of Voices, in addition to early music, this group explores more contemporary repertoire. With the Chicago-based His Majesties Clerkes Hillier recorded early American repertoire such as the works of William Billings on the 1992 album A Land of Pure Delight, the Pro Arte Singers joined the Theatre of Voices in a couple of recordings. In 2001, he became the Artistic Director and Principal Conductor of the Estonian Philharmonic Chamber Choir, since 2003, Hillier has been Chief Conductor of Ars Nova. In 2008, was appointed Artistic Director and Chief Conductor of the National Chamber Choir of Ireland, Hillier has recorded a number of solo albums, some with harpist Andrew Lawrence-King, on the Harmonia Mundi, ECM, EMI, Finlandia and Hyperion labels. Starting in 1980, Hillier has held a variety of academic appointments over the years, the Catch Book, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-343649-3, a collection of catches edited by Hillier. A Josquin Anthology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-353218-2, a collection of pieces by Renaissance composer Josquin des Prez, edited by Ross Duffin. Writing on Music, 1965–2000, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-511171-0, Arvo Pärt, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-816616-8, The first English-language biography of Estonian composer Arvo Pärt. English Romantic Partsongs, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-343650-7, a collection of songs edited by Hillier,300 Years of English Partsongs, Glees, Rounds, Catches, Partsongs 1600-1900, Faber & Faber, ISBN 0-571-10045-7, a collection of music edited by Hillier. Hilliard Ensemble Estonian Philharmonic Chamber Choir Official website Paul Hillier on Bach-Cantatas Paul Hillier on Harmonia Mundi Classical Archives interview at the Wayback Machine
Paul Hillier
–
Kronos with Paul Hillier in Malmö fall 2005
36.
Polyphony
–
Within the context of the Western musical tradition, the term polyphony is usually used to refer to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Baroque forms such as fugue, which might be called polyphonic, are usually described instead as contrapuntal. In all cases the conception was probably what Margaret Bent calls dyadic counterpoint, with part being written generally against one other part. The term polyphony is also used more broadly, to describe any musical texture that is not monophonic. Such a perspective considers homophony as a sub-type of polyphony, traditional polyphony has a wide, if uneven, distribution among the peoples of the world. Most polyphonic regions of the world are in sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and it is believed that the origins of polyphony in traditional music vastly predate the emergence of polyphony in European professional music. Currently there are two approaches to the problem of the origins of vocal polyphony, the Cultural Model. Although the exact origins of polyphony in the Western church traditions are unknown,900, are usually considered the oldest extant written examples of polyphony. These treatises provided examples of two-voice note-against-note embellishments of chants using parallel octaves, fifths, rather than being fixed works, they indicated ways of improvising polyphony during performance. 1000, is the oldest extant example of notated polyphony for chant performance, European polyphony rose out of melismatic organum, the earliest harmonization of the chant. Twelfth-century composers, such as Léonin and Pérotin developed the organum that was introduced centuries earlier, the lyrics of love poems might be sung above sacred texts in the form of a trope, or the sacred text might be placed within a familiar secular melody. The oldest surviving piece of music is the English rota Sumer is icumen in. These musical innovations appeared in a context of societal change. After the first millennium, European monks decided to start translating the works of Greek philosophers into the vernacular, Western Europeans were aware of Plato, Socrates, and Hippocrates during the Middle Ages. However they had largely lost touch with the content of their surviving works because the use of Greek as a language was restricted to the lands of the Eastern Roman Empire. Once these ancient works started being translated thus becoming accessible, the philosophies had a impact on the mind of Western Europe. This sparked a number of innovations in medicine, science, art, European polyphony rose prior to, and during the period of the Western Schism. Avignon, the seat of the antipopes, was a center of secular music-making
Polyphony
–
Albanian polyphonic folk group wearing
qeleshe and
fustanella in
Skrapar.
Polyphony
–
A bar from
J.S. Bach 's "
Fugue No.17 in A flat", BWV 862, from
Das Wohltemperierte Clavier (Part I), a famous example of
contrapuntal polyphony. Play (
help ·
info)
37.
