1.
John Singleton Copley
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John Singleton Copley RA was an American painter, active in both colonial America and England. He was probably born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Richard and Mary Singleton Copley and he is famous for his portrait paintings of important figures in colonial New England, depicting in particular middle-class subjects. His portraits were innovative in their tendency to depict artifacts relating to these individuals lives, Copleys mother owned a tobacco shop on Long Wharf. His father was from Limerick, his mother, of the Singletons of County Clare, Letters from John Singleton, Mrs. Copleys father, are in the Copley-Pelham collection. Richard Copley, described as a tobacconist, is said by biographers to have arrived in Boston in ill health and to have gone, about the time of Johns birth, to the West Indies. William H. Whitmore gives his death as of 1748, the year of Mrs. Copleys remarriage, james Bernard Cullen says, Richard Copley was in poor health on his arrival in America and went to the West Indies to improve his failing strength. No contemporary evidence has been located for either year, except for a family tradition that speaks of his precocity in drawing, nothing is known of Copleys schooling or of the other activities of his boyhood. His letters, the earliest of which is dated September 30,1762, in such a household young Copley may have learned to use the paintbrush and the engravers tools. The family lived next to the occupied by japanner Thomas Johnston and his family. His son, Lord Lyndhurst, wrote that he was entirely self taught, variants of this thesis are found almost everywhere in his earlier letters. They suggest that, while Copley was industrious and an executant, he was physically unadventurous and temperamentally inclined toward brooding. He could have seen at least a few paintings and many good prints in the Boston of his youth. The excellence of his own portraits was not accidental or miraculous and it is a remarkable work to have come from so young a hand. No other engraving has been attributed to Copley, such painting would obviously advertise itself anywhere. Without going after business, for his letters do not indicate that he was ever aggressive or pushy, besides painting portraits in oil, doubtless after a formula learned from Peter Pelham, Copley was a pioneer American pastellist. He wrote, on September 30,1762, to the Swiss painter Jean-Étienne Liotard, the requested pastels were duly received and used by Copley in making many portraits in a medium suited to his talent. By this time he had begun to demonstrate his genius for rendering surface textures and capturing emotional immediacy. Copleys fame was established in England by the exhibition, in 1766, of A Boy with a Squirrel, which depicted his half-brother, Henry Pelham, seated at a table and playing with a pet squirrel
2.
Gospel harmony
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A gospel harmony is an attempt to compile the Christian canonical gospels into a single account. This may take the form either of a single, merged narrative, or a format with one column for each gospel, technically known as a synopsis. The construction of harmonies has always favoured by more conservative scholars. Students of higher criticism, on the hand, see the divergences between the Gospel accounts as reflecting the construction of traditions by the early Christian communities. The earliest known harmony is the Diatessaron by Tatian in the 2nd century, the 16th century witnessed a major increase in the introduction of Gospel harmonies and the parallel column structure became widespread. At this time visual representations also started appearing, depicting the Life of Christ in terms of a gospel harmony. A Gospel harmony is an attempt to collate the Christian canonical gospels into a single gospel account and this approach, almost as old as the gospels themselves, has largely been abandoned in the modern era. Harmonists must either choose which they think is correct, or conclude that separate events are described, a similar problem arises with the centurion whose servant is healed, at a distance. In the Matthew Gospel he comes to Jesus, in the Luke version he sends Jewish elders, since these are clearly describing the same event, the harmonist must decide which is the more accurate description. The terms harmony and synopsis have been used to refer to approaches that aim to achieve Gospel harmony, technically, a harmony weaves together sections of scripture into a narrative, merging the four Gospels. There are four types of harmony, radical, synthetic, sequential. A synopsis, much like a parallel harmony focuses on key events and brings together similar texts or accounts in parallel format, usually in columns. Harmonies may also have a form and be undertaken to create narratives for artistic purposes. To illustrate the concept of harmony, a simple example of a synopsis fragment is shown here. A more comprehensive parallel harmony appears in a section below, specific issues at times resists distillation into a single harmonized chronology, as the variety of readings that appear in multiple harmony efforts attests. An example is determining whether Jesus cursed the fig tree before or after the Cleansing of the Temple, however, the construction of harmonies remains an important element of biblical study and to gain a better understanding of the Gospel accounts of the life of Jesus. Tatians influential Diatessaron harmony which dates to about AD160 was perhaps the very first harmony. The Diatessaron reduced the number of verses in the four gospels from 3,780 to 2,769 without missing any event of teaching in the life of Jesus from any of the gospels, some scholars believe Tatian may have drawn on one or more noncanonical Gospels
3.
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
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The four canonical gospels of the New Testament are the primary sources of information for the narrative of the life of Jesus. And the Acts of the Apostles says more about the Ascension episode than the canonical gospels, the genealogy and Nativity of Jesus are described in two of the four canonical gospels, Matthew and Luke. While Luke traces the genealogy upwards towards Adam and God, Matthew traces it downwards towards Jesus, both gospels state that Jesus was begotten not by Joseph, but by God. Both accounts trace Joseph back to King David and from there to Abraham and these lists are identical between Abraham and David, but they differ almost completely between David and Joseph. Matthew gives Jacob as Joseph’s father and Luke says Joseph was the son of Heli, attempts at explaining the differences between the genealogies have varied in nature. Much of modern scholarship interprets them as literary inventions, the Luke and Matthew accounts of the birth of Jesus have a number of points in common, both have Jesus being born in Bethlehem, in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Luke account Joseph and Mary travel from their home in Nazareth for the census to Bethlehem, angels proclaim him a savior for all people, and shepherds come to adore him, the family then returns to Nazareth. In Matthew, The Magi follow a star to Bethlehem, where the family are living, to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod massacres all males under two years old in Bethlehem in order to kill Jesus, but Jesuss family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. Over the centuries, biblical scholars have attempted to reconcile these contradictions, generally, they consider the issue of historicity as secondary, given that gospels were primarily written as theological documents rather than chronological timelines. The five major milestones in the New Testament narrative of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, in the gospels, the ministry of Jesus starts with his Baptism by John the Baptist, when he is about thirty years old. Jesus then begins preaching in Galilee and gathers disciples, after the proclamation of Jesus as Christ, three of the disciples witness his Transfiguration. After the death of John the Baptist and the Transfiguration, Jesus starts his journey to Jerusalem. Jesus makes an entry into Jerusalem, and once there friction with the Pharisees increases. The Gospel of Luke states that Jesus was about 30 years of age at the start of his ministry, a chronology of Jesus typically has the date of the start of his ministry estimated at around 27-29 and the end in the range 30-36. Jesus Early Galilean ministry begins when after his Baptism, he back to Galilee from his time in the Judean desert. The Major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8 includes the commissioning of the Twelve Apostles, the Final Galilean ministry begins after the death of John the Baptist as Jesus prepares to go to Jerusalem. In the Later Judean ministry Jesus starts his journey to Jerusalem through Judea. As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Later Perean ministry, about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the River Jordan, the Final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the Passion Week and begins with Jesus triumphal entry into Jerusalem
4.
Canonical gospels
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A gospel is an account describing the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. Christianity places a value on the four canonical gospels, which it considers to be revelations from God. This position however, requires a view of Biblical inerrancy. The word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings, the gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and of redemption through the life and death and resurrection of Jesus, the central Christian message. The Greek word euangelion is also the source of the terms evangelist, the authors of the four canonical Christian gospels are known as the Four Evangelists. Paul the Apostle used the term εὐαγγέλιον when he reminded the people of the church at Corinth of the gospel I preached to you, the earliest extant use of gospel to denote a particular genre of literature dates to the 2nd century. Justin Martyr in the Apology wrote of. the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, more generally, gospels compose a genre of early Christian writings. Gospels that did not become canonical also circulated in Early Christianity, many, such as the work known today as Gospel of Thomas, lack the narrative framework typical of a gospel. Scholars hold a wide spectrum of views on the origins and composition of the gospels, for example, the vast majority of material in Mark is also present in either Luke or Matthew or both, suggesting that Mark was a source for Matthew and Luke. He writes that the four gospels were probably all written by the end of the first century. But they did not yet at that time have a consistent narrative, in 170 Tatian sought to find a solution by composing a single narrative out of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, with some additional oral material. Richies concludes that the gospel passages themselves can be unclear, and some of the messages within are straightforwardly ambiguous, the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke are considered synoptic gospels on the basis of many similarities between them that are not shared by the Gospel of John. Synoptic means here that they can be seen or read together, the fourth gospel, the Gospel of John, presents a very different picture of Jesus and his ministry from the synoptics. Of the many gospels written in antiquity, only four came to be accepted as part of the New Testament. An insistence upon there being a canon of four gospels, and no others, was a theme of Irenaeus of Lyons. Irenaeus was ultimately successful in declaring that the four gospels collectively and he also supported reading each gospel in light of the others. This canon, which corresponds to the modern Catholic canon, was used in the Vulgate, Gospel of Matthew Gospel of John Gospel of Luke Gospel of Mark This order is found in the following manuscripts, Bezae, Monacensis, Washingtonianus, Tischendorfianus IV, Uncial 0234. Although there is no set order of the four gospels in patristic lists or discussions, moody Smith suggests that the standard order of Matthew-Mark-Luke-John projects a kind of intention that can scarcely be ignored
5.
Christ Child
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The Christ Child, also known as Divine Infant, Baby Jesus, Infant Jesus, Child Jesus, the Holy Child, and Santo Niño, refers to Jesus Christ from his nativity to age 12. Upon reaching 13 years-old he was considered to be an adult in accordance with Jewish custom, the canonical Gospels lack any narration of the years between Jesus infancy and the Finding in the Temple when he was twelve. Commonly these are nativity scenes showing the birth of Jesus, with his mother, Mary, depictions as a baby with the Virgin Mary, known as Madonna and Child, are iconographical types in Eastern and Western traditions. Other scenes from his time as a baby, of his circumcision, presentation at the temple, the adoration of the Magi, scenes showing his developing years are more rare but not unknown. Saint Joseph, Anthony of Padua, and Saint Christopher are often depicted holding the Christ Child, the Christ Child was a popular subject in European wood sculpture beginning in the 1300s. The popularity of the Christ child was known in Spain under the title Montanesino after the santero sculptor Juan Martínez Montañés who began the trend. The growth of images being made were quite popular among nobility, while images were also used to colonize kingdoms such of Spain. The symbolism of the Child Jesus in art reached its apex during the Renaissance, tàladh Chrìosda is a Scottish carol from Moidart, Scotland. The Catholic priest Father Ranald Rankin, wrote the lyrics for Midnight Mass around the year 1855 and he originally wrote 29 verses in Scottish Gaelic, but the popular English translation is limited to five. The melody, Cumha Mhic Arois, is from the Hebrides and was a sung as a charm for the fisherman away at sea. The rhythm mirrors the rhythm of the surf and it is sung in the Hebrides at Midnight Mass of Christmas Eve. A number of texts, the Infancy Gospels grew up with legendary accounts of the intervening period. These stories were intended to show Jesus as having extraordinary gifts of power and knowledge, one common pious tale has the young Jesus animating sparrows out of clay belonging to his playmates. When admonished for doing so on the Sabbath, he causes the birds to fly away, in the seventeenth century veneration of the Christ Child under the title the Little King of Beaune was promoted by French Carmelites. In the late nineteenth century devotion to the Holy Child of Remedy developed in Madrid
6.
Annunciation
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Gabriel told Mary to name her son Yehoshua, meaning YHWH is salvation. According to Luke 1,26, the Annunciation occurred in the month of Elizabeths pregnancy with John the Baptist. Many Christians observe this event with the Feast of the Annunciation on 25 March, an approximation of the vernal equinox nine full months before Christmas. In England, this came to be known as Lady Day and it marked the new year until 1752. The 2nd-century writer Irenaeus of Lyon regarded the conception of Jesus as 25 March coinciding with the Passion, the Annunciation has been a key topic in Christian art in general, as well as in Marian art in the Catholic Church, particularly during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. A work of art depicting the Annunciation is sometimes called an Annunciation. 28 And the angel came in unto her, and said, Hail, thou that art highly favoured,29 And when she saw him, she was troubled at his saying, and cast in her mind what manner of salutation this should be. 30 And the angel said unto her, Fear not, Mary,31 And, behold, thou shalt conceive in thy womb, and bring forth a son, and shalt call his name JESUS. 34 Then said Mary unto the angel, How shall this be,36 And, behold, thy cousin Elisabeth, she hath also conceived a son in her old age, and this is the sixth month with her, who was called barren. 37 For with God nothing shall be impossible,38 And Mary said, Behold the handmaid of the Lord, be it unto me according to thy word. And the angel departed from her,19 Then Joseph her husband, being a just man, and not willing to make her a publick example, was minded to put her away privily. 21 And she shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt call his name JESUS,35 In answer the angel said to her, Holy spirit will come upon you, and power of the Most High will overshadow you. And for that reason the one who is born will be called holy, manuscript 4Q246 of the Dead Sea Scrolls reads, shall be great upon the earth. O king, all people shall make peace, and all shall serve him and he shall be called the son of the Great God, and by his name shall he be hailed as the Son of God, and they shall call him Son of the Most High. It has been suggested that the similarity in content is such that Lukes version may in some way be dependent on the Qumran text, the Annunciation is described in the Quran, in Sura 003,045 verses 45–51,45 Behold. Muslim tradition holds that the Annunciation took place during the month of Ramadan, in Greek, the Annunciation is known as the Good Tidings or Evangelism. In the Orthodox Churches that use a new style Calendar, the feast is celebrated on March 25, in churches using the old style Julian calendar, the feast day is April 7. The traditional hymn for the feast of the Annunciation goes back to St Athanasius, indeed, the Divine Liturgy is celebrated on Great and Holy Friday only when the latter coincides with the feast of the Annunciation
7.
