1.
Assailants (EP)
–
Assailants, originally slated to be the third album by Lydia, is the bands first official EP. It was released on July 20,2010, the record was self released by the band after their record label passed on releasing it. It was announced on March 10,2010 that Mindy White had decided to leave the band. On May 11,2010 a new unmastered song was posted on their MySpace called We Clean Up So Well with a note announcing that the band break up after a nationwide tour in July. The tour was titled The Lydia Finale, A Goodbye & Farewell Tour, guitarist Steve McGraw announced on July 12,2010 that he had decided to leave the band and would not be playing on their final tour. Two mini videos were released for Assailants and We Clean Up So Well and they also released a full music video for Ive Never Seen A Witch on October 6,2010 which was directed by former drummer Loren Brinton and produced and written by Ian Michael Kintzle. The song A Place Near The City was originally demoed under the name Cliff Jumping, despite the album actually being an EP, it has been regarded as their third album. Tracks 2 and 4 were acoustically re-recorded and released on the bands 2012 Acoustics EP
Assailants (EP)
–
Assailants
2.
Criminal law
–
Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It regulates social conduct and proscribes whatever is threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety and it includes the punishment of people who violate these laws. Criminal law varies according to jurisdiction, and differs from civil law, the first civilizations generally did not distinguish between civil law and criminal law. The first written codes of law were designed by the Sumerians, another important early code was the Code Hammurabi, which formed the core of Babylonian law. Only fragments of the criminal laws of Ancient Greece have survived, e. g. those of Solon. In Roman law, Gaiuss Commentaries on the Twelve Tables also conflated the civil and criminal aspects, assault and violent robbery were analogized to trespass as to property. Breach of such laws created an obligation of law or vinculum juris discharged by payment of compensation or damages. The criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in Books 47–48 of the Digest, the first signs of the modern distinction between crimes and civil matters emerged during the Norman Invasion of England. The development of the state dispensing justice in a court clearly emerged in the century when European countries began maintaining police services. From this point, criminal law had formalized the mechanisms for enforcement, Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or sanctions for failure to abide by its rules. Every crime is composed of criminal elements, capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishment may be imposed such as whipping or caning, individuals may be incarcerated in prison or jail in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life, government supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a convicted of a crime. Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the law by punishments, retribution, deterrence. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each, retribution – Criminals ought to Be Punished in some way. This is the most widely seen goal, Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to balance the scales. People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, thus, one who murders may be executed himself
Criminal law
–
The
Old Bailey in
London (in 1808) was the venue for more than 100,000 criminal trials between 1674 and 1834, including all death penalty cases.
Criminal law
–
An English court room in 1886, with
Lord Chief Justice Coleridge presiding
Criminal law
–
International Criminal Court in
The Hague
3.
Felony
–
The term felony, in some common law countries, means a serious crime. The word originates from English common law, where felonies were originally crimes that involved confiscation of a persons land. Many common law countries have now abolished the distinction and replaced it with other distinctions. A felony is generally considered a crime of high seriousness, while a misdemeanor is not, a person who has committed a felony is a felon, and upon conviction of a felony in a court of law is known as a convicted felon or a convict. In the United States, where the distinction is still widely applied. If punishable by one year or less, it is classified as a misdemeanor. Note that the prison sentence handed out has no effect on this. For example, if a person is sentenced to six months, individual states may differ in this definition, using other categories as seriousness or context. Similar to felonies in some civil law countries are delicts, whereas in others crimes and delicts, larceny or theft above a certain statutorily established value or quantity of goods Vandalism on federal property. Some offenses, though similar in nature, may be felonies or misdemeanors depending on the circumstances, for example, the illegal manufacture, distribution or possession of controlled substances may be a felony, although possession of small amounts may be only a misdemeanor. Additionally, driving while intoxicated in some states may be a misdemeanor if a first offense, in the course of the 20th century, however, American jurisdictions eliminated the distinction among the first three categories. Gonzales v. Duenas-Alvarez,549 U. S.183, a felony may be punishable with imprisonment for two or more years or death in the case of the most serious felonies, such as murder. Indeed, at law when the British and American legal systems divorced in 1776. Standards for measurement of an offenses seriousness include attempts to quantitatively estimate, in some states, all or most felonies are placed into one of various classes according to their seriousness and their potential punishment upon conviction. The number of classifications and the corresponding crimes vary by state and are determined by the legislature, usually, the legislature also determines the maximum punishment allowable for each felony class, doing so avoids the necessity of defining specific sentences for every possible crime. For example, Virginia classifies most felonies by number, ranging from Class 6 through Class 2 up to Class 1, some felonies remain outside the classification system. New York State classifies felonies by letter, with some divided into sub-classes by Roman numeral, classes range from Class E through Classes D, C, B. Massachusetts classifies felony as an offense that carries any prison time, ohio classifies felonies by degree ranging from first, second, third, fourth, to fifth degree
Felony
–
Felony Sentences in State Courts, study by the
United States Department of Justice.