Renaissance
–
The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
Renaissance
–
David, by
Michelangelo (
Accademia di Belle Arti,
Florence) is a masterpiece of Renaissance and world art.
Renaissance
–
Renaissance
Renaissance
–
Leonardo da Vinci 's
Vitruvian Man (c. 1490) shows clearly the effect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the specifications in
Vitruvius '
De architectura (1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man.
Renaissance
–
Portrait of a young woman (c. 1480-85) (
Simonetta Vespucci) by
Sandro Botticelli
38.
Harmony
–
In music, harmony considers the process by which the composition of individual sounds, or superpositions of sounds, is analysed by hearing. Usually, this means simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches, or chords, the study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic line. In popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms, in many types of music, notably baroque, romantic, modern, and jazz, chords are often augmented with tensions. A tension is an additional member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to the bass. Typically, in the common practice period a dissonant chord resolves to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds, in simple words, that occurs when there is a balance between tense and relaxed moments. The term harmony derives from the Greek ἁρμονία, meaning joint, agreement, concord, from the verb ἁρμόζω, to fit together, the term was often used for the whole field of music, while music referred to the arts in general. In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements, in the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches sounding in combination, and in the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches sounding together. Aristoxenus wrote a work entitled Harmonika Stoicheia, which is thought the first work in European history written on the subject of harmony, the underlying principle behind these texts is that harmony sanctions harmoniousness by conforming to certain pre-established compositional principles. Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the ambiguity of the term in modern use, ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations or from the point of view of musical texture (distinguishing between harmonic and contrapuntal. The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in music theory and this is usually accounted for by the replacement of horizontal writing, common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the vertical element of composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation, as Carl Dahlhaus puts it, It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the structure of chords but also their movement, like music as a whole, harmony is a process. Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias towards European musical traditions, pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration. Nevertheless, emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias, the conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use of improvisatory techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation. Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated by this process of prior composition, some traditions of Western music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony. This model provides that the seventh and ninth are not dissonant
Harmony
–
Barbershop quartets, such as this US Navy group, sing 4-part pieces, made up of a melody line (normally the lead) and 3 harmony parts.
Harmony
–
Rameau 's 'Traité de l'harmonie' (Treatise on Harmony) from 1722.
Harmony
–
Example of implied harmonies in
J.S. Bach's Cello Suite no. 1 in G, BWV 1007, bars 1-2. Play (
help ·
info) or Play harmony (
help ·
info)
39.
Chord (music)
–
A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches consisting of two or more notes that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. In everyday use by musical ensembles such as bands and orchestras, however, the notes of a chord do not have to be played together at the same time, arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, also constitute chords. Other chords with more than three notes include added tone chords, extended chords and tone clusters, which are used in classical music, jazz. Triads commonly found in the Western classical tradition are major and minor chords, the descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also classified by their root note—for instance, a C major triad consists of the pitch classes C, E. While most chords have at least three notes, power chords, which are used in rock music, particularly in hard rock. An ordered series of chords is called a chord progression, one example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression, the simplest versions of which include tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practice of numbering chords using Roman numerals which represent the number of steps up from the tonic note of the scale. Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music include Roman numerals, figured bass, macro symbols, the chords in a song or piece are also given names which refer to their function. The chord built on the first note of a scale is called the tonic chord. The chord built on the note of a major scale is called the subdominant chord. The chord built on the degree of the major scale is called the dominant chord. There are names for the built on every note of the major scale. Chords can be played on instruments, including piano, pipe organ, guitar. Chords can also be performed when multiple musicians play together in an ensemble or when multiple singers sing in a choir. The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a shortening of accord in the sense of agreement and later. A sequence of chords is known as a progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music, a chord progression aims for a definite goal of establishing a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord
Chord (music)
–
Instruments and voices playing and singing different
notes create chords.
40.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
41.