Visitation (Christianity)
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The Visitation is the visit of Mary with Elizabeth as recorded in the Gospel of Luke, Luke 1, 39–56. It is also the name of a Christian feast day commemorating this visit, celebrated on 31 May in the West, Mary visits her relative Elizabeth, they are both pregnant. Mary is pregnant with Jesus and Elizabeth is pregnant with John the Baptist, Mary left Nazareth immediately after the Annunciation and went into the hill country. into a city of Judah to attend to her cousin Elizabeth. There are several possibilities as to exactly which city this was, including Hebron, south of Jerusalem, the journey from Nazareth to Hebron is about 130 kilometres in a direct line, probably up to half as far again by road, depending on the route taken. Elizabeth was in the month before Mary came. Mary stayed three months, and most scholars hold she stayed for the birth of John, the apparition of the angel, mentioned in Matthew 1, 19–25, may have taken place then to end the tormenting doubts of Joseph regarding Marys maternity. In the Gospel of Luke, the accounts of the Annunciation and Visitation are constructed using eight points of literary parallelism to compare Mary to the Ark of the Covenant. In Catholicism, it is held that the purpose of this visit was to bring divine grace to both Elizabeth and her unborn child. Even though he was still in his mothers womb, John became aware of the presence of Christ, Elizabeth also responded and recognised the presence of Jesus, and thus Mary exercised her function as mediatrix between God and man for the first time. And she spoke out with a voice, and said, Blessed thou among women. And whence this to me, that the mother of my Lord should come to me, for, lo, as soon as the voice of thy salutation sounded in mine ears, the babe leaped in my womb for joy. And blessed she that believed, for there shall be a performance of those things which were told her from the Lord, in response to Elizabeth, Mary proclaims the Magnificat, Luke 1, 46–55, the canticle that has traditionally been reserved for this feast day. In the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, the Visitation is the second Joyful Mystery of the Rosary, the theme of the Feast of the Visitation centers on Mary responding to the prompting of the Holy Spirit to set out on a mission of charity. This feast is of medieval origin and it was kept by the Order of Friars Minor before 1263 when Saint Bonaventure recommended it and the Franciscan chapter adopted it, and the Franciscan Breviary spread it to many churches. In 1389 Pope Urban VI, hoping thereby to obtain an end to the Great Western Schism, inserted it in the Roman Calendar, in the Tridentine Calendar, it was a Double. When that Missal of Pope Pius V was replaced by that of Pope Clement VIII in 1604 and it remained so until Pope John XXIII reclassified it as a Second-Class Feast in 1962. It continued to be assigned to 2 July, the day after the end of the following the feast of the birth of John the Baptist. The Catholic Church in Germany has, with the consent of the Holy See, July 2 is observed also by Traditionalist Catholics who use a pre-1970 calendar, and by Anglicans who use the 1662 Book of Common Prayer
8.
Nativity of Jesus
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The nativity of Jesus or birth of Jesus is described in the gospels of Luke and Matthew. The two accounts agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the time of Herod the Great to a virgin whose name was Mary. In Christian theology the nativity marks the incarnation of Jesus as the second Adam, in fulfillment of the divine will of God, undoing the damage caused by the fall of the first man, Adam. The artistic depiction of the nativity has been an important subject for Christian artists since the 4th century, the nativity plays a major role in the Christian liturgical year. Christian congregations of the Western tradition begin observing the season of Advent four Sundays before Christmas, the traditional feast-day of his birth, which falls on December 25. The date of birth for Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, the Gospels of both Matthew and Luke place the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. However, Luke 1, 26–27 clearly states that Mary lived in Nazareth before the birth of Jesus, at the time of the Annunciation. The Gospel of Luke states that Mary gave birth to Jesus and placed him in a manger “because there was no place for them in the inn, but does not say exactly where Jesus was born. This could be a place to keep the sheep within the Bethlehem area, in the 2nd century, Justin Martyr stated that Jesus had been born in a cave outside the town, while the Protoevangelium of James described a legendary birth in a cave nearby. In Contra Celsum 1.51, Origen, who from around 215 travelled throughout Palestine, the Quranic birth of Jesus, like the Gospels, places the virgin birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. This is how the birth of Jesus the Messiah came about, Mary, the mother of Jesus, was betrothed to Joseph, but was found to be pregnant through the Holy Spirit. Joseph intended to divorce her quietly, but an angel told him in a dream that he should take Mary as his wife and name the child Jesus, Joseph awoke and did all that the angel commanded. Chapter 1 of Matthews Gospel recounts Jesus birth and naming and the beginning of chapter 2 reveals that Jesus was born in Bethlehem during the time of Herod the Great. Magi from the east came to Herod and asked him where they would find the King of the Jews, advised by the chief priests and teachers, Herod sent the Magi to Bethlehem, where they worshiped the child and gave him gifts. When they had departed an angel appeared to Joseph in a dream and warned him to take the child and his mother and flee to Egypt, for Herod intended to kill him. The Holy Family remained in Egypt until Herod died, when Joseph took them to Nazareth in Galilee for fear of Herods son who now ruled in Jerusalem, so was fulfilled what was said through the prophets, that he would be called a Nazarene. When the time of the birth drew near the Roman Emperor commanded a census of all the world, and Joseph took Mary to Bethlehem, the city of David, as he was of the House of David. In accordance with the Jewish law his parents presented the infant Jesus at the Temple in Jerusalem, Joseph and Mary then returned to Nazareth
9.
Virgin birth of Jesus
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The virgin birth of Jesus is the belief that Jesus was conceived in the womb of his mother Mary through the Holy Spirit without the agency of a human father and born while Mary was still a virgin. The New Testament references are Matthew 1, 18-25 and Luke 1 and it is believed by Christians to follow the prophetic message in Isaiah 7,14. It is not expressly mentioned elsewhere in the Christian scriptures, the virgin birth was universally accepted in the Christian church by the 2nd century and, except for some minor sects, was not seriously challenged until the 18th century. Muslims also accept the virgin birth of Jesus,18 Now the birth of Jesus Christ took place in this way. When his mother Mary had been betrothed to Joseph, before they came together she was found to be with child from the Holy Spirit,19 And her husband Joseph, being a just man and unwilling to put her to shame, resolved to divorce her quietly. 21 She will bear a son, and you shall call his name Jesus,22 All this took place to fulfill what the Lord had spoken by the prophet,23 Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and they shall call his name Immanuel. 24 When Joseph woke from sleep, he did as the angel of the Lord commanded him, he took his wife,25, and he called his name Jesus. 26 In the sixth month the angel Gabriel was sent from God to a city of Galilee named Nazareth,27 to a virgin betrothed to a man whose name was Joseph, and the virgins name was Mary. 28 And he came to her and said, Greetings, O favored one,29 But she was greatly troubled at the saying, and tried to discern what sort of greeting this might be. 30 And the angel said to her, Do not be afraid, Mary,31 And behold, you will conceive in your womb and bear a son, and you shall call his name Jesus. 32 He will be great and will be called the Son of the Most High. And the Lord God will give to him the throne of his father David,33 and he will reign over the house of Jacob forever,34 And Mary said to the angel, How will this be, since I am a virgin. 35 And the angel answered her, The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you, therefore the child to be born will be called holy, the Son of God. 36 And behold, your relative Elizabeth in her old age has also conceived a son,37 For nothing will be impossible with God. 38 And Mary said, Behold, I am the servant of the Lord, and the angel departed from her. Jesus miraculous conception by the Holy Spirit is found only in the gospels of Matthew, both probably date from the period 80-100 AD, and both were originally anonymous. Matthew 1,23 quotes a prophecy from the Isaiah as the basis for the virgin birth, in Isaiah the Immanuel prophecy has an immediate aim, but Matthew uses it to find patterns of Gods dealings with Israel rather than a single and specific fulfillment. In the genealogy preceding his birth story Matthew calls Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, who is called Christ
10.
Adoration of the Shepherds
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The Adoration of the Shepherds, in the Nativity of Jesus in art, is a scene in which shepherds are near witnesses to the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem, arriving soon after the actual birth. It is often combined in art with the Adoration of the Magi, the Annunciation to the Shepherds, when they are summoned by an angel to the scene, is a distinct subject. Ghirlandaio also shows a procession of Magi about to arrive with their gifts, the shepherds are then described as hurrying to Bethlehem to visit Jesus, and making widely known what they had been told concerning him, before they finally return to their flocks. They praise God for all the things that they had heard and seen, robert Gundry notes that the statement appeals to eyewitness testimony combined with heavenly revelation. This combination is first found in the 6th century Monza ampullae made in Byzantine Palaestina Prima, in Renaissance art, drawing on classical stories of Orpheus, the shepherds are sometimes depicted with musical instruments. A charming but atypical miniature in the La Flora Hours in Naples shows the shepherds playing to the Infant Jesus, many artists have depicted the Adoration of the Shepherds. C. Some of these do so along the lines of urging the listener to come to Bethlehem, the modern Calypso Carol has the lines Shepherds swiftly from your stupor rise / to see the Saviour of the world, and the chorus O now carry me to Bethlehem. Angels We Have Heard on High says, Come to Bethlehem, O Come, All Ye Faithful has a verse which runs, Other carols which mention the adoration of the shepherds include Silent Night, What Child Is This. Infant Holy, Infant Lowly, I Wonder as I Wander, the German carol Vom Himmel hoch, da komm ich her contains several stanzas on the subject of following the shepherds and celebrating the newborn baby
11.
Circumcision of Jesus
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The circumcision of Jesus is an event from the life of Jesus according to the Gospel of Luke, which states in verse 2,21 that Jesus was circumcised eight days after his birth. This is in keeping with the Jewish law which holds that males should be circumcised eight days after birth during a Brit milah ceremony, at which they are also given their name. The circumcision of Christ became a common subject in Christian art from the 10th century onwards. It was initially only as a scene in larger cycles. The event is celebrated as the Feast of the Circumcision in the Eastern Orthodox Church on January 1 in whichever calendar is used, a number of relics claiming to be the Holy Prepuce, the foreskin of Jesus, have surfaced. However, this account is extremely short, particularly compared to Paul the Apostles much fuller description of his own circumcision in the chapter of his Epistle to the Philippians. In addition to the account in the Gospel of Luke. And the old Hebrew woman took the foreskin, and preserved it in an alabaster-box of old oil of spikenard. And she had a son who was a druggist, to whom she said, Take heed thou sell not this alabaster box of spikenard-ointment, although thou shouldst be offered three hundred pence for it. Now this is that alabaster-box which Mary the sinner procured, and poured forth the ointment out of it upon the head and feet of our Lord Jesus Christ, and wiped it off with the hairs of her head. The circumcision controversy in early Christianity was resolved in the 1st century, Saint Paul, the leading proponent of this position, discouraged circumcision as a qualification for conversion to Christianity. Circumcision soon became rare in most of the Christian world, except the Coptic Church of Egypt, one of the earliest depictions to survive is a miniature in an important Byzantine illuminated manuscript of 979-984, the Menologion of Basil II in the Vatican Library. This has a scene which shows Mary and Joseph holding the baby Jesus outside a building, probably the Temple of Jerusalem and this is typical of the early depictions, which avoid showing the operation itself. Like most later depictions these are taking place in a large building, probably representing the Temple. Medieval pilgrims to the Holy Land were told Jesus had been circumcised in the church at Bethlehem, the scene gradually became increasingly common in the art of the Western church, and increasingly rare in Orthodox art. Various themes in theological exegesis of the event influenced the treatment in art. As the first drawing of Christs blood, it was seen as a forerunner of, or even the first scene of, the Passion of Christ. Other interpretations developed based on it as the naming ceremony equivalent to Christian baptism, such an arrangement is seen in a miniature from a German Pentateuch in Hebrew from about 1300, showing the Circumcision of Isaac
12.