4.
Infraction
–
A summary offence is a crime in some common law jurisdictions that can be proceeded against summarily, without the right to a jury trial and/or indictment. In Canada, summary offences are referred to as summary conviction offences, as in other jurisdictions, summary conviction offences are considered less serious than indictable offences because they are punishable by shorter prison sentences and smaller fines. These offences appear both in the laws of Canada and in the legislation of Canadas provinces and territories. As a matter of practical effect, some differences between summary conviction and indictable offences are provided below. Accused must be charged with a conviction within 6 months after the act happened. Limitation periods are set out in the Criminal Code, the police can arrest under summary conviction without an arrest warrant if found committing a summary offense notwithstanding s.495 of the Criminal Code. If the police do not find committing an offense, an arrest warrant is required. Accused does not have to submit fingerprints when charged under Summary Conviction, appeals of summary conviction offences go first to the highest trial court within the jurisdiction. Accused convicted under summary conviction are eligible for a pardon after 5 years provided the accused is not convicted of any further offences during that period, always tried in a provincial court. There is no limit to when charges can be laid. The exception to this point is treason, which has a 3-year limitation period, police do not require a warrant to arrest under an indictable offence, see S.495 Criminal Code Accused has to submit fingerprints when required to appear to answer to an indictable offence. Appeals always go to the Provincial Court of Appeal first, Accused convicted under an indictable offence can apply for parole after 10 years. In Hong Kong, trials for summary offences are heard in one of the territorys Magistrates Courts, in relation to England and Wales, the expression summary offence means an offence which, if committed by an adult, is tried by a summary procedure. In such proceedings there is no jury, the judge decides the guilt or innocence of the accused. Each summary offence is specified by statute which describes the offence, a summary procedure can result in a summary conviction. In these there is no intervention of a jury, but the party accused is acquitted or condemned by the suffrage of such person only, as the statute has appointed for his judge. But it has of late been so far extended, as, if a check be not timely given, to threaten the disuse of our admirable and truly English trial by jury, unless only in capital cases. In the United Kingdom, trials for summary offences are heard in one of a number of types of lower court, for England and Wales this is the Magistrates Court
Infraction
–
Classes of crimes
5.
Misdemeanor
–
A misdemeanor or misdemeanour is any lesser criminal act in some common law legal systems. Misdemeanors are generally punished less severely than felonies, but theoretically more so than administrative infractions, many misdemeanors are punished with monetary fines. In the United States, the government generally considers a crime punishable with incarceration for one year or less to be a misdemeanor. All other crimes are considered felonies, many states also employ this distinction. A misdemeanor is considered a crime of low seriousness, and a one of high seriousness. A principle of the rationale for the degree of punishment meted out is that the punishment should fit the crime, one standard for measurement is the degree to which a crime affects others or society. Measurements of the degree of seriousness of a crime have been developed, the distinction between felonies and misdemeanors has been abolished by several common law jurisdictions. The Republic of Ireland, a member of the Commonwealth. In the United States of America, the first time a person commits certain crimes, such as assault, it is a misdemeanor. In some jurisdictions, those who are convicted of a misdemeanor are known as misdemeanants, jurisdictions such as Massachusetts are a notable exception where the maximum punishment of some misdemeanors is up to 2.5 years. People who are convicted of misdemeanors are punished with probation, community service, short jail term, or part-time imprisonment. Misdemeanors usually do not result in the loss of civil rights, such effects are known as the collateral consequences of criminal charges. This is more common when the misdemeanor is related to the privilege in question, the definition of a high crime is left to the judgment of Congress. In Singapore, misdemeanors generally are sentenced to months of jail sentence, depending on the jurisdiction, several classes of misdemeanors may exist, the forms of punishment can vary widely between those classes. For example, the federal and state governments in the United States divide misdemeanors into several classes, with certain classes punishable by jail time and others carrying only a fine. In New York law, a Class A Misdemeanor carries a sentence of one year of imprisonment. In the United States, when a statute does not specify the class, legislators usually enact such laws when they wish to impose penalties that fall outside the framework specified by each class. First-time cannabis possession is a misdemeanor in Virginia punishable by up to 30 days in jail rather than the normal fines
Misdemeanor
–
Graffiti —in the US—is a common form of the misdemeanor
vandalism, although in many states it is now a felony.