Church Slavonic language
–
The language also occasionally appears in the services of the Orthodox Church in America. It was also used by the Orthodox Churches in Romanian lands until the late 17th and early 18th centuries, attestation of Church Slavonic traditions appear in Early Cyrillic and Glagolitic script. Glagolitic has nowadays fallen out of use, though both scripts were used from the earliest attested period, the first Church Slavonic printed book was the Missale Romanum Glagolitice in angular Glagolitic, followed shortly by five Cyrillic liturgical books printed in Kraków in 1491. In recent centuries, however, Church Slavonic was fully replaced by local languages in the non-Slavic countries, even in some of the Slavic Orthodox countries, the modern national language is now used for liturgical purposes to a greater or lesser extent. Nevertheless, the Russian Orthodox Church, which contains half of all Orthodox believers. Church Slavonic language is actually a set of at least four different dialects, the most widespread recension, Russian, has, in turn, several local sub-dialects with slightly different pronunciations. For the list and descriptions of extinct recensions, see article Old Church Slavonic language, the Russian recension of New Church Slavonic is the language of books since the second half of the 17th century. It generally uses traditional Cyrillic script, however, certain texts can be printed in modern alphabets with the spelling adapted to rules of local languages, before the eighteenth century, Church Slavonic was in wide use as a general literary language in Russia. Although it was never spoken per se outside church services, members of the priesthood, poets, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, it was gradually replaced by the Russian language in secular literature and was retained for use only in church. Although as late as the 1760s, Lomonosov argued that Church Slavonic was the high style of Russian, during the nineteenth century within Russia. Elements of Church Slavonic style may have survived longest in speech among the Old Believers after the late-seventeenth century schism in the Russian Orthodox Church, Russian has borrowed many words from Church Slavonic. While both Russian and Church Slavonic are Slavic languages, some early Slavic sound combinations evolved differently in each branch. As a result, the borrowings into Russian are similar to native Russian words, since the Russian Romantic era and the corpus of work of the great Russian authors, the relationship between words in these pairs has become traditional. In Russia, Church Slavonic is pronounced in the way as Russian, with some exceptions, Church Slavonic features okanye and yekanye. That is, о and е in unstressed positions are always read as and ~ respectively, there should be no de-voicing of final consonants, although in practice there often is. The letter е is never read as ё ~, the letter Γ can traditionally be read as voiced fricative velar sound, however, occlusive is also possible and legal since the 20th century. When unvoiced, it becomes, this has influenced the Russian pronunciation of Бог as Boh, the adjective endings -аго/-его/-ого/-яго are pronounced as written, whereas Russian -его/-ого are pronounced with instead of. In Serbia, Church Slavonic is generally pronounced according to the Russian model, the medieval Serbian recension of Church Slavonic was gradually replaced by the Russian recension since the early eighteenth century
Church Slavonic language
–
Page from the
Spiridon Psalter in Church Slavonic
42.
Estonian language
–
Estonian is the official language of Estonia, spoken natively by about 922,000 people in Estonia and 160,000 outside Estonia. It belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, Estonian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, along with Finnish, Karelian, and other nearby languages. The Uralic languages do not belong to the Indo-European languages, Estonian is distantly related to Hungarian and to the Sami languages. Estonian has been influenced by Swedish, German, and Russian, furthermore, the apocope of word-final sounds is extensive and has contributed to a shift from a purely agglutinative to a fusional language. The basic word order is subject–verb–object, modern standard Estonian has evolved on the basis of the dialects of Northern Estonia. The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Denmark, Germany, Sweden, the oldest written records of the Finnic languages of Estonia date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words, the earliest extant samples of connected Estonian are the so-called Kullamaa prayers dating from 1524 and 1528. In 1525 the first book published in the Estonian language was printed, the book was a Lutheran manuscript, which never reached the reader and was destroyed immediately after publication. The first extant Estonian book is a bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism by S. Wanradt and J. Koell dating to 1535, an Estonian grammar book to be used by priests was printed in German in 1637. The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686, the two languages were united based on northern Estonian by Anton thor Helle. Writings in Estonian became more significant in the 19th century during the Estophile Enlightenment Period, the birth of