Presentation of Jesus at the Temple
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The Presentation of Jesus at the Temple is an early episode in the life of Jesus that is celebrated by the Church on the holiday of Candlemas. It is described in the Gospel of Luke of the New Testament in the Christian Bible, within the account, Lukes narration of the Presentation in the Temple combines the purification rite with the Jewish ceremony of the redemption of the firstborn. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the presentation of Jesus at the temple is celebrated as is one of the twelve Great Feasts, and is sometimes called Hypapante. In Western Christianity, the name for the day is Candlemas, which is also known as the Feast of the Purification of the Virgin. In some liturgical churches, Vespers on the Feast of the Presentation marks the end of the Epiphany season, in the Catholic Church, the Presentation is the fourth Joyful Mystery of the Rosary. The event is described in the Gospel of Luke, Luke explicitly says that Joseph and Mary take the option provided for poor people, sacrificing a pair of turtledoves, or two young pigeons. Leviticus 12, 1–4 indicates that this event should take place forty days after birth for a male child, upon bringing Jesus into the temple, they encountered Simeon. The Gospel records that Simeon had been promised that he should not see death before he had seen the Lords Christ. Simeon then prophesied to Mary, Behold, this child is set for the falling and the rising of many in Israel, yes, a sword will pierce through your own soul, that the thoughts of many hearts may be revealed. The elderly prophetess Anna was also in the Temple, and offered prayers and praise to God for Jesus, and spoke to everyone there of His importance to redemption in Jerusalem. Early images concentrated on the moment of meeting with Simeon, typically shown at the entrance to the Temple, and this is continued in Byzantine art and Eastern Orthodox icons to the present day. In the West, Simeon is more often already holding the infant, or the moment of handover is shown, the Lutheran church of the Baroque observed the feast as Mariae Reinigung. Johann Sebastian Bach composed several cantatas to be performed in the service of the day. In the Roman Catholic Church, it is known as the Presentation of the Lord in the books first issued by Paul VI. It is known as the Presentation of Our Lord in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod observes 2 February as The Purification of Mary and the Presentation of Our Lord. In some Protestant churches, the feast is known as the Naming of Jesus, traditionally, Candlemas had been the last feast day in the Christian year that was dated by reference to Christmas. Subsequent moveable feasts are calculated with reference to Easter, Candlemas occurs 40 days after Christmas. In Poland the feast is called Święto Matki Bożej Gromnicznej and this name refers to the candles that are blessed on this day, called gromnice, since these candles are lit during storms and placed in windows to ward off storms
13.
Adoration of the Magi
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It is related in the Bible by Matthew 2,11, On entering the house, they saw the child with Mary his mother, and they knelt down and paid him homage. Then, opening their treasure chests, they offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and having been warned in a dream not to return to Herod, they left for their own country by another path. The scene was used to represent the Nativity, one of the most indispensable episodes in cycles of the Life of the Virgin as well as the Life of Christ. In the church calendar, the event is commemorated in Western Christianity as the Feast of the Epiphany, the Orthodox Church commemorates the Adoration of the Magi on the Feast of the Nativity. The term is anglicized from the Vulgate Latin section title for this passage, in the earliest depictions, the Magi are shown wearing Persian dress of trousers and Phrygian caps, usually in profile, advancing in step with their gifts held out before them. The earliest are from catacomb paintings and sarcophagus reliefs of the 4th century, crowns are first seen in the 10th century, mostly in the West, where their dress had by that time lost any Oriental flavour in most cases. Later Byzantine images often show small pill-box like hats, whose significance is disputed, melchior represents Europe and middle age. From the 14th century onwards, large retinues are often shown, the gifts are contained in spectacular pieces of work. The subject matter is found in stained glass. Many hundreds of artists have treated the subject, a partial list of those with articles follows. See also, Category, Adoration of the Magi in art, Adoration of the Magi, Fra Angelico and Filippo Lippi, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C. Hieronymus Bosch, Museo del Prado, Madrid Adoration of the Magi of 1475, Botticelli, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C
14.
Flight into Egypt
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The flight into Egypt is a biblical event described in the Gospel of Matthew. The episode is shown in art, as the final episode of the Nativity of Jesus in art. Within the narrative tradition, iconic representation of the Rest on the Flight into Egypt developed after the 14th century, when the Magi come in search of Jesus, they go to Herod the Great in Jerusalem and ask where to find the newborn King of the Jews. Herod becomes paranoid that the child will threaten his throne, Herod initiates the Massacre of the Innocents in hopes of killing the child. But an angel appears to Joseph in a dream and warns him to take Jesus, after a time the holy family returns from Egypt. The text states that Herod had died, Herod is believed to have died in 4 BC, and while Matthew does not mention how, the Jewish historian Josephus vividly relates a gory death. It is, however, to Judah that they are described as initially returning, although upon discovering that Archelaus had become the new king, they went instead to Galilee. Historically, Archelaus was such a violent and aggressive king that in the year 6 AD he was deposed by the Romans, in response to complaints from the population. Galilee was ruled by a much calmer king, Herod Antipas, Matthew 2,15 cites Hosea 11,1 as prophetically fulfilled in the return of Joseph, Mary and Jesus from Egypt. and out of Egypt I called My son. Matthews use of Hosea 11,1 has been explained in several ways, a sensus plenior approach states that the text in Hosea contains a meaning intended by God and acknowledged by Matthew, but unknown to Hosea. A typological reading interprets the fulfillment as found in the history of Israel. Matthews use of typological interpretation may also be seen in his use of Isaiah 7,14 and 9,1, the Septuagint reading may be explained as having been made to conform to the plurals of Hosea 11,2, they and them. See also Hermeneutics and Jewish exegesis, in these later tales the family is joined by Salome as Jesus nurse. The most important of these is the church of Abu Serghis, the Gospel of Luke does not recount this event, relating instead that the Holy Family went to the Temple in Jerusalem, and then directly home to Nazareth. Followers of the liberal and unorthodox Jesus Seminar thus conclude that both Lukes and Matthews birth and infancy accounts are fabrications, a theme of Matthew is likening Jesus to Moses for a Judean audience, and the Flight into Egypt illustrates just that theme. The Flight into Egypt was a subject in art, showing Mary with the baby on a donkey, led by Joseph. Before about 1525, it formed part of a larger cycle, whether of the Nativity. The family are often accompanied by angels, and in earlier images sometimes an older boy who may represent James the Brother of the Lord, interpreted as a son of Joseph, by a previous marriage
15.
Massacre of the Innocents
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The Massacre of the Innocents is the biblical account of infanticide by Herod the Great, the Roman-appointed King of the Jews. The number of killed is not stated. The Holy Innocents, although Jewish, have claimed as martyrs for Christianity. Most recent biographers of Herod deny that the event occurred, in Matthews account, Magi from the east go to Judea in search of the newborn king of the Jews, having seen his star in the east. The King, Herod the Great, directs them to Bethlehem and they find Jesus and honor him, but an angel tells them not to alert Herod, and they return home by another way. The Massacre of the Innocents is at Matthew 2, 16–18, although the verses form the context, When had gone. Get up, he said, take the child and his mother, stay there until I tell you, for Herod is going to search for the child to kill him. So he got up, took the child and his mother during the night, and left for Egypt, and so was fulfilled what the Lord had said through the prophet, Out of Egypt I called my son. The massacre is reported only in the Gospel of Matthew and other later Christian writings likely based on that gospel, among those historians who doubt the massacres historicity, Geza Vermes and E. P. Sanders regard the story as part of a creative hagiography. Robert Eisenman argues that the story may have its origins in Herods murder of his sons, david Hill acknowledges that the episode contains nothing that is historically impossible, but adds that Matthews real concern is. With theological reflection on the theme of fulfillment, brown also sees the story as patterned on the Exodus account of the birth of Moses and the killing of the Hebrew firstborn by Pharaoh. Brown and others argue that, based on Bethlehems estimated population of 1,000 at the time, the largest number of infants that could have been killed would have been about twenty, and R. T. The storys first appearance in any other than the Gospel of Matthew is in the apocryphal Protoevangelium of James of c. And Mary, having heard that the children were being killed, was afraid, and took the infant and swaddled Him, and Elizabeth, having heard that they were searching for John, took him and went up into the hill-country, and kept looking where to conceal him. And there was no place of concealment, and Elizabeth, groaning with a loud voice, says, O mountain of God, receive mother and child. And immediately the mountain was cleft, and received her, and a light shone about them, for an angel of the Lord was with them, watching over them. The story assumed an important place in later Christian tradition, Byzantine liturgy estimated 14,000 Holy Innocents while an early Syrian list of saints stated the number at 64,000, coptic sources raise the number to 144,000 and place the event on 29 December. The Coventry Carol is a Christmas carol dating from the 16th century, the carol was performed in Coventry in England as part of a mystery play called The Pageant of the Shearmen and Tailors
16.
Finding in the Temple
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The Finding in the Temple, also called Christ among the Doctors or the Disputation, was an episode in the early life of Jesus depicted in the Gospel of Luke. It is the event of the later childhood of Jesus mentioned in a Gospel. The episode is described in Luke 2, 41-52, Jesus at the age of twelve accompanies Mary, Joseph and a large group of their relatives and friends to Jerusalem on pilgrimage, following the custom of the feast - that is, Passover. On the day of their return, Jesus lingered in the Temple, Mary and Joseph headed back home and after a day of travel realised Jesus was missing, so they returned to Jerusalem, finding Jesus three days later. He was found in The Temple in discussion with the elders and they were amazed at his learning, especially given his young age. When admonished by Mary, Jesus replied, Why did you seek Me, did you not know that I must be about My Father’s business. The story was elaborated in later literature, such as the apocryphal 2nd-century Infancy Gospel of Thomas. The losing of Jesus is the third of the Seven Sorrows of Mary, and this event is frequently shown in art, and was a common component in cycles of the Life of the Virgin as well as the Life of Christ. In early Christian depictions, Jesus is usually shown in the center, seated on a dais surrounded by the elders. The gesture usually made by Jesus, pointing to his upraised thumb and these depictions derive from classical compositions of professors of philosophy or rhetoric with their students, and are similar to medieval depictions of contemporary university lectures. This composition can appear until as late as Ingres and beyond, from the Early Medieval period the moment shown is usually assimilated to the finding itself, by the inclusion of, initially, Mary, and later Joseph as well, usually at the left of the scene. Typically, Jesus and the doctors, intent on their discussions, have not noticed them yet, from the 12th century Jesus is often seated in a large throne-like chair, sometimes holding a book or scroll. From the High Renaissance onwards, many painters showed a close-up of the scene, with Jesus closely surrounded by gesticulating scholars, as in Dürers version of the subject. Seven Sorrows of Mary G. Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I,1971, Lund Humphries, London, pp. 124–5 & figs, ISBN 0-85331-270-2
17.
Ministry of Jesus
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The Gospel of Luke states that Jesus was about 30 years of age at the start of his ministry. A chronology of Jesus typically has the date of the start of his ministry estimated at around AD 27–29, Jesus Early Galilean ministry begins when after his Baptism, he goes back to Galilee from his time in the Judean desert. The Major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8 includes the commissioning of the Twelve Apostles, the Final Galilean ministry begins after the death of John the Baptist as Jesus prepares to go to Jerusalem. In the Later Judean ministry Jesus starts his journey to Jerusalem through Judea. As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Later Perean ministry, about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the River Jordan, the Final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the Passion Week and begins with Jesus triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The gospels provide more details about the final ministry than the other periods, the gospel accounts place the beginning of Jesus ministry in the countryside of Roman Judea, near the River Jordan. Jesuss Baptism is generally considered the beginning of his ministry and the Last Supper with his disciples in Jerusalem as the end, however, some authors also consider the period between the Resurrection and the Ascension part of the ministry of Jesus. Luke 3,23 states that Jesus was about 30 years of age at the start of his ministry, there have been different approaches to estimating the date of the start of the ministry of Jesus. In the New Testament, the date of the Last Supper is very close to the date of the crucifixion of Jesus, scholarly estimates for the date of the crucifixion generally fall in the range AD 30-36. The three Synoptic Gospels refer to just one passover during his ministry, while the Gospel of John refers to three passovers, suggesting a period of three years. However, the Synoptic gospels do not require a ministry that lasted one year. The gospels present John the Baptists ministry as the precursor to that of Jesus, John 1,28 specifies the location where John was baptizing as Bethany beyond the Jordan. This is not the village Bethany just east of Jerusalem, but the town Bethany, first-century historian Flavius Josephus also wrote in the Antiquities of the Jews that John the Baptist was imprisoned and then killed in Machaerus on the border of Perea. Assuming that there were two incidences of Cleansing of the Temple, which was located in Jerusalem, a reference to an early Judean ministry may be John 2. The Early Galilean ministry begins when Jesus goes back to Galilee from the Judean desert, after rebuffing the temptation of Satan. In this early period, Jesus preaches around Galilee and, in Matthew 4, 18-20, his first disciples encounter him, begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church. The Gospel of John includes Marriage at Cana as the first miracle of Jesus taking place in early period of ministry. A few villages in Galilee have been suggested as the location of Cana, the return of Jesus to Galilee follows the arrest of John the Baptist
18.
Baptism of Jesus
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The baptism of Jesus marks the beginning of his public ministry. This event is described in the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Johns gospel does not directly describe Jesus baptism. Most modern theologians view the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist as an event to which a high degree of certainty can be assigned. The baptism is one of the five major milestones in the narrative of the life of Jesus, the others being the Transfiguration, Crucifixion, Resurrection. Most Christian denominations view the baptism of Jesus as an important event, in Eastern Christianity, Jesus baptism is commemorated on 6 January, the feast of Epiphany. In Roman Catholicism, the baptism of Jesus is one of the Luminous Mysteries sometimes added to the Rosary and it is a Trinitarian feast in the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Mark, Matthew, and Luke depict the baptism in parallel passages, after the baptism, the Synoptic gospels describe the temptation of Jesus, where Jesus withdrew to the Judean desert to fast for forty days and nights. Matthew In Matthew 3,14, upon meeting Jesus, John said, I have need to be baptized of thee, however, Jesus convinces John to baptize him nonetheless. Matthew uniquely records that the voice from heaven addresses the crowd, rather than addressing Jesus himself as in Mark, Luke Luke uniquely depicts John as a family relative of Jesus, with Johns birth also announced by angel. Luke uniquely depicts John as showing kindness to tax collectors. Luke records that Jesus was praying when Heaven was opened and the Holy Spirit descended on him, Luke clarifies that the spirit descended in the bodily form of a dove, as opposed to merely descending like a dove. In Acts 10, 37–38, the ministry of Jesus is described as following the baptism which John preached, in John 1, 29–33 rather than a direct narrative, John the Baptist bears witness to the spirit descending like a dove. John 1, 35–37 narrates an encounter, between Jesus and two of his disciples, who were then disciples of John the Baptist. The episode in John 1, 35–37 forms the start of the relationship between Jesus and his future disciples, when John the Baptist called Jesus the Lamb of God, the two disciples heard him speak, and they followed Jesus. One of the disciples is named Andrew, but the other remains unnamed, and Raymond E. Brown raises the question of his being the author of the Gospel of John himself. In the Gospel of John, the disciples follow Jesus thereafter, and bring other disciples to him, and Acts 18, 24–19,6 portrays the disciples of John as eventually merging with the followers of Jesus. According to the non-canonical Gospel of the Nazarenes, the idea of being baptized by John came from the mother and brothers of Jesus, plus, the story came from the community that included the family of Jesus, who would have guaranteed the authenticity of the narrative. The Gospel of John refers to Enon near Salim as one place where John the Baptist baptized people, separately, John 1,28 states that John the Baptist was baptizing in Bethany beyond the Jordan
19.