Misdemeanor
–
Possession of
cannabis is an unclassified misdemeanor in parts of the
US.
6.
Solicitation
–
Solicitation is the act of offering, or attempting to purchase, goods or services. Legal status may be specific to the time or place where occurs, in the United States, the term solicitation implies some part of commercial element, consideration, or payment. Unlike conspiracy, there is no overt step necessary for solicitation, one person can be a defendant and it is not necessary that the person commit the crime, nor is it necessary that the person solicited be willing or able to commit the crime. For example, if Alice commands Bob to assault Charlie, and Alice intends for Bob to assault Charlie, however, if Alice commands Bob to assault Charlie without intending that a crime be committed, then there is no solicitation. Solicitation is also subject to the doctrine of merger, which applies in situations where the person solicited commits the crime, city ordinances vary but may require a soliciting sign to be of a certain dimension to qualify for legal protection. Some signs are designed to clearly cite the city ordinance and describe the consequences to the solicitor, although certainly not required, such methods may be more effective at deterring unwanted solicitation
Solicitation
–
Not to be confused with
solicitude.
7.
Assassination
–
Assassination is the murder of a prominent person, often a political leader or ruler, usually for political reasons or payment. The word assassin is believed to derive from the word Hashshashin. It referred to a group of Nizari Shia Persians who worked against various Arab, founded by the Persian Hassan-i Sabbah, the Assassins were active in the fortress of Alamut in Iran from the 8th to the 14th centuries, and also controlled the castle of Masyaf in Syria. The group killed members of the Persian, Abbasid, Seljuq, the word for murder in many Romance languages is derived from this same root word. Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics and it dates back at least as far as recorded history. The Old Testament story of Judith illustrates how a woman frees the Israelites by tricking and assassinating Holofernes, a warlord of the rival Assyrians, with whom the Israelites were at war. King Joash of Judah was recorded as being assassinated by his own servants, Joab assassinated Absalom, King Davids son, chanakya wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra. His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies, other famous victims are Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman consul Julius Caesar. Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later, the practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Kes failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC. Whilst many assassination were performed by an individual or a small group, the earliest were the sicarii in 6 A. D. who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese ninjas by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, blinding and strangling in the bathtub were the most commonly used procedures. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe and this account is, however, contentious among historians, it being most commonly asserted that he died of natural causes. The myth of the Curse of King Zvonimir is based on the legend of his assassination, in 1192, Conrad of Montferrat, the de facto King of Jerusalem, was killed by an assassin. The reigns of King Przemysł II of Poland, William the Silent of the Netherlands, in Russia alone, two emperors, Paul I and his grandson Alexander II, were assassinated within 80 years. In the United Kingdom, only one Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has ever been assassinated—Spencer Perceval on May 11,1812. In the United States, within 100 years, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, William McKinley, there have been at least 20 known attempts on U. S. presidents lives. Huey Long, a Senator, was assassinated in September of 1935, the Polish Home Army conducted a regular campaign of assassinations against top Nazi German officials in occupied Poland. Adolf Hitler, meanwhile, was almost killed by his own officers, indias Father of the Nation, Mohandas K. Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30,1948, by Nathuram Godse
Assassination
–
The word "assassin" was derived from
Hasan-i Sabbah and his
Assassin's Order of Nizari Ismailism.
Assassination
–
Assassination of King
Henry III of France
Assassination
–
Assassination of King
Przemysł II of Poland
Assassination
–
Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln; 1865 depiction. Assassin
John Wilkes Booth on the right.
8.