native Estonian literature was in 1810 to 1820 when the patriotic and philosophical poems by Kristjan Jaak Peterson were published. His birthday on March 14 is celebrated in Estonia as the Mother Tongue Day, a fragment from Petersons poem Kuu expresses the claim reestablishing the birthright of the Estonian language, Kas siis selle maa keel Laulutuules ei või Taevani tõustes üles Igavikku omale otsida. In English, Can the language of this land In the wind of incantation Rising up to the heavens Not seek for eternity. Kristjan Jaak Peterson From 1525 to 191714,503 titles were published in Estonian, in modern times Jaan Kross and Jaan Kaplinski remain as two of Estonias best known and most translated writers. Writings in Estonian became significant only in the 19th century with the spread of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, after the Estonian War of Independence in 1919, the Estonian language became the state language of the newly independent country. In 1945,97. 3% of Estonia considered itself ethnic Estonian, when Estonia was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in World War II, the status of the Estonian language changed to the first of two official languages. As with Latvia many immigrants entered Estonia under Soviet encouragement, in the second half of the 1970s, the pressure of bilingualism intensified, resulting in widespread knowledge of Russian throughout the country. The Russian language was termed as ‘the language of friendship of nations’ and was taught to Estonian children, although teaching Estonian to non-Estonians in schools was compulsory, in practice learning the language was often considered unnecessary
Estonian language
–
Estonian grammar published in Reval in 1637 by Heinrich Stahl
Estonian language
–
Estonian
Estonian language
–
An 1885 ABC-book in
Võro written by Johann Hurt: "Wastne Võro keeli ABD raamat"
43.
Steve Reich
–
Stephen Michael Steve Reich is an American composer who, along with La Monte Young, Terry Riley, and Philip Glass, pioneered minimal music in the mid to late 1960s. Reichs style of composition influenced many composers and groups and his innovations include using tape loops to create phasing patterns, and the use of simple, audible processes to explore musical concepts. These compositions, marked by their use of figures, slow harmonic rhythm and canons, have significantly influenced contemporary music. Reichs work took on a character in the 1980s with the introduction of historical themes as well as themes from his Jewish heritage. Writing in The Guardian, music critic Andrew Clements suggested that Reich is one of a handful of living composers who can claim to have altered the direction of musical history. The American composer and critic Kyle Gann has claimed that Reich may. be considered, by general acclamation, Reich was born in New York City to the Broadway lyricist June Sillman and Leonard Reich. When he was one old, his parents divorced. He is the half-brother of writer Jonathan Carroll and he was given piano lessons as a child and describes growing up with the middle-class favorites, having no exposure to music written before 1750 or after 1900. At the age of 14 he began to study music in earnest, after hearing music from the Baroque period and earlier, Reich studied drums with Roland Kohloff in order to play jazz. While attending Cornell University, he minored in music and graduated in 1957 with a B. A. in Philosophy, Reichs B. A. thesis was on Ludwig Wittgenstein, later he would set texts by that philosopher to music in Proverb and You Are. For a year following graduation, Reich studied composition privately with Hall Overton before he enrolled at Juilliard to work with William Bergsma, subsequently, he attended Mills College in Oakland, California, where he studied with Luciano Berio and Darius Milhaud and earned a masters degree in composition. At Mills, Reich composed Melodica for melodica and tape, which appeared in 1986 on the three-LP release Music from Mills, Reich worked with the San Francisco Tape Music Center along with Pauline Oliveros, Ramon Sender, Morton Subotnick, Phil Lesh and Terry Riley. He was involved with the premiere of Rileys In C and suggested the use of the eighth note pulse, Reichs early forays into composition involved experimentation with twelve-tone composition, but he found the rhythmic aspects of the number twelve more interesting than the pitch aspects. Reich also composed soundtracks for Plastic Haircut, Oh Dem Watermelons. The soundtrack of Plastic Haircut, composed in 1963, was a short tape collage, the Watermelons soundtrack used two 19th-century minstrel tunes as its basis, and used repeated phrasing together in a large five-part canon. The music for Thick Pucker arose from street recordings Reich made walking around San Francisco with Nelson, who filmed in black and white 16mm. A fourth film from 1965, about 25 minutes long and tentatively entitled Thick Pucker II, was assembled by Nelson from outtakes of that shoot, Nelson was not happy with the resulting film and never showed it. Reich was influenced by fellow minimalist Terry Riley, whose work In C combines simple musical patterns, offset in time, to create a slowly shifting, Reich adopted this approach to compose his first major work, Its Gonna Rain
Steve Reich
–
Reich performing clapping music in 2006
44.