Temptation of Christ
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The temptation of Christ is detailed in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. According to these texts, after being baptized by John the Baptist, Jesus fasted for forty days, during this time, Satan appeared to Jesus and tried to tempt him. Jesus having refused each temptation, the devil departed and Jesus returned to Galilee. Temptations were hedonism, egoism and materialism, John the Evangelist in his epistle calls these temptations in world as lust of eyes, lust of body and pride of life. Temptations aim to mislead and pervert three main characteristics, to think, wish and feel which are inside mind, soul. These are related with transcendentals or ultimate ideals in three areas of interests, science, arts and religion. Christians are called to search for divine virtues, faith, hope and love that relate directly to God who Himself is Truth, Beauty. The writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews also refers to Jesus having been tempted in every way that we are, marks account is very brief, merely noting the event. Matthew and Luke describe the temptations by recounting the details of the conversations between Jesus and Satan. Since the elements that are in Matthew and Luke but not in Mark are mostly pairs of rather than detailed narration. The temptation of Christ is not explicitly mentioned in the Gospel of John but in this gospel Jesus does refer to the devil, discussion of the literary genre includes whether what is represented is a history, a parable, a myth, or compound of various genres. This relates to the reality of the encounter, sometimes the temptation narrative is taken as a parable, reading that Jesus in his ministry told this narrative to audiences relating his inner experience in the form of a parable. Or it is autobiographical, regarding what sort of Messiah Jesus intended to be, the debate on the literality of the temptations goes back at least to the discussion of George Benson and Hugh Farmer. A traditional Catholic understanding is that the temptation of Christ was a literal and physical event, the Catechism of the Catholic Church states, The Gospels speak of a time of solitude for Jesus in the desert immediately after his baptism by John. Driven by the Spirit into the desert, Jesus remains there for forty days without eating, he lives among wild beasts, at the end of this time Satan tempts him three times, seeking to compromise his filial attitude toward God. Jesus rebuffs these attacks, which recapitulate the temptations of Adam in Paradise and of Israel in the desert, the temptation in the desert shows Jesus, the humble Messiah, who triumphs over Satan by his total adherence to the plan of salvation willed by the Father. The account of Matthew uses language from the Old Testament, the imagery would be familiar to Matthews contemporary readers. In the Septuagint Greek version of Zechariah 3 the name Iesous, Lukes account is similar, though his inversion of the second and third temptations represents a more natural geographic movement, from the wilderness to the temple
20.
Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles
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The commissioning of the Twelve Apostles is an episode in the life of Jesus that appears in all three Synoptic Gospels, Matthew 10, 1-4, Mark 3, 13-19 and Luke 6, 12-16, but not in the Gospel of John. It relates the initial selection of the Twelve Apostles among the disciples of Jesus, according to Luke, One of those days Jesus went out to a mountainside to pray, and spent the night praying to God. In the Gospel of Matthew, this takes place shortly before the miracle of the man with withered hand. In the Gospel of Mark and Gospel of Luke it appears shortly after that miracle and this commissioning of the apostles takes place before the Crucifixion of Jesus, while the Great Commission in Matthew 28, 16-20 takes place after his Resurrection. Calling of Matthew First disciples of Jesus Gospel harmony Life of Jesus in the New Testament Dispersion of the Apostles Matthew 10, Mark 3, Luke 6
21.
Apostle (Christian)
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In Christian theology and ecclesiology, the apostles, particularly the Twelve Apostles, were the primary historical disciples of Jesus, the central figure in Christianity. During the life and ministry of Jesus in the 1st century AD, the word disciple is sometimes used interchangeably with apostle, for instance, the Gospel of John makes no distinction between the two terms. In modern usage, prominent missionaries are often called apostles, a practice which stems from the Latin equivalent of apostle, i. e. missio, for example, Saint Patrick was the Apostle of Ireland, and Saint Boniface was the Apostle to the Germans. The commissioning of the Twelve Apostles during the ministry of Jesus is recorded in the Synoptic Gospels, after his resurrection, Jesus sent 11 of them by the Great Commission to spread his teachings to all nations. This event is called the Dispersion of the Apostles. There is also an Eastern Christian tradition derived from the Gospel of Luke of there having been as many as 70 apostles during the time of Jesus ministry. Prominent figures in early Christianity, notably Paul, were called apostles. The period of early Christianity during the lifetimes of the apostles is called the Apostolic Age, during the 1st century AD, the apostles established churches throughout the territories of the Roman Empire and, according to tradition, through the Middle East, Africa, and India. In his writings, the epistles to Christian churches throughout the Levant, Paul did not restrict the term apostle to the Twelve, the restricted usage appears in the Revelation to John. By the 2nd century AD, association with the apostles was esteemed as an evidence of authority, Churches which are believed to have been founded by one of the apostles are known as apostolic sees. Pauls epistles were accepted as scripture, and two of the four gospels were associated with apostles, as were other New Testament works. Various Christian texts, such as the Didache and the Apostolic Constitutions, were attributed to the apostles, bishops traced their lines of succession back to individual apostles, who were said to have dispersed from Jerusalem and established churches across great territories. Christian bishops have traditionally claimed authority deriving, by apostolic succession, early Church Fathers who came to be associated with apostles, such as Pope Clement I with St. Peter, are referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. The Apostles Creed, popular in the West, was said to have composed by the apostles themselves. The word apostle comes from the Greek word ἀπόστολος, formed from the prefix ἀπό- and root στέλλω and originally meaning messenger and it has, however, a stronger sense than the word messenger, and is closer to a delegate. The Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament argues that its Christian use translated a Jewish position known in Hebrew as the sheliach and this ecclesiastical meaning of the word was later translated into Latin as missio, the source of the English missionary. In the New Testament, the names of the majority of the apostles are Hebrew names, Mark 6, 7-13 states that Jesus initially sent out these twelve in pairs to towns in Galilee. The text states that their initial instructions were to heal the sick and their carrying of just a staff is sometimes given as the reason for the use by Christian bishops of a staff of office in those denominations that believe they maintain an apostolic succession
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Sermon on the Mount
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The Sermon on the Mount is a collection of sayings and teachings credited to Jesus, which emphasizes his moral teaching found in the Gospel of Matthew. It is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew and takes place early in the Ministry of Jesus after he has been baptized by John the Baptist. The Sermon is the longest continuous section of Jesus speaking found in the New Testament and it includes some of the best known teachings of Jesus, such as the Beatitudes, and the widely recited Lords Prayer. To most believers in Jesus, the Sermon on the Mount contains the central tenets of Christian discipleship, the Sermon on the Mount is the longest piece of teaching from Jesus in the New Testament, and occupies chapters 5,6 and 7 of the Gospel of Matthew. The Sermon has been one of the most widely quoted elements of the Canonical Gospels and this is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew, the other four being Matthew 10, Matthew 13, Matthew 18 and the Olivet discourse in Matthew 24. The Sermon is set early in the Ministry of Jesus, after he has been baptized by John the Baptist in chapter 3 of Matthews Gospel and gathered his first disciples in chapter 4. Before this episode, Jesus had been all about Galilee preaching, as in Matthew 4,23, the setting for the sermon is given in Matthew 5, 1-2. Jesus sees the multitudes, goes up into the mountain, is followed by his disciples, the sermon is brought to its close by Matthew 8,1, which reports that Jesus came down from the mountain followed by great multitudes. These describe the character of the people of the Kingdom of Heaven, the Greek word most versions of the Gospel render as blessed, can also be translated happy. In Matthew, there are eight blessings, while in Luke there are four, in almost all cases the phrases used in the Beatitudes are familiar from an Old Testament context, but in the sermon Jesus gives them new meaning. Together, the Beatitudes present a new set of ideals that focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction, they echo the highest ideals of Jesus teachings on spirituality and compassion. In Christian teachings, the Works of Mercy, which have corporal and spiritual components, have resonated with the theme of the Beatitude for mercy and these teachings emphasize that these acts of mercy provide both temporal and spiritual benefits. Matthew 5, 13–16 presents the metaphors of salt and light and this completes the profile of Gods people presented in the beatitudes, and acts as the introduction to the next section. There are two parts in this section, using the salt of the earth and Light of the World to refer to the disciples – implying their value. Elsewhere, in John 8,12, Jesus applies Light of the World to himself, Matthew 5,22 KJV The longest discourse in the Sermon is Matthew 5, 17–48, traditionally referred to as the Antitheses or Matthews Antitheses though Gundry disputes that title. In the discourse, Jesus fulfills and reinterprets the Old Covenant and in particular its Ten Commandments, for example, he advises turning the other cheek, and to love your enemies, in contrast to taking an eye for an eye. In Matthew 6 Jesus condemns doing what would normally be good works simply for recognition and not from the heart, such as those of alms, prayer, and fasting. The discourse goes on to condemn the superficiality of materialism and call the disciples not to worry about material needs, within the discourse on ostentation, Matthew presents an example of correct prayer
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Sermon on the Plain
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In Christianity, the Sermon on the Plain refers to a set of teachings by Jesus in the Gospel of Luke, in 6, 17–49. This sermon may be compared to the longer Sermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew, Luke 6, 12-20a details the events leading to the sermon. In it, Jesus spent the night on the mountain praying to God, two days later, he gathered his disciples and selected 12 of them, whom he named Apostles. On the way down from the mountain, he stood at a place where a throng of people had gathered. After curing those with unclean spirits, Jesus began what is now called the Sermon on the Plain, Luke 6 Jesus in Christianity Life of Jesus in the New Testament
24.
Miracles of Jesus
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The miracles of Jesus are the supernatural deeds attributed to Jesus in Christian and Islamic texts. The majority are faith healing, exorcisms, resurrection of the dead, in the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus refuses to give a miraculous sign to prove his authority. To many Christians and Muslims, the miracles are actual historical events, others, including liberal Christians, consider these stories to be figurative. Since the Enlightenment scholars have taken a highly skeptical approach to claims about miracles, in most cases, Christian authors associate each miracle with specific teachings that reflect the message of Jesus. The three types of healings are cures where an ailment is cured, exorcisms where demons are cast away, karl Barth said that, among these miracles, the Transfiguration of Jesus is unique in that the miracle happens to Jesus himself. In Matthew 10,8 he advised his disciples to heal the sick without payment and stated, freely ye received and it is not always clear when two reported miracles refer to the same event. For example, in the Healing the Centurions servant, the Gospels of Matthew, the Gospel of John has a similar but slighty different account at Capernaum, and states that it was the son of a royal official who was cured at a distance. The largest group of miracles mentioned in the New Testament involve cures, the Gospels give varying amounts of detail for each episode, sometimes Jesus cures simply by saying a few words, at other times employs material such as spit and mud. Generally they are referred to in the Synoptic Gospels but not in the Gospel of John, the canonical Gospels tell a number of stories of Jesus healing blind people. The earliest is a story of the healing of a man in Bethsaida in the Gospel of Mark. The Mark Gospel also has an account of the healing of a man named Bartimaeus, the Gospel of Luke tells the same story of Jesus healing an unnamed blind man, but moves the event in the narrative to when Jesus approaches Jericho. The Gospel of John describes an episode in which Jesus heals a man blind from birth, placed during the Festival of Tabernacles, Jesus mixes spittle with dirt to make a mud mixture, which he then places on the mans eyes. He asks the man to wash his eyes in the Pool of Siloam, when the man does this, he is able to see. When asked by his disciples whether the cause of the blindness was the sins of the father or his mother. ( A story in which Jesus cures a leper appears in Mark 1, 40-45, Matthew 8, 1-4 and Luke 5, Healing the paralytic at Capernaum appears in Matthew 9, 1-8, Mark 2, 1-12 and Luke 5, 17-26. The Synoptics state that a paralytic was brought to Jesus on a mat, Jesus told him to get up and walk, Jesus also told the man that his sins were forgiven, which irritated the Pharisees. Jesus is described as responding to the anger by asking whether it is easier to say that someones sins are forgiven, or to tell the man to get up and walk. Mark and Luke state that Jesus was in a house at the time, a similar cure is described in the Gospel of John as the Healing the paralytic at Bethesda and occurs at the Pool of Bethesda
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Parables of Jesus
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The Parables of Jesus can be found in all the canonical gospels, except for John, and in some of the non-canonical gospels, but are located mainly within the three synoptic gospels. They represent a key part of the teachings of Jesus, forming one third of his recorded teachings. Christians place high emphasis on these parables, since they are the words of Jesus, they are believed to be what the Father has taught. Jesus parables are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, scholars have commented that although these parables seem simple, the messages they convey are deep, and central to the teachings of Jesus. Christian authors view them not as mere similitudes which serve the purpose of illustration, as a translation of the Hebrew word מָשָׁל mashal, the word parable can also refer to a riddle. In all times in their history the Jews were familiar with teaching by means of parables, the use of parables by Jesus was hence a natural teaching method that fit into the tradition of his time. The parables of Jesus have been quoted, taught, and discussed since the beginnings of Christianity. Parables are one of the literary forms in the Bible. Parables are generally considered to be short stories such as the Good Samaritan, a true parable may be regarded as an extended simile. Although some suggest parables are essentially extended allegories, others argue the opposite. Dr. Kenneth Boa states that Parables are extended figures of comparison that often use short stories to teach a truth or answer a question, while the story in a parable is not historical, it is true to life, not a fairy tale. The three synoptic gospels contain the parables of Jesus, There are a growing number of scholars who also find parables in the Gospel of John, such as the little stories of the Good Shepherd or the childbearing woman. Otherwise, John includes allegories but no parables, several authors such as Barbara Reid, Arland Hultgren or Donald Griggs comment that parables are noticeably absent from the Gospel of John. The Catholic Encyclopedia states, There are no parables in St. Johns Gospel and we reckon thirty-three in all, but some have raised the number even to sixty, by including proverbial expressions. They list no parables for the Gospel of John, Parables attributed to Jesus are also found in other documents apart from the Bible. Some of these overlap those in the gospels and some are not part of the Bible. The non-canonical Gospel of Thomas contains up to fifteen parables, eleven of which have parallels in the four canonical Gospels, the unknown author of the Gospel of Thomas did not have a special word for parable, making it difficult to know what he considered a parable. Those unique to Thomas include the Parable of the Assassin and the Parable of the Empty Jar, the noncanonical Apocryphon of James also contains three unique parables attributed to Jesus
26.