Bigamy
–
In cultures that practice marital monogamy, bigamy is the act of entering into a marriage with one person while still legally married to another. Bigamy is a crime in most western countries, and when it occurs in context often neither the first nor second spouse is aware of the other. In countries that have laws, consent from a prior spouse makes no difference to the legality of the second marriage. In 393, the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius I issued an edict to extend the ban on polygamy to Jewish communities. In 1000, Rabbi Gershom ben Judah ruled polygamy inadmissible within Ashkenazi Jewish communities, as a consequence, nominal Christian male bigamists were subjected to unprecedented harsh punishments, such as execution, galley servitude, exile, and prolonged imprisonment. McDougall argues that female bigamists were not as harshly punished due to womens perceived absence of moral agency, in ancient China, bigamy was a punishable offence, however, concubines and mistresses were tolerated as long as they were not acquired through an official marriage. A man, at any time, could only be married to one woman. Issue with the wife enjoyed preference in inheritance and social status, most western countries do not recognize polygamous marriages, and consider bigamy a crime. Several countries also prohibit people from living a polygamous lifestyle and this is the case in some states of the United States where the criminalization of a polygamous lifestyle originated as anti-Mormon laws, although they are rarely enforced. In diplomatic law, consular spouses from polygamous countries are exempt from a general prohibition on polygamy in host countries. In some such countries, only one spouse of a polygamous diplomat may be accredited, canada, Illegal under the Criminal Code, sect 290. Up to 2 years of imprisonment, and up to 3 years for bigamy with soldiers, egypt, Legal if first wife consents Eritrea, Illegal. All the 27 countries of the European Union, Illegal, iceland, Illegal according to the Icelandic Act on Marriage No. Up to 7 years of imprisonment, Republic of Ireland, Bigamy is a statutory offence. It is committed by a person who, being married to another person, the offence is created by section 57 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. This section replaces section 26 of the Act 10 Geo,4 c.34 for the Republic of Ireland. Iran, Legal with consent of first wife, rarely practiced, india, Legal only for Muslims but very rarely practiced. Up to ten years of imprisonment for others except in the state of Goa for Hindus due to its own civil code, indonesia, considered from each tribe, theres legal and another said illegal
Bigamy
–
Elkanah and his two wives,
Hannah and
Peninnah.
9.
Homicide
–
Homicide refers to one human killing another. These different types of homicides are often treated differently in human societies, some are considered crimes. Criminal homicide takes many forms including accidental or purposeful murder, the crime committed in a criminal homicide is determined by the mental state of the committing person and the extent of the crime. Instead, the individual is placed under the category of “insane”, in some jurisdictions, a homicide that occurs during the commission of a crime may constitute murder, regardless of the actors intent to commit homicide. In the United States, this is known as the felony murder rule, criminal homicides also include voluntary and involuntary manslaughter. An example of voluntary manslaughter is hitting someone with an intent to kill them, the perpetrator does not receive the same legal action against them as a person convicted of murder. While most homicides by civilians are criminally prosecutable, a right of self-defense is widely recognized, including, in dire circumstances and it goes like this, They needed killing. In essence, it was a justification for murder in the old days in Texas that the victim had horrible or violent character, a Texas jury which accepts this controversial Texas defense is hypothetically free to acquit the defendant, even if that involves disregarding the judges instructions. Penalization of juries for employing jury nullification has been forbidden since 1670 under the precedent known as Bushels Case, homicides may also be non-criminal when conducted with the sanction of the state. The most obvious examples are capital punishment, in which the state punishes a criminal with death, homicides committed in action during war are usually not subject to criminal prosecution either. Sources included multiple agencies and field offices of the United Nations, the World Health Organization, the report estimated that in 2010, the total number of homicides globally was 468,000. More than a third occurred in Africa, 31% in the Americas, 27% in Asia, 5% in Europe and 1% in Oceania. Since 1995, the rate has been falling in Europe, North America, and Asia, but has risen to a near “crisis point” in Central America. Of all homicides worldwide, 82% of the victims were men, on a per-capita scaled level, the homicide rate in Africa and the Americas is more than double the global average, whereas in Asia, Europe and Oceania it is roughly half. UNODC, in its 2013 global report, estimated the number of homicides worldwide dropped to 437,000 in 2012. Americas accounted for 36% of all homicides globally, Africa 31%, Asia 28%, Europe 5% and Oceania 0. 3%. The worlds average homicide rate stood at 6.2 per 100,000 population in 2012 and they are the most violent regions globally, outside of regions experiencing wars and religious or sociopolitical terrorism. Asia exclusive of West Asia and Central Asia, Western Europe, Northern Europe, about 41% of the homicides worldwide occurred in 2012 with the use of guns, 24% with sharp objects such as knife, and 35% by other means such as poison
Homicide
–
A comparison of homicide rates, per 100,000 people, for some countries. Terror and war-related deaths are not included. Chinese homicide data is unavailable.
10.