ECM Records
–
ECM is an independent record label founded by Manfred Eicher in Munich in 1969. While ECM is best known for music, the label has released a variety of recordings. ECMs motto is the Most Beautiful Sound Next to Silence, according to a 1971 review of ECM releases in CODA, ECM has been distributed in the U. S. by Warner Bros. Records, PolyGram Records, BMG, and, since 1999, Universal Music and its album covers have been profiled in two books, Sleeves of Desire and Windfall Light, both published by Lars Müller. The first ECM release was pianist Mal Waldrons 1969 recording Free at Last. The label has released recordings in the world music genre by artists including Jan Garbarek, Steve Tibbetts, Stephan Micus, Codona, Anouar Brahem, L. Shankar, Jon Hassell. The ECM New Series was created in 1984 to document Western classical works and it has released works by composers from the early to the contemporary. The series was initiated for Arvo Pärts record debut Tabula Rasa, which Eicher recorded and produced in 1977,1983, since then Pärt and Eicher have built a strong relationship, all works premiere on recordings for the label and all are done in presence of the composer. Keith Jarrett, better known as a musician, contributed together with Gidon Kremer amongst others to Tabula Rasa. He later recorded several works by Bach, Mozart, Shostakovich. Several of John Adams works from his minimalist period have been released through the label as well, including Harmonium, garbareks work with guitarist Ralph Towner draws on, and is as apparently influenced by, 20th century chamber music as by any overtly jazz-oriented material. The label has also released unique works that fit into no obvious genre at all, in 2002 and 2004 ECM released a series of compilation CDs titled, rarum. Twenty of the artists were asked to compile a single CD of their work for the label. The typical ECM session is just three days, two days to record, one day to mix, after working as a writer for the Melody Maker Steve Lake first joined the ECM-staff in 1978. In fall 2012 the Munich museum Haus der Kunst opened an exhibition about the work of the label called ECM - A Cultural Archaeology and it pointed out the early jazz-focused years till mid 80s before the New Series was initiated. In close relation with Eicher and ECM the exhibition was created by Okwui Enwezor, some of them, anyway, do have a long past with the label - even if their home is ECM or New Series. The physical catalogue of the exhibition was published by Prestel Verlag in German, another extended exhibition was displayed in Seoul, Korea, from September till November 2013. The label has a special relation towards film and directors, founder Manfred Eicher himself is a very passionate movie viewer and directed in 1990 an adaption of Max Frisch’s Holozän together with Heinz Bütler
ECM Records
–
ECM Records
45.