Rejection of Jesus
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The New Testament includes a number of incidents of the rejection of Jesus during his lifetime, by local communities and individuals. In the sixth chapter of the Gospel of Mark there is an account of a visit by Jesus to his hometown with his followers, on the Sabbath, he enters a synagogue and begins to teach. It says that many who heard were astounded, and that they were offended, asking is not the carpenter. It adds that he could do no deeds of power there except to heal a few sick people. Amazed at the lack of belief in him, he observes that Prophets are not without honour, except in their hometown, and among their own kin. The account given in the Gospel of Matthew edits this account by having those in the synagogue describe Jesus as the son of the carpenter, the Gospel of Luke moves this story to the beginning of Jesus preaching in Galilee, to introduce what follows. In this version, Jesus is described as performing a public reading of scripture, he claims to be the fulfillment of a prophecy at Isaiah 61, 1-2. This, according to Luke, caused the people to attack Jesus and chase him to the top of a hill in order to try to throw Jesus off, though Jesus slips away. Some scholars conclude that the accuracy of Lukes version is questionable. The negative view of Jesus family may be related to the conflict between Paul the Apostle and Jewish Christians, Matthew 21,42, Acts 4,11 and Mark 12,10 talk of Jesus as the stone which the builders rejected. 1 Peter 2,7 discusses this rejection of Jesus and this references similar wording from Psalms 118,22. According to Luke 9, 51-56, when Jesus entered a Samaritan village, he was not welcomed and his disciples wanted to call down fire from heaven on the village but Jesus reprimanded them and they continued on to another village. John 6, 60-6,66 records many disciples leaving Jesus after he said that those who eat his body, in John 6, 67-71 Jesus asks the Twelve Apostles if they also want to leave, but St. Peter responds that they have become believers. Jesus is rejected in Judaism as a failed Jewish Messiah claimant, belief in the divinity of any human being is incompatible with Judaism, The Torah says God is not a man that He should lie, nor is He a mortal that He should relent. Would He say and not do, speak and not fulfill, aside from its belief in Jesus as the Messiah, Christianity has altered many of the most fundamental concepts of Judaism. the doctrine of Christ was and will remain alien to Jewish religious thought. No Jew accepts Jesus as the Messiah, when someone makes that faith commitment, they become Christian. It is not possible for someone to be both Christian and Jewish, on the Jewish side, the accounts of Jewish rejection of Jesus are prominently featured in the Birkat haMinim of the Amidah and the Talmud. On the Christian side, the accounts of Jewish rejection of Jesus are prominently featured in the New Testament, for example, in 7, 1-9 Jesus moves around in Galilee but avoids Judea, because the Jews/Judeans were looking for a chance to kill him
27.
Transfiguration of Jesus
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The Transfiguration of Jesus is an event reported in the New Testament when Jesus is transfigured and becomes radiant in glory upon a mountain. The Synoptic Gospels describe it, and the Second Epistle of Peter also refers to it and it has also been hypothesized that the first chapter of the Gospel of John alludes to it. In these accounts, Jesus and three of his apostles, Peter, James, John, go to a mountain to pray, on the mountain, Jesus begins to shine with bright rays of light. Then the prophets Moses and Elijah appear next to him and he speaks with them, Jesus is then called Son by a voice in the sky, assumed to be God the Father, as in the Baptism of Jesus. Many Christian traditions, including the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, commemorate the event in the Feast of the Transfiguration, the Transfiguration is one of the miracles of Jesus in the Gospels. This miracle is unique among others that appear in the Canonical gospels, thomas Aquinas considered the Transfiguration the greatest miracle in that it complemented baptism and showed the perfection of life in Heaven. The Transfiguration is one of the five major milestones in the narrative of the life of Jesus, the others being Baptism, Crucifixion, Resurrection. In 2002, Pope John Paul II introduced the Luminous Mysteries in the Rosary, moreover, Christians consider the Transfiguration to fulfill an Old Testament messianic prophecy that Elijah would return again after his ascension. Gardner states The very last of the prophets, Malachi. Elijah himself would reappear in the Transfiguration, there he would appear alongside Moses as a representative of all the prophets who looked forward to the coming of the Messiah. Christs redemptive sacrifice was the purpose for which Elijah had ministered while on earth, and it was the goal about which Elijah spoke to Jesus in the Transfiguration. In the synoptic gospels, the account of the transfiguration happens towards the middle of the narrative and it is a key episode and almost immediately follows another important element, the Confession of Peter, you are the Christ. The Transfiguration narrative acts as a revelation of the identity of Jesus as the Son of God to some of his disciples. In the gospels, Jesus takes Peter, James, son of Zebedee and his brother John the Apostle with him and goes up to a mountain, which is not named. Once on the mountain, Matthew 17,2 states that Jesus was transfigured before them, his face shining as the sun, at that point the prophets Elijah and Moses appear and Jesus begins to talk to them. Luke states that they spoke of Jesus exodus which he was about to accomplish in Jerusalem, Luke is also specific in describing Jesus in a state of glory, with Luke 9,32 referring to they saw His glory. Just as Elijah and Moses begin to depart from the scene and this has been interpreted as Peters attempt to keep the prophets there longer. But before Peter can finish, a cloud appears
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Passion of Jesus
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Those parts of the four Gospels that describe these events, as well as the non-canonical Gospel of Peter, are known as the Passion narratives. In the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church, the Passion is commemorated in Holy Week, beginning on Friday of Sorrows, the Palm Sunday and culminating on his death on Good Friday. The word passion has taken on a more general application and now may also apply to accounts of the suffering and death of Christian martyrs. The accounts of the Passion are found in the four gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke. Three of these, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, known as the Synoptic Gospels, the Gospel of John accounts varies slightly. The events include, The conspiracy against Jesus by the Jewish Sanhedrin priests, triumphal entry into Jerusalem, his anger and outburst at the Cleansing of the Temple A meal a few days before Passover. He says that for this she always be remembered. In Jerusalem, the Last Supper shared by Jesus and his disciples, Jesus gives final instructions, predicts his betrayal, and tells them all to remember him. On the path to Gethsemane after the meal, Jesus tells them they will all fall away that night, after Peter protests he will not, Jesus says Peter will deny him three times before the cock crows. Gethsemane, later that night, Jesus prays, meanwhile, the disciples rest, during the arrest in Gethsemane, someone takes a sword and cuts off the ear of the high priests servant, Malchus. The high priests palace, later that night, According to Matthews Gospel, the court then spat in his face and struck him with their fists. They then send him to Pontius Pilate, According to the synoptic gospels, the high priest who examines Jesus is Caiaphas, in John, Jesus is also interrogated by Annas, Caiaiphas father-in-law. The courtyard outside the high palace, the same time. Peter has followed Jesus and joined the mob awaiting Jesus’ fate, they suspect he is a sympathizer, suddenly, the cock crows and Peter remembers what Jesus had said. Pilate, the Roman governor, examines Jesus, decides he is innocent, the Jewish leaders and the crowd demand Jesus’ death, Pilate gives them the choice of saving Barabbas, in response to the screaming mob Pilate sends Jesus out to be crucified. According to the Gospel of Matthew, Judas, the betrayer, is filled with remorse, when the high priests say that that is his affair, Judas throws the money into the temple, goes off, and hangs himself. Golgotha, a hill outside Jerusalem, later morning through mid afternoon, the Gospel of Luke states that Pilate sends Jesus to be judged by Herod Antipas because as a Galilean he is under his jurisdiction. Herod is excited at first to see Jesus and hopes Jesus will perform a miracle for him, he asks Jesus several questions, Herod then mocks him and sends him back to Pilate after giving him an elegant robe to wear
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Triumphal entry into Jerusalem
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In the accounts of the four canonical Gospels, Jesus triumphal entry into Jerusalem takes place in the days before the Last Supper, marking the beginning of his Passion. Christians celebrate Jesus entry into Jerusalem as Palm Sunday, a week before Easter Sunday, according to the Gospels, Jesus was staying at Bethany and Bethphage before entering Jerusalem. John 12,1 states that he was in Bethany six days before the passover, Jesus then rode the donkey into Jerusalem, with the three Synoptic gospels stating that the disciples had first put their cloaks on it. Matthew 21,7 maintains that the disciples laid their cloaks on both animals, they brought the donkey and the colt, laid their clothes on them, heinrich Meyer suggests that they spread their outer garments upon both animals, being uncertain which of them Jesus intended to mount. In Luke 19,41 as Jesus approaches Jerusalem, he looks at the city and weeps over it, foretelling the suffering that awaits the city. The Gospels go on to recount how Jesus rode into Jerusalem, the people sang part of Psalm 118, 25-26, Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord. We bless you from the house of the Lord, and the multitudes answered, This is Jesus, the prophet from Nazareth of Galilee”. The word moved in the Greek text is ἐσείσθη, derived from σεισμός, the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges suggests the word in the original is forcible, “convulsed” or “stirred” as by an earthquake, or by a violent wind. Matthew uses the word in 27,15 when he suggests that the earth quaked at the time of Jesus death. Traditionally, entering the city on a donkey symbolizes arrival in peace, and his feet shall stand in that day upon the Mount of Olives, which is before Jerusalem on the east. The triumphal entry and the branches, resemble the celebration of Jewish liberation in 1 Maccabees which states. With thanksgiving, and branches of trees, and with harps, and cymbals, and with viols, and hymns. Jesus entry on a donkey has a parallel in Zechariah 9,9 which states that, thy king cometh unto thee, he is just, and having salvation, lowly, and riding upon an ass. The symbolism of the donkey may refer to the Eastern tradition that it is an animal of peace, versus the horse. Therefore, a king came riding upon a horse when he was bent on war, therefore, Jesus entry to Jerusalem symbolized his entry as the Prince of Peace, not as a warmongering king. Life of Jesus in the New Testament
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Cleansing of the Temple
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The cleansing of the Temple narrative tells of Jesus expelling the merchants and the money changers from the Temple, and occurs in all four canonical gospels of the New Testament. In the Gospel of John Jesus refers to the Temple as my Fathers house, thus, the narrative occurs near the end of the Synoptic Gospels and near the start in the Gospel of John. Some scholars believe that these refer to two incidents, given that the Gospel of John also includes more than one Passover. Jerusalem was packed with Jews who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000 pilgrims, and making a whip of cords, he drove them all out of the temple, with the sheep and oxen. And he poured out the coins of the money-changers and overturned their tables, and he told those who sold the pigeons, Take these things away, do not make my Fathers house a house of trade. In Mark 12,40 and Luke 20,47 Jesus accused the Temple authorities of thieving, dove sellers were selling doves that were sacrificed by the poor who could not afford grander sacrifices and specifically by women. According to Mark 11,16, Jesus then put an embargo on people carrying any merchandise through the Temple—a sanction that would have disrupted all commerce and this occurred in the outermost court of the gentiles. Matthew 21, 14–16 says the Temple leaders questioned Jesus if he was aware the children were shouting Hosanna to the Son of David, Jesus responded by saying from the lips of children and infants you have ordained praise. Claims about the Temple cleansing episode in the Gospel of John can be combined with historical sources to obtain an estimate of when it occurred. Temple expansion and reconstruction was ongoing, and it was in constant reconstruction until it was destroyed in 70 AD by the Romans. Given that it had taken 46 years of construction to that point and it is possible that the complex was only a few years completed when the future Emperor Titus destroyed the Temple in 70 AD. David Landry suggests that the importance of the episode is signaled by the fact that within a week of this incident, matthew, Mark, and Luke agree that this is the event that functioned as the trigger for Jesus death. The Gospel of Mark uses the phrase, Then he taught them, as Jesus references the prophet Jeremiah. Has this house which bears my name become in your eyes a den of thieves, I too see what is being done, says the Lord. As with other parts of Jesuss story, there are a number of later embellishments to the narrative of the incident that are regarded as legendary or polemical by scholars. Yeshu was likewise accused of robbing the shem hamphoras, the name of god’ from the Holy of Holies. The cleansing of the Temple is a commonly depicted event in the Life of Christ, an Introduction to the New Testament, Doubleday ISBN 0-385-24767-2 Brown, Raymond E. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Prentice Hall ISBN 0-13-614934-0 Ched Myers, Binding the Strong Man, A political reading of Marks story of Jesus, Orbis ISBN 0-88344-620-0 Miller, the Complete Gospels, Polebridge Press, ISBN 0-06-065587-9 Media related to Cleansing of the Temple at Wikimedia Commons
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Second Coming
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The Second Coming is a Christian concept regarding the future return of Jesus to Earth after his first coming and ascension to heaven about two thousand years ago. The belief is based on messianic prophecies found in the gospels and is part of most Christian eschatologies. Views about the nature of Jesus Second Coming vary among Christian denominations, most English versions of the Nicene Creed include the following statements. he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead and we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Several different terms are used to refer to the Second Coming of Christ, In the New Testament, the Greek New Testament uses the Greek term parousia twenty-four times, seventeen of them concerning Christ. The word is used six times referring to individuals and one time referring to the coming of the lawless one. The etymology of the Greek word parousia is related to para beside ousia presence, in English parousia always has a special, Christian meaning. The Bauer-Danker Lexicon provides the definition. of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age. The Catholic Encyclopedia article on the General judgment states, In the New Testament the second Parousia, the Saviour Himself not only foretells the event but graphically portrays its circumstances. The Apostles give a most prominent place to this doctrine in their preaching, besides the name Parusia, or Advent, the second coming is also called Epiphany, epiphaneia, or Appearance and Apocalypse, or Revelation. The time of the second coming is spoken of as that Day the day of the Lord, the day of Christ, the day of the Son of Man, and the last day. Children, it is the last hour, and just as you heard that Antichrist is coming, even now many antichrists have appeared, from this we know that it is the last hour. The position associating the Second Coming with 1st century events such as the destruction of Jerusalem, some Preterists see this coming of the Son of Man in glory primarily fulfilled in Jesus death on the cross. They believe the signs are already fulfilled including the sun will be dark. Will be shaken, and then they will see, moreover, Jesus was reported to have told his disciples, Truly I tell you, this generation will certainly not pass away until all these things have happened. Some, such as Jerome, interpret the phrase this generation to mean in the lifetime of the Jewish race, however, other scholars believe that if Jesus meant race he would have used genos not genea. Most English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use include the statements about Jesus. he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead and we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come
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Anointing of Jesus
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The anointing of Jesus is one of the relatively few events reported by each of the four Gospels, although the details differ in the accounts. All report the anointing of Jesus with expensive perfume by a woman, who pours over Jesus the contents of a jar of nard. The anointing angers some of the onlookers because the perfume could have sold for a years wages—which the Gospel of Mark enumerates as 300 denarii—and the money given to the poor. Matthews Gospel states that the disciples were indignant and Johns states that it was Judas who was most offended, John adds that he was bothered because Judas was a thief and desired the money for himself. Jesus is described as justifying the action of the woman by stating that the poor will always exist, the identification of the woman is found in John 11, 1-2 Now a man named Lazarus was sick. He was from Bethany, the village of Mary and her sister Martha,2 NIV and King James Version. The event is reported in Matthew 26, Mark 14, Luke 7, when the disciples saw this, they were indignant. 9 “This perfume could have sold at a high price. Aware of this, Jesus said to them, “Why are you bothering this woman and she has done a beautiful thing to me. 11 The poor you will always have with you, but you will not always have me, when she poured this perfume on my body, she did it to prepare me for burial. Truly I tell you, wherever this gospel is preached throughout the world, what she has done will also be told, in memory of her. Mark 14, 3-9 While he was in Bethany, reclining at the table in the home of Simon the Leper and she broke the jar and poured the perfume on his head. Some of those present were saying indignantly to one another, “Why this waste of perfume and it could have been sold for more than a year’s wages and the money given to the poor. ”She has done a beautiful thing to me. The poor you will always have with you, and you can help them any time you want, but you will not always have me. 8 She did what she could and she poured perfume on my body beforehand to prepare for my burial. Truly I tell you, wherever the gospel is preached throughout the world, what she has done will also be told, in memory of her. ”Luke 7, 36-50 When one of the Pharisees invited Jesus to have dinner with him, he went to the Pharisee’s house and reclined at the table. A woman in town who lived a sinful life learned that Jesus was eating at the Pharisee’s house. As she stood him at his feet weeping, she began to wet his feet with her tears
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Last Supper
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The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Maundy Thursday, the Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion or The Lords Supper. The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper, during the meal Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the Apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will deny knowing him. Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions, others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. The term Last Supper does not appear in the New Testament, most Protestants use the term Lords Supper, stating that the term last suggests this was one of several meals and not the meal. The term Lords Supper refers both to the event and the act of Holy Communion and Eucharistic celebration within their liturgy. Evangelical Protestants also use the term Lords Supper, but most do not use the terms Eucharist or the word Holy with the name Communion, the Eastern Orthodox use the term Mystical Supper which refers both to the biblical event and the act of Eucharistic celebration within liturgy. The last meal that Jesus shared with his disciples is described in all four canonical Gospels and this meal later became known as the Last Supper. The Last Supper was likely a retelling of the events of the last meal of Jesus among the early Christian community, after the meal, Jesus is betrayed, arrested, tried, and then crucified. In Matthew 26, 24-25, Mark 14, 18-21, Luke 22, 21-23 and John 13, 21-30 during the meal and it would be better for him if he had not been born. In Matthew 26, 23-25 and John 13, 26-27, Judas is specifically identified as the traitor. In the Gospel of John, when asked about the traitor, Jesus states, “It is the one to whom I will give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish. ”Then, dipping the piece of bread, he gave it to Judas, the son of Simon Iscariot. As soon as Judas took the bread, Satan entered into him, in the course of the Last Supper, Jesus divides up some bread, says a prayer, and hands the pieces of bread to his disciples, saying this is my body. He then takes a cup of wine, offers another prayer, and hands it around, saying this is my blood of the everlasting covenant, finally, according to Paul and Luke, he tells the disciples do this in remembrance of me. This event has been regarded by Christians of most denominations as the institution of the Eucharist, there is recorded celebration of the Eucharist by the early Christian community in Jerusalem. The institution of the Eucharist is recorded in the three Synoptic Gospels and in Pauls First Epistle to the Corinthians, the words of institution differ slightly in each account. In addition, Luke 22, 19b-20 is a text which does not appear in some of the early manuscripts of Luke. Some scholars, therefore, believe that it is an interpolation, a comparison of the accounts given in the Gospels and 1 Corinthians is shown in the table below, with text from the ASV
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Farewell Discourse
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The discourse is generally seen as having distinct components. First, Jesus tells the disciples that he will be going away to the Father, Jesus bestows peace on the disciples and commands them to love one another. The next part of the discourse contains the allegory of The Vine which positions Jesus as the vine and the disciples as the branches, building on the pattern of discipleship in the gospels. The Vine again emphasizes the love among the disciples, but Jesus then warns the disciples of upcoming persecutions, If the world hates you, I have told you these things, so that in me you may have peace. In this world you will have trouble, John 16,33 In the final part of the discourse Jesus prays for his followers and the coming Church. This is the longest prayer of Jesus in any of the gospels, the key themes of the prayer are the glorification of the Father and petitions for the unity of the disciples through love. Jesus prays to the Father that his followers may all be one as we are one and that the love with which you love me may be in them, the discourse starts after the literal cleansing and the figurative cleansing of the community of disciples via the departure of Judas. The discourse may be separated into four components, First discourse,14, 1-31, The theme of this part is departure and return, peace and joy, and is similar to the third discourse. Jesus states that he will be going to the Father, but will send the Comforter for the disciples Second discourse,15 and this part is also called the Vine and deals with Jesus love and how Jesus is the source of life for the community. At the end of this, it leads to the discussion of the hatred in the next section. This section again deals with Jesus departure and the Comforter which will come to the disciples, here Jesus submits five specific petitions to the Father as he prays for his disciples and the community of followers. However, this four part structure is not subject to universal agreement among scholars, and at times, some scholars use a three part structure in which chapters 15 and 16 form one unit. The statement these things I have spoken to you occurs several times throughout the discourse, the statement while I am still with you then also underscores the importance of the final instructions given. This discourse is rich with Christological content, e. g. it reiterates the Pre-existence of Christ in John 17,5 when Jesus refers to the glory which he had with the Father before the world was. Yet he assures them that he go to prepare a place for them in his Fathers house. The statement in John 14,6, I am the way, and the truth, and the life, no one cometh unto the Father, to identify Jesus as the only path to salvation. Jesus then asserts his unity with the Father in John 14, 7-9, If you know me, the statement in John 14,11 I am in the Father, and the Father in me further asserts the special relationship of Jesus and the father. The statement in John 14,26, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name is within the framework of the sending relationships in Johns gospel
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Paraclete
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In Christianity, the term paraclete most commonly refers to the Holy Spirit. Paraclete comes from the Koine Greek word παράκλητος, the word for paraclete is passive in form, and etymologically signified called to ones side. The term is not common in non-Jewish texts, liddell and Scotts Greek-English Lexicon apart from Demosthenes cites also the example of a slave summoned as a help. Philo speaks several times of paraclete advocates primarily in the sense of human intercessors, the word later went from Hellenistic Jewish writing into rabbinical Hebrew writing. For a summary of rabbinical usage see Jewish Encyclopedia 1914 Paraclete, the word is not used in the Septuagint, the word comforters being different in Job. Other words are used to translate the Hebrew word מְנַחֵם and מליץ יושר, in modern Hebrew, the cognate praklit means solicitor or legal counsel, praklit ha-mechoz means district attorney, and praklitut ha-medina the Israeli equivalent of the solicitor-general. In the Greek New Testament the word is most prominent in the Johannine writings and it appears in the Gospel of John where it may be translated into English as counselor, helper, encourager, advocate, or comforter. “The Paraclete represents the Spirit as manifested in a particular way, every verb describing the ministry of the Paraclete is directly related to his speech function. ”The early church identified the Paraclete as the Holy Spirit. In first-century Jewish and Christian understanding, the presence of the Holy Spirit is to claim rebirth of prophecy. Raymond Brown supported by Johnston read that the another Paraclete of John 14,16 is in many ways another Jesus, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew using the verb παρακληθήσονται, paraclethesontai, traditionally interpreted to signify to be refreshed, encouraged, or comforted. The text may also be translated as vocative as well as the traditional nominative, Then the meaning of paraclethesontai, also informative of the meaning of the name, or noun Paraclete, implicates are going to summon or will be breaking off. The Paraclete may thus mean the summoner or the one, who, in John 14,16, Jesus is quoted saying another Paraclete will come to help his disciples, implying Jesus is the first and primary Paraclete. Here is the context of the passage in John, with the translation of Paraclete as Advocate shown in bold,15 “If you love me, keep my commands. 16 And I will ask the Father, and he give you another Advocate to help you. The world cannot accept him, because it sees him nor knows him. But you know him, for he lives with you and will be in you,18 I will not leave you as orphans, I will come to you. 19 Before long, the world will not see me anymore, because I live, you also will live. 20 On that day you realize that I am in my Father, and you are in me
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Agony in the Garden
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The Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane refers to the events in the life of Jesus as recorded in the New Testament, between the Farewell Discourse at the conclusion of the Last Supper and Jesus arrest. According to all four Gospels, immediately after the Last Supper, each Gospel offers a slightly different account regarding narrative details. The gospels of Matthew and Mark identify this place of prayer as Gethsemane, Jesus was accompanied by three Apostles, Peter, John and James, whom he asked to stay awake and pray. He moved a stones throw away from them, where He felt overwhelming sadness and anguish, nevertheless, let it be as you, not I, would have it. Then, a little later, He said, If this cup cannot pass by. He said this three times, checking on the three apostles between each prayer and finding them asleep. He commented, The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak, an angel came from heaven to strengthen him. During his agony as he prayed, his sweat was as it were great drops of falling down upon the ground. At the conclusion of the narrative, Jesus accepts that the hour has come for him to be betrayed, in Roman Catholic tradition the Agony in the Garden is the first Sorrowful Mystery of the Rosary and the First Station of the Scriptural Way of The Cross. Catholic tradition includes specific prayers and devotions as acts of reparation for the sufferings of Jesus during His Agony and these Acts of Reparation to Jesus Christ do not involve a petition for a living or dead beneficiary, but aim to repair the sins against Jesus. Some such prayers are provided in the Raccolta Catholic prayer book also includes prayers as Acts of Reparation to the Virgin Mary. Catholic tradition holds that the sweating of blood was literal and not figurative, in the Catholic tradition, Matthew 26,40 is the basis of the Holy Hour devotion for Eucharistic adoration. In the Gospel of Matthew, Then he said to them, My soul is sorrowful even to death, remain here. And he came to the disciples and found them sleeping and in Matthew 26,40 he asked Peter, So, an orchestral reprise is heard after the crucifixion in the form of John Nineteen, Forty-One. Holy Hour Life of Jesus in the New Testament Christs agony at Gethsemane
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Kiss of Judas
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The kiss occurs in the Garden of Gethsemane after the Last Supper and leads directly to the arrest of Jesus by the police force of the Sanhedrin. More broadly, a Judas kiss may refer to an act appearing to be an act of friendship, the gospels of Matthew and Mark both use the Greek verb καταφιλέω, which means to kiss firmly, intensely, passionately, tenderly, or warmly. It is the verb that Plutarch uses to describe a famous kiss that Alexander the Great gave Bagoas. The compound verb has the force of an emphatic, ostentatious salute, according to Matthew 26,50, Jesus responded by saying, Friend, do what you are here to do. Elaine Pagels and Karen King have speculated that Jesus and Judas were actually in agreement with each other, john Dear notes that Luke 22,48 quotes Jesus saying, Judas, are you betraying the Son of Humanity with a kiss. Probably the best known is from Giottos cycle in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, there is also a version called The Taking of Christ by Caravaggio or one of his disciples. A sixth-century Byzantine Mosaic in Ravenna, a fresco by Barna da Siena. A sculpture representing the Kiss of Judas appears on the Passion façade of the Sagrada Família basilica in Barcelona, the kiss of Judas in art Bargain of Judas Chronology of Jesus Jesus predicts his betrayal Kiss of death Life of Jesus in the New Testament Grubb, Nancy. New York City, Abbeville Publishing Group, media related to Kiss of Judas at Wikimedia Commons