Rheingau Musik Festival
–
The Rheingau Musik Festival is an international summer music festival in Germany, founded in 1987. It is mostly for classical music, but includes other genres, concerts take place at culturally important locations, such as Eberbach Abbey and Schloss Johannisberg, in the wine-growing Rheingau region between Wiesbaden and Lorch. The festival was the initiative of Michael Herrmann, who has served as its Artistic Director, like the Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival founded in 1986, the Rheingau festival was intended to add life to a region rich in musical heritage. The gothic church of Kiedrich houses the oldest playable organ in Germany and has its own dialect of Gregorian chant that dates back to 1333, to test the festival idea, two concerts took place in Eberbach Abbey in the summer of 1987. In November 1987 the Rheingau Musik Festival e. V. was founded by Michael Herrmann, Tatiana von Metternich-Winneburg, Walter Fink, Michael Bolenius, Hans-Clemens Lucht, Ulrich Rosin, the association organized the festival from the first season in 1988 which included 19 concerts until 1992. It has continued to support the festival since, the RMF receives significant financial help from sponsors who choose to fund their own concerts. The Rheingau Musik Festival is under the patronage of the minister-president of Hesse, Michael Herrmann was awarded the Goethe-Plakette of Hesse in 2002. The RMF has grown to be one of Germanys important festivals presenting around 140 events every summer with international orchestras, ensembles and it is a member of the European Festivals Association. On 17 June 2012, the 25th anniversary of the festival was celebrated at the Kurhaus, concerts have been staged in churches, castles and former presshouses. Most events are dedicated to music, but cabaret, jazz, readings, musical cruises, childrens concerts. The Rheingau Musik Festival is traditionally opened in Eberbach Abbey by a concert of the hr-Sinfonieorchester, the first concert was on 23 June 1988 a performance of two works by C. P. E. Bach, his Magnificat and the oratorio Die Israeliten in der Wüste. Frieder Bernius conducted the Kammerchor Stuttgart and the Barockorchester Stuttgart, with soloists Nancy Argenta, Lena Lootens, Mechthild Georg, Howard Crook and Stephen Roberts. A cycle of the symphonies of Gustav Mahler, conducted by Paavo Järvi, continued in 2011 with the Fifth Symphony, programmed with Alban Bergs Sieben frühe Lieder, in 2013, Mahlers Sixth Symphony was preceded by Wagners Wesendonck Lieder, sung by Anne Sofie von Otter. In 2016, Christoph Eschenbach conducted Schuberts Unfinished Symphony and Bruckners Sixth Symphony Every year, in 2010, Robert Schumann and Frédéric Chopin were celebrated in 16 concerts, such as Das Paradies und die Peri and piano music of Chopin with Daniel Barenboim. Seven concerts were devoted to Mahler and Hugo Wolf, such as Spanisches Liederbuch, Christian Gerhaher and Gerold Huber performed Mahlers Sieben Lieder aus letzter Zeit and songs from Das Lied von der Erde. In 2011 they performed the composers Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, Des Knaben Wunderhorn,2014 remembers three anniversaries of birth,450 of Shakespeare,300 of C. P. E. Bach and 150 of Richard Strauss, Every year, some concerts are grouped around a theme, in 2010, Fernweh, in eight concerts, including one of the ensemble amarcord, in 2011 the opposite, Heimweh. The theme of 2014 was Liebespaare, soloists still in their teens are presented at the regular Treffpunkt Jugend
Rheingau Musik Festival
–
Schloss Johannisberg, Rheingau (2006), venue for concerts of sacred music in the Basilika, chamber music in the Fürst-von-Metternich-Saal (East wing), open-air concerts in various courts
Rheingau Musik Festival
–
Michael Herrmann, founder and director, 23 August 2011
Rheingau Musik Festival
–
Eberbach Abbey (2006), venue for concerts of sacred music in the Basilika, chamber music in the Dormitorium and the Laiendormitorium, open-air concerts in the
cloister
Rheingau Musik Festival
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Andreas Scholl and members of the Baroque orchestra Accademia Bizantina in concert at the church of
Hallgarten
46.
Johann Sebastian Bach
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Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
Johann Sebastian Bach
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Portrait of Bach, aged 61, by
E. G. Haussmann, 1748
Johann Sebastian Bach
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Johann Ambrosius Bach, Bach's father
Johann Sebastian Bach
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St. George's Church in Eisenach, where Bach was baptised. Portal inscription: "
Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott ".
Johann Sebastian Bach
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Organs Bach played in Arnstadt
47.
Windsbach Boys Choir
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The Windsbacher Knabenchor is a German choir of boys and young men in Windsbach, Germany. Founded in 1946 by Hans Thamm and since 1978 under the direction of Karl-Friedrich Beringer, the choir is an institution of the Lutheran Church in Bavaria, which raises about 30 percent of the funds required to support both the ensemble and the singers boarding school. The choir received the Rheingau Musikpreis of the Rheingau Musik Festival in 2007, the choirs repertoire spans all kinds of disciplines from a cappella to great oratoric masterpieces, such as the Messiah by Handel or Elijah by Mendelssohn Bartholdy. With about 70 singers, the choir conducts about 50 concerts per year and this includes going on tour once or twice per year to locations such as other European countries, the Middle East, Far East, the United States and South America. The choir also accompanied the Presidents of Germany Richard von Weizsäcker and Roman Herzog on their state visits, at school, the young singers are specially supported in so called choir classes of the external grammar school Johann-Sebastian-Bach-Gymnasium. This allows for flexibility in responding to the special needs of the singers. The musical education at the school also includes voice training, music theory. In order to ensure delivery of homework and absorption of curriculum content. Depending on the level of an individual student, special enhancement classes are offered by teachers of the grammar school
Windsbach Boys Choir
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Contents
48.
List of Bach cantatas by liturgical function
–
Throughout his life as a musician, Johann Sebastian Bach composed cantatas for both secular and sacred use. His church cantatas are cantatas which he composed for use in the Lutheran church, the extant cantatas are around two thirds of that number, with limited additional information on the ones that went missing or survived as fragments. The listing below contains information as available in scholarship, and may include cantatas that are or were associated with Bach. Bachs earliest cantatas date from more than 15 years before he became Thomaskantor in Leipzig in 1723 and his earliest extant cantatas were composed in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen. In 1708 he moved to Weimar where he wrote most of his church cantatas before the Leipzig era and these pre-Leipzig cantatas are not generally grouped as one of the five cycles mentioned in the Nekrolog. The extant cantatas of the era are primarily known by their recasting as a cantata in one of the Leipzig cycles. Bach started composing cantatas around 1707, when he was still an organist in Arnstadt, the first documented performances of his work take place in Mühlhausen, where he was appointed in 1708. In Weimar, Bach was from 1714 to 1717 commissioned to compose one cantata a month. In the course of almost four years there he covered most occasions of the liturgical year. The expression Weimar cycle has been used for the cantatas composed in Weimar from 1714, in Köthen, where Bach worked from 1717 to 1723, he restaged some of his earlier church cantatas. Apart from composing several secular cantatas, Lobet den Herrn, alle seine Heerscharen,5, is the only new church cantata he appears to have composed there. He collected them in annual cycles, five are mentioned in obituaries, Leipzig observed tempus clausum, quiet time, in Advent and Lent, when no cantatas were performed. All cantatas for these occasions date from Bachs earlier time and he reworked some cantatas from this period for different occasions. The high holidays Christmas, Easter and Pentecost were each celebrated on three days, further feasts on fixed days were New Years Day, Epiphany and Reformation Day. Sacred cantatas were performed for the inauguration of a new city council, consecration of church and organ, weddings, confession, funerals. Bachs first cantata cycle consists of cantatas or similar liturgical works first performed from 30 May 1723 to 4 June 1724, Bach started a second annual cycle on the first Sunday after Trinity of 1724, planned to contain only chorale cantatas, each based on a single Lutheran hymn. Bachs second cantata cycle consists of cantatas first performed from 11 June 1724 to 27 May 1725, the first 40 cantatas of this cycle are chorale cantatas, thus this cycle is also known as the chorale cantata cycle. Bachs chorale cantatas written at a date and restagings of earlier chorale cantatas are also usually understood as being included in this cycle
List of Bach cantatas by liturgical function
–
Compositions
49.