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Arrest of Jesus
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The arrest of Jesus is a pivotal event recorded in the canonical gospels. The event ultimately leads, in the Gospel accounts, to Jesus crucifixion, the arrest led immediately to his trial before the Sanhedrin, during which they condemned him to death and handed him to Pilate the following morning. In Christian theology, the events from the Last Supper until the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus are referred to as the Passion, in the New Testament, all four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. In each Gospel, these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more detail than any other portion of that Gospels narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening, once there, he is described as leaving the group so that he can pray privately. The synoptics state that Jesus asked God that his burden be taken from him, Luke states that an angel appeared and strengthened Jesus, who then returned to his disciples. At that point, Judas gave Jesus a kiss, as a sign to those that had accompanied Judas as to who Jesus was. Having been identified, the officers arrested Jesus, although one of Jesus disciples thought to them with a sword. The Gospel of John specifies that it had been Simon Peter who had cut off the ear of Malchus, the servant of Caiaphas, Luke adds that Jesus healed the wound. John, Matthew, and Luke state that Jesus criticized the violent act, in Matthew, Jesus made the well known statement all who live by the sword, shall die by the sword. The account in the Gospel of John differs from that of the synoptics, chronology of Jesus Life of Jesus in the New Testament Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament Doubleday 1997 ISBN 0-385-24767-2 Brown, the New Jerome Biblical Commentary Prentice Hall 1990 ISBN 0-13-614934-0 Kilgallen, John J. A Brief Commentary on the Gospel of Mark Paulist Press 1989 ISBN 0-8091-3059-9 Miller, Robert J. Editor The Complete Gospels Polebridge Press 1994 ISBN 0-06-065587-9
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Sanhedrin trial of Jesus
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In the New Testament, the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus refers to the trial of Jesus before the Sanhedrin following his arrest in Jerusalem and prior to his dispensation by Pontius Pilate. It is an event reported by all four Canonical gospels of the New Testament, although Johns Gospel does not explicitly mention a Sanhedrin trial in this context. Jesus is generally quiet, does not mount a defense, and rarely responds to the accusations, the Jewish leaders then take Jesus to Pontius Pilate, the governor of Roman Judaea, and ask that he be tried for claiming to be the King of the Jews. The trial as depicted in the Gospel accounts is temporally placed informally on Thursday night, in the narrative of the canonical gospels, after the betrayal and arrest of Jesus, he is taken to the Sanhedrin. From a historical perspective, in the era in which the narrative is set, in the four canonical gospels, Jesus was tried and condemned by a majority of the Sanhedrin members, although at least one member, Joseph of Arimathea, dissented from this decision. Jesus was mocked and beaten and condemned for making the claim of being the Son of God, although the Gospel accounts vary with respect to some of the details, they agree on the general character and overall structure of the trials of Jesus. Matthew 26,57 states that Jesus was taken to the house of Caiaphas the High Priest, where the scribes, Matthew 27,1 adds that, the next morning, the priests held another meeting. Luke 22,54 states that Jesus was taken to the priests house. It is added in 22,66 that, as soon as it was day, in John 18, 12-14, however, Jesus is first taken to Annas, the father-in-law of Caiaphas, who was the high priest at that time. Annas is believed to have been the high priest. In 18,24, Jesus is sent from Annas to Caiaphas the high priest, Luke 22,61 states that as Jesus was bound and standing at the priests house Peter was in the courtyard. Jesus turned and looked straight at him, and Peter remembered the words Jesus had spoken to him, Before the rooster crows today, you will disown me three times. In the Gospel accounts, Jesus speaks very little, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the questions of the priests, in Matthew 26,62, the lack of response from Jesus prompts the high priest to ask him, Answerest thou nothing. In the Gospel accounts, the men that hold Jesus at the priests house mock, blindfold, insult and beat him, at times slapping him. Mark 14,61 states that the high priest then asked Jesus, Art thou the Christ, and Jesus said I am, at which point the high priest tore his own robe in anger and accused Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew 26,63, the high priest asks, tell us whether you are the Christ, Jesus responds You have said it, prompting the High Priest to tear his own robe, breaking Mosaic Law. In Luke 22,67, Jesus is asked, If thou art the Christ, but he said unto them, If I tell you, ye will not believe. But, in 22,70, when asked Are you then the Son of God, Jesus answers You say that I am, affirming the title Son of God
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Mocking of Jesus
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The mocking of Jesus occurred several times, after his trial and before his crucifixion according to the canonical gospels of the New Testament. It is considered part of Jesus passion, according to the gospel narratives, Jesus had predicted that he would be mocked. The mocking of Christ took place in three stages, immediately following his trial, immediately following his condemnation by Pontius Pilate, the New Testament narratives of Jesus being mocked are filled with irony, while the mockery focuses on Jesus prophetic and kingly roles. After Jesus condemnation by the Sanhedrin, some spat on him and he was blindfolded and beaten, and then mocked, Prophesy. This was done by men who held Jesus. Green suggests that Jesus suffers the mockery that is typical of prophets, susan R. Garrett sees Marks inclusion of the mockery as an example of irony, since Jesus is indeed a prophet, at the very moment his prophecy that Peter would deny him was being fulfilled. The prophetic assignment is not always portrayed as positive in the Bible, after his condemnation by Pontius Pilate, Jesus was flogged and mocked by Roman soldiers. They then knelt before him and said, Hail, king of the Jews and this was done as a mockery of Jesus kingship. After this, they spat on him and struck him on the head with the staff repeatedly, Peter Leithart notes that at the end of the scene, the soldiers reverse the whole coronation with an anti-coronation. They spit in contempt instead of kneeling in reverence, pull the scepter from Jesus’ hand and beat His crowned head with it, strip off the scarlet robe and replace it with Jesus’ own robe. Leithart goes on to suggest that, at point, the Romans remove the veil of irony and reveal what they really think about the Jews. In fact, the irony operates on two levels, james L. Luke 23,11 also mentions that Herod and his soldiers ridiculed and mocked him. Jesus was also mocked while he was on the cross, according to Mark 15,30, this was done by the chief priests and the teachers of the law. The chief priests and the teachers of the law started mocking Jesus while he was crucified and were making fun of him saying, He saved others, but he can’t save himself. Luke 23, 36-37 mentions mocking by Roman soldiers, The soldiers also mocked him, coming up and offering him sour wine, and saying, If you are the King of the Jews, save yourself. In Matthew 27,42 people, priest and the elders mock Jesus, and shout at him while he is hanging on the cross, He saved others, let Him save Himself if He is the Christ, the chosen of God. According to Luke 23,39, one criminal on his left who hung there together with Jesus on the cross, hurled insults at Jesus, Arent you the Messiah. Thus, whereas the first stage involves mockery by Jews, and the second stage mockery by gentiles, Leithart notes that at this point Jews and Gentiles, governors and criminals, scribes and commoners, all humanity joins in a single chorus of blasphemy
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Jesus at Herod's court
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Jesus at Herods court refers to an episode in the New Testament which describes Jesus being sent to Herod Antipas in Jerusalem, prior to his crucifixion. This episode is described in the Gospel of Luke, in the Gospel of Luke, after the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, the Jewish elders ask Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus in 23,2, accusing Jesus of making false claims of being a king. While questioning Jesus about the claim of being the King of the Jews, Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, given that Herod was in Jerusalem at that time, Pilate decides to send Jesus to Herod to be tried. Herod Antipas had wanted to see Jesus for a long time, however, Jesus says nothing in response to Herods questions, or the vehement accusations of the chief priests and the scribes. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put a gorgeous robe on him, as the King of the Jews, and Herod and Pilate become friends with each other that day, for before they were at enmity. After further conversations between Pilate and the Jewish elders, Jesus is sent to be crucified on Calvary, in the narrative that follows this episode, other people beside Pilate and Herod also find no fault in Jesus. In 23,41 one of the two thieves crucified next to Jesus also states Jesus innocence, while in 23,47 the Roman centurion says, Certainly this was a righteous man. The agent Christology reinforced in Herods court builds on the prediction by Jesus in Luke 18,32 that he shall be, delivered up unto the Gentiles, and shall be mocked, and shamefully treated. In Herods court, Luke continues to emphasize Jesus role not as an unwilling sacrifice, chronology of Jesus Pilates court Passion
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Pilate's court
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In the canonical gospels, Pilates court refers to the trial of Jesus in praetorium before Pontius Pilate, preceded by the Sanhedrin preliminary hearing. In the Gospel of Luke, Pilate finds that Jesus, being from Galilee, belonged to Herod Antipas jurisdiction, after questioning Jesus and receiving very few replies, Herod sees Jesus as no threat and returns him to Pilate. Fearing defilement, the Jews did not enter the court, and it was noted that Pilate appears as an advocate pleading Jesus case rather than as a judge in an official hearing. Two possible praetorium sites in Jerusalem have been proposed, the Antonia Fortress, early pilgrims to Jerusalem generally identified the praetorium with the Antonia Fortress, where the traditional Way of the Cross begins. The Gospel of Mark uses the word aulē to identify the praetorium, outside the praetorium proper, there was an area called the Pavement. Pilates judgement seat, in which he conversed with the Jews, was located there. As the religions professed by the Jews and the Romans were different, and since at the time Jerusalem was part of Roman Judea, the charges of the Sanhedrin against Jesus held no power before Pilate. From the three charges brought by the Jewish leaders, Pilate picks up on the one, asking. Jesus replies with You have said so, then the hearing continues, and Pilate finally asks Jesus What is truth. Stepping back outside, Pilate publicly declares that he finds Jesus to be innocent of the charges, the universal rule of the Roman Empire limited capital punishment strictly to the tribunal of the Roman governor and Pilate decided to publicly wash his hands as not being privy to Jesus death. Chronology of Jesus Ecce Homo Life of Jesus in the New Testament
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Flagellation of Christ
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It is the fourth station of the modern alternate Stations of the Cross, and a Sorrowful Mystery of the Rosary. The column to which Christ is normally tied, and the rope, scourge, the Basilica di Santa Prassede in Rome, claimed to possess the original column. From the 15th century the subject is also painted in individual works, the most-discussed single work is the enigmatic treatment on a small panel in Urbino by Piero della Francesca, whose precise meaning has eluded generations of art historians. At the same time Christ at the Column or Christ at the Stake developed as an image of Christ alone tied to a column or stake. This was most popular in Baroque sculpture, and also related to the subject, not found in the canonical Gospels and it is often difficult to distinguish between these two, and between Christ at the Column and a Flagellation. The Church of the Flagellation, at what was supposed to be the site in Jerusalem of the event was rebuilt in 1839, and again in 1929. Flagellation at the hands of the Romans is mentioned in three of the four canonical Gospels, John 19,1, Mark 14,65, and Matthew 27,26, none of three accounts are more detailed than Johns Then Pilate took Jesus and had him flogged. Lukes comparable account, Luke 22, 63-65 is of the High Priests guards beating and mocking Jesus, in the Passion of Christ the episode precedes the Mocking of Christ and the Crowning with thorns, which the Gospels happened at the same time or immediately after. Unlike the flogging, these were not part of the normal Roman judicial process and it first appears in art in the West in the 9th century. It is almost never found in Byzantine art, and remains rare in Eastern Orthodox art at any date. Initially found in illuminated manuscripts and small ivories, there are surviving monumental wall-paintings from around 1000 in Italy, from the start there are most often three figures, Christ and two servants of Pontius Pilate who whip him. In early depictions Christ may be naked, or wearing a robe, facing out or seen from behind, from the 12th century it is standard that Christ wears a loincloth. Christs face is visible, giving artists the technical problem of showing him receiving the strokes on his back - the usual place - while at the same time leaving his face visible. Often he appears to be receiving the strokes on the front of his body, sometimes another figure, who may be Herod, is present. These were presumably sometimes followed in processions by flagellants, who could see Christ suffering in front of them, in modern times, filmmakers have depicted Christ being flogged. It is a significant scene in Mel Gibsons 2004 The Passion of the Christ, in Kubricks A Clockwork Orange, Alex imagines himself as a Roman soldier flogging Jesus
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Crown of thorns
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According to three of the canonical Gospels a woven crown of thorns was placed on the head of Jesus during the events leading up to the crucifixion of Jesus. It was one of the instruments of the Passion, employed by Jesus captors both to cause him pain and to mock his claim of authority. It is mentioned in the gospels of Matthew, Mark, and John and is alluded to by the early Church Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria, Origen. In later centuries, relics believed by many to be all or part of the Crown of Thorns have been venerated, a few writers of the first six centuries AD speak of a relic known to be still in existence and venerated by the faithful. St. Cassiodorus, when commenting on Psalm lxxxvi, speaks of the crown of thorns among the relics which are the glory of the earthly Jerusalem. There, he says, we may behold the thorny crown, from these fragments of evidence and others of later date, it is likely that a purported crown of thorns was venerated at Jerusalem from the fifth century for several hundred years. Francois de Mély supposed that the crown was not transferred to Byzantium until about 1063. Eight of these are said to have been there at the consecration of the basilica of Aachen by Pope Leo III. The presence of the Pope at the consecration is a later legend, four were given to Saint-Corneille of Compiègne in 877 by Charles the Bald. Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks, sent one to the Anglo-Saxon King Athelstan in 927, on the occasion of marriage negotiations. Another was presented to a Spanish princess about 1160, and again another was taken to Andechs Abbey in Germany in the year 1200. In 1238, Baldwin II, the Latin Emperor of Constantinople, anxious to support for his tottering empire, offered the crown of thorns to Louis IX. It was then in the hands of the Venetians as security for a heavy loan, new reliquaries were provided for the relic, one commissioned by Napoleon, another, in jewelled rock crystal and more suitably Gothic, was made to the designs of Eugene Viollet-le-Duc. In 2001, when the treasures from the Sainte-Chapelle were exhibited at the Louvre. Pope John Paul II translated it personally to the Sainte-Chapelle during World Youth Day, the relic can only be seen on the first Friday of every month, when it is brought out for a special veneration mass, as well as each Friday during Lent. See also Feast of the Crown of Thorns, the Catholic Encyclopedia said, Authorities are agreed that a sort of helmet of thorns must have been plaited by the Roman soldiers, this band of rushes being employed to hold the thorns together. None of these now remain at Paris, some small fragments of rush are also preserved. This reaches the height of fifteen or twenty feet and is growing in abundance by the wayside around Jerusalem
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Via Dolorosa
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The Via Dolorosa is a street within the Old City of Jerusalem, believed to be the path that Jesus walked on the way to his crucifixion. The winding route from the Antonia Fortress west to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre—a distance of about 600 metres —is a celebrated place of Christian pilgrimage, the current route has been established since the 18th century, replacing various earlier versions. It is today marked by nine Stations of the Cross, there have been fourteen stations since the late 15th century, the Via Dolorosa is the modern remnant of one of the two main east-west routes through Aelia Capitolina, as built by Hadrian. Beginning around 1350, Franciscan friars conducted official tours of the Via Dolorosa, from the onset of Franciscan administration, the development of the Via Dolorosa was intimately linked to devotional practices in Europe. The Friars Minor were ardent proponents of devotional meditation as a means to access, the hours and guides they produced, such as Meditaciones vite Christi, were widely circulated in Europe. Throughout the fourteenth century, a number of events, marked by stations on the Via Dolorosa, emerged in devotional literature, the first stations to appear in pilgrimage accounts were the Encounter with Simon of Cyrene and the Daughters of Jerusalem. In his book, The Stations of the Cross, Herbert Thurston notes and this negotiation of stations, between the European imagination and the physical site would continue for the next six centuries. Only in the 19th century was there general accord on the position of the first, fourth, fifth, ironically, archaeological discoveries in the 20th century now indicate that the early route of the Via Dolorosa on the Western hill was actually a more realistic path. The equation of the present Via Dolorosa with the route is based on the assumption that the Praetorium was adjacent to the Antonia Fortress. Furthermore, it is now confirmed by archaeology that prior to Hadrians 2nd-century alterations, the courtyard contained a raised platform of around 2 square metres. A survey of the ruins of the Praetorium, long thought to be the Roman barracks and these findings together correspond perfectly with the route as described in the Gospels and matched details found in other ancient writings. The new research indicates the crucifixion site is around 20 metres from the traditionally accepted site. Whereas the names of roads in Jerusalem are translated into English, Hebrew, and Arabic for their signs. The Arabic name is the translation of way of pain, however, scholars are now fairly certain that Pilate carried out his judgements at Herods Palace at the southwest side of the city, rather than at this point in the citys northeast corner. Archaeological studies have confirmed that the Roman pavement, at these two stations, was built by Hadrian as the flooring of the eastern of two Forums. The three northern churches were built after the site was partially acquired in 1857 by Marie-Alphonse Ratisbonne. The Convent, which includes the Church of Ecce Homo, was the first part of the complex to be built, and contains the most extensive archaeological remains. Prior to Ratisbonnes purchase, the site had lain in ruins for centuries, the Crusaders had previously constructed a set of buildings here
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Crucifixion of Jesus
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The crucifixion of Jesus occurred in 1st century Judea, most probably between the years 30 and 33 AD. According to the gospels, Jesus, the Christ, was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged. Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offered wine mixed with gall to drink and he was then hung between two convicted thieves and according to Marks Gospel, died some six hours later. During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign to the top of the cross stating Jesus of Nazareth and they then divided his garments among them, but cast lots for his seamless robe. After Jesus death they pierced his side with a spear to be certain that he had died, the Bible describes seven statements that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as several supernatural events that occurred. Collectively referred to as the Passion, Jesus suffering and redemptive death by crucifixion are the aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation. The baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be two historically certain facts about Jesus, bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him. John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be, eddy and Boyd state that it is now firmly established that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus. Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable. Christopher M. Tuckett states that, although the reasons for the death of Jesus are hard to determine, one of the indisputable facts about him is that he was crucified. While scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason, geza Vermes also views the crucifixion as a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it. John P. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that, based on the criterion of embarrassment, Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader. Meier states that a number of criteria, e. g. the criterion of multiple attestation. The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about 70 AD, the analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s. The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels, there are other, more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate episodes, all four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and accounts of resurrection. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more detail than any other portion of that Gospels narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening, after being flogged, Jesus was mocked by Roman soldiers as the King of the Jews, clothed in a purple robe, crowned with thorns, beaten and spat on
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Descent from the Cross
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In Byzantine art the topic became popular in the 9th century, and in the West from the 10th century. The Descent from the Cross is the 13th Station of the Cross, the Gospels mention an undefined number of women as watching the crucifixion, including the Three Marys, and also that the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalene saw the burial. These and further women and unnamed male helpers are often shown, even in early depictions the details and posing of the composition, and especially the position of Christs body, are varied. The scene was included in medieval cycles of the Life or the Passion of Christ. The Lamentation of Christ, or Pietà, showing the body of Christ held by Mary and this last is especially important in Orthodox art, where it is shown on the Epitaphios. With the Renaissance the subject became popular for altarpieces, partly because of the challenges of the composition, the Mannerist version of Rosso Fiorentino is usually regarded as his most important work, and Pontormos altarpiece is perhaps his most ambitious work. With articles, Deposition of Christ, by Fra Angelico, in the National Museum of San Marco, Descent from the Cross by Rogier van der Weyden, in Museo del Prado, Madrid). The Entombment, Michelangelo, in the National Gallery, London, Deposition from the Cross by Pontormo at Capponi Chapel of church of Santa Felicita, Florence. Deposition from the Cross by Rosso Fiorentino in Pinacoteca of Volterra, others, Codex Grecus 510 Codex Egberti. Athens, Benaki Museum No.3001 Gustave Doré Max Beckmann Enrique Miguel de la Vega Eastern Orthodox Icons of the Descent from the Cross, the Antimension Antimension Epitaphios Life of Jesus in the New Testament Seven Sorrows of Mary Pietà
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Burial of Jesus
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The burial of Jesus refers to the burial of the body of Jesus after crucifixion, described in the New Testament. According to the gospel accounts, he was placed in a tomb by a man named Joseph of Arimathea. The earliest reference is in a letter of Paul, writing to the Corinthians around the year 54 CE, he refers to the account he had received of the death and resurrection of Jesus. All four state that, on the evening of the Crucifixion, Joseph of Arimathea asked Pilate for the body, there are significant differences between the four accounts, recording the evolution of the tradition from the earliest gospel to the last. Modern scholarship tends to see the accounts as contradictory. He puts the body in a new shroud and lays it in a tomb carved into the rock, in this account, Joseph does only the bare minimum needed for observance of the law, wrapping the body in a cloth, with no mention of washing or anointing it. This may explain why Mark has a prior to the Crucifixion. The Gospel of Matthew was written around the year 85 or 90, in this account Joseph of Arimathea is not referenced as a member of the Sanhedrin, but a wealthy disciple of Jesus. Many interpreters have read this as an orientation by the author towards wealthy supporters. This version suggests a more honourable burial, Joseph wraps the body in a shroud and places it in his own tomb. The author adds that the Roman authorities made the tomb secure by putting a seal on the stone and this detail may have been added to answer claims by contemporary opponents that the followers of Jesus had stolen his body. The Gospel of Mark is also a source for the account given in the Gospel of Luke, the last of the gospels, John, differs from Mark on this point, depicting Joseph as a disciple who gives Jesus an honourable burial. John says that Joseph was assisted in the process by Nicodemus. N. T. Wright notes that the burial of Christ is part of the earliest gospel traditions, robinson states that the burial of Jesus in the tomb is one of the earliest and best-attested facts about Jesus. Rudolf Bultmann described the story as a historical account which creates no impression of being a legend. John Dominic Crossan, however, suggests that Jesus body was eaten by dogs as it hung on the cross so that there was nothing left to bury. Martin Hengel argued that Jesus was buried in disgrace as a criminal who died a shameful death. This appears to be an early pre-Pauline credal statement, the burial of Christ is specifically mentioned in the Apostles Creed, where it says that Jesus was crucified, dead, and buried
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Harrowing of Hell
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After his death, the soul of Jesus was supposed to have descended into the realm of the dead, which the Apostles Creed calls hell in the old English usage. The realm into which Jesus descended is called Sheol or Limbo by some Christian theologians to distinguish it from the hell of the damned, the Harrowing of Hell is referred to in the Apostles Creed and the Athanasian Creed which state that Jesus Christ descended into Hell. Christ having descended to the underworld is alluded to in the New Testament in 1 Peter 3, 19–20 and this near-absence in Scripture has given rise to controversy and differing interpretations. The descent into hell had been related in Old English poems connected with the names of Cædmon and it is subsequently repeated in Aelfrics homilies c.1000 AD, which is the first known inclusion of the word harrowing. Middle English dramatic literature contains the fullest and most dramatic development of the subject, as an image in Christian art, the harrowing is also known as the Anastasis, considered a creation of Byzantine culture and first appearing in the West in the early 8th century. The Greek wording in the Apostles Creed is κατελθόντα εἰς τὰ κατώτατα, the Greek τὰ κατώτατα and the Latin inferos may also be translated as underworld, netherworld, or abode of the dead. The word harrow comes from the Old English hergian meaning to harry or despoil and is seen in the homilies of Aelfric, in Classical mythology Hades is the underworld inhabited by departed souls and the god Pluto is its ruler. The New Testament uses the term Hades to refer to the abode or state of the dead, in some places it seems to represent a neutral place where the dead awaited the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus. Several passages from the New Testament have been taken by some to imply that Christ descended into this realm of the dead to bring the righteous ones to Heaven. Other New Testament passages imply it is a place of torment for the unrighteous, matthew 16,18, And I also say to you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build My church, and the gates of Hades shall not prevail against it. Luke 10,15, And you, Capernaum, who are exalted to heaven, luke 16,23, And being in torments in Hades, he lifted up his eyes and saw Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom. Acts 2,27, For You will not leave my soul in Hades, Acts 2,31. he, foreseeing this, spoke concerning the resurrection of the Christ, that His soul was not left in Hades, nor did His flesh see corruption. 1 Corinthians 15,55, “O Death, where is your sting, O Hades, where is your victory. ”Revelation 1,18, I am He who lives, and was dead, and behold, I am alive forevermore. And I have the keys of Hades and of Death, revelation 6,8, So I looked, and behold, a pale horse. And the name of him who sat on it was Death, and power was given to them over a fourth of the earth, to kill with sword, with hunger, with death, and by the beasts of the earth. Revelation 20,13, The sea gave up the dead who were in it, and they were judged, each one according to his works. Revelation 20,14, Then Death and Hades were cast into the lake of fire, in it only a few people, eight in all, were saved through water. In the original Greek, εἰς τοῦτο γὰρ καὶ νεκροῖς εὐηγγελίσθη…) Ephesians 4, 7-10 NIV and this is why it says, When he ascended on high, he took many captives and gave gifts to his people
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