Felix Mendelssohn
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Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, born and widely known as Felix Mendelssohn, was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period. A grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, Felix Mendelssohn was born into a prominent Jewish family and he was brought up without religion until the age of seven, when he was baptised as a Reformed Christian. Mendelssohn was recognised early as a prodigy, but his parents were cautious. Mendelssohn enjoyed early success in Germany, where he revived interest in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach. The Leipzig Conservatoire, which he founded, became a bastion of this anti-radical outlook, Mendelssohn wrote symphonies, concerti, oratorios, piano music and chamber music. His Songs Without Words are his most famous solo piano compositions and he is now among the most popular composers of the Romantic era. Mendelssohns father was the banker Abraham Mendelssohn, the son of the German Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn and his mother was Lea Salomon, a member of the Itzig family and a sister of Jakob Salomon Bartholdy. Mendelssohn was the second of four children, his older sister Fanny also displayed exceptional, the family moved to Berlin in 1811, leaving Hamburg in disguise fearing French revenge for the Mendelssohn banks role in breaking Napoleons Continental System blockade. Abraham and Lea Mendelssohn sought to give their children – Fanny, Felix, Paul, Fanny became a well-known pianist and amateur composer, originally Abraham had thought that she, rather than Felix, would be the more musical. However, at time, it was not considered proper, by either Abraham or Felix, for a woman to have a career in music, so Fanny remained an active. Abraham was also disinclined to allow Felix to follow a career until it became clear that he seriously intended to dedicate himself to it. Mendelssohn grew up in an intellectual environment, Sarah Rothenburg wrote of the household that Europe came to their living room. Abraham Mendelssohn renounced the Jewish religion, he and his wife decided not to have Felix circumcised. Felix and his siblings were first brought up without religious education, Abraham and his wife Lea were themselves baptised in 1822, formally adopting the surname Mendelssohn Bartholdy for themselves and their children. The name Bartholdy was added at the suggestion of Leas brother, Jakob Salomon Bartholdy, in 1829, his sister Fanny wrote to him of Bartholdy this name that we all dislike. Like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart before him, Mendelssohn was regarded as a child prodigy and he began taking piano lessons from his mother when he was six, and at seven was tutored by Marie Bigot in Paris. After the family moved to Berlin, all four Mendelssohn children studied piano with Ludwig Berger, from at least May 1819 Felix studied counterpoint and composition with Carl Friedrich Zelter in Berlin. This was an important influence on his future career, Zelter had almost certainly been recommended as a teacher by his aunt Sarah Levy, who had been a pupil of W. F. Bach and a patron of C. P. E. Bach
Felix Mendelssohn
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Portrait of Mendelssohn by the English
miniaturist James Warren Childe (1778–1862), 1839
Felix Mendelssohn
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First page of the
manuscript of Mendelssohn's Octet (1825) (now in the US
Library of Congress)
Felix Mendelssohn
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Felix Mendelssohn's study in Leipzig
Felix Mendelssohn
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Felix Mendelssohn's grave
50.
Hilliard Ensemble
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The Hilliard Ensemble was a British male vocal quartet originally devoted to the performance of early music. The group was named after the Elizabethan miniaturist painter Nicholas Hilliard, founded in 1974, the group disbanded in 2014. The group was founded by Paul Hillier, Errol Girdlestone, Paul Elliott, since 1990 the core members were David James, Rogers Covey-Crump, John Potter, and Gordon Jones, with one change, in 1998 John Potter was replaced by Steven Harrold. The Hilliard Ensemble, under Paul Hillier, had a discography with EMIs Reflexe early music series during the 1980s. The ensemble has since recorded mainly for the ECM label, in 1994, when popular interest in Gregorian chant was at its height, the ensemble released the CD Officium, an unprecedented collaboration with the Norwegian saxophonist Jan Garbarek. The disc became one of ECMs biggest-selling releases, reaching the pop charts in several European countries, officiums sequel, the 2-CD set Mnemosyne, followed in 1999. The third album, Officium Novum, was released in 2010 and their recordings have also been included in Craig Wrights Listening to Music textbook for music students and music appreciation. In 2005 the ensemble took part in the Rheingau Musik Festivals composers portrait of Arvo Pärt, in September 2010, The Hilliard Ensemble joined the London Philharmonic Orchestra and Choir for the world premiere of Matteo DAmicos Flight from Byzantium at the Royal Festival Hall, London. They also performed three pieces by Guillaume Dufay, Moribus et genere, Vergene bella and Lamentatio sanctae matris ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae. On 15 November 2010 the group appeared at Church of St. Paul the Apostle in New York to perform Kjartan Sveinssons Cage a Swallow Can’t You but You Can’t Swallow a Cage. The Hilliard Ensemble decided to disband after 41 years and gave their final concert on 20 December 2014 at Londons Wigmore Hall
Hilliard Ensemble
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A self-portrait by
Nicholas Hilliard (1577)
Hilliard Ensemble
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Aachener Bachverein