Kidnapping
–
In criminal law, kidnapping is the abduction and restraint by force or unlawful transportation of a person usually in order to hold them captive against their will. This may be done with a demand for ransom in exchange for releasing them from concealment, Kidnapping can be accompanied by bodily injury which elevates the crime to aggravated kidnapping. Bride kidnapping is a term often applied loosely, to include any bride abducted against the will of her parents and it still is traditional amongst certain nomadic peoples of Central Asia. It has seen a resurgence in Kyrgyzstan since the fall of the Soviet Union, express kidnapping is a method of abduction used in some countries, mainly from Latin America, where a small ransom, that a company or family can easily pay, is demanded. Tiger kidnapping is taking a hostage to make a one or associate of the victim do something. The term originates from the usually long preceding observation, like a tiger does on the prowl, Kidnapping that does not result in a homicide is a hybrid offence that comes with a maximum possible penalty of life imprisonment. A murder that results from kidnapping is classified as 1st-degree, with a sentence of imprisonment that results from conviction. Part 1 of Article 282 allows sentencing kidnappers to maximum imprisonment of 8 years or a fine of the fifth category, part 2 allows maximum imprisonment of 9 years or a fine of the fifth category if there are serious injuries. Part 3 allows maximum imprisonment of 12 years or a fine of the fifth if the victim has been killed. Part 4 allows sentencing people that collaborate with kidnapping, part 1,2 and 3 will apply also to them. Kidnapping is an offence under the law of England and Wales. Lord Brandon said in 1984 R v D, First, the nature of the offence is an attack on, and infringement of, the personal liberty of an individual. In all cases of Kidnapping of children, where it is alleged that a child has been kidnapped and this is the case regardless of the age of the child. A very small child will not have the understanding or intelligence to consent and this means that absence of consent will be a necessary inference from the age of the child. It is a question of fact for the jury whether a child has sufficient understanding. Lord Brandon said, I should not expect a jury to find at all frequently that a child under fourteen had sufficient understanding and intelligence to give its consent. If, on the hand, the child did not consent. It is known as Gillick competence, Kidnapping is punishable with imprisonment or fine at the discretion of the court
Kidnapping
–
El Malón,
Johann Moritz Rugendas (1802–1858). The painting depicts a woman being kidnapped during a
malón.
Kidnapping
–
Arrested kidnappers in
Rio lying on the ground
Kidnapping
–
Thought to be a
bride kidnapping in-progress in Central Asia, circa 1870.
11.
Murder
–
A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, in most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence where permitted. In many common law jurisdictions, a convicted of murder will receive a mandatory life sentence. In jurisdictions where capital punishment exists, the penalty may be imposed for such an act, however. The modern English word murder descends from the Proto-Indo-European mrtró which meant to die, the Middle English mordre is a noun from Anglo-Saxon morðor and Old French murdre. Middle English mordre is a verb from Anglo-Saxon myrdrian and the Middle English noun, the elements of common law murder are, Unlawful killing through criminal act or omission of a human by another human with malice aforethought. Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total, with advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life. Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission. of a human – This element presents the issue of life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being, life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath. By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder, the requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder. With malice aforethought – Originally malice aforethought carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate, Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice, all that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes malice. The four states of mind recognized as constituting malice are, Under state of mind, intent to kill, thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, intent follows the bullet, examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims. In Australian jurisdictions, the risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death. Under state of mind, the doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, as with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation
Murder
–
Murder in the House,
Jakub Schikaneder.
Murder
–
Aaron Alexis holding shotgun during his rampage.
Murder
–
A group of
Thugs strangling a traveller on a highway in India in the early 19th century.
12.
Public indecency
–
Social and community attitudes to the exposing of various body parts and laws covering what is referred to as indecent exposure vary significantly in different countries. It ranges from outright prohibition to prohibition of exposure of certain parts, such as the genital area. Decency is generally judged by the standards of the local community, such standards may be based on religion, morality or tradition, or justified on the basis of necessary to public order. Non-sexual exhibitionism or public nudity is considered indecent exposure. If sexual acts are performed, with or without an element of nudity, this can be considered gross indecency, in some countries, exposure of the body in breach of community standards of modesty is also considered to be public indecency. The legal and community standards of what states of undress constitute indecent exposure vary considerably and these standards have also varied over time, making the definition of indecent exposure itself a complex topic. It is generally accepted, at least in countries, that a naked human body is not in itself indecent. That principle is reflected, for example, in depiction of the form in art of various forms. Nevertheless, as a rule, it is also commonly expected that people when they appear in a public place will be appropriately attired. Inappropriateness is viewed in context, so that, for example, what may be appropriate on a beach may be inappropriate in a street, school or workplace. Depending on the context, some degree of inappropriateness may be tolerated, and perhaps described as eccentric, what is an inappropriate state of dress in a particular context depends on the standards of decency of the community where an exposure takes place. There is generally no implication that the state of dress objected to is of a nature, and if such an allegation were to be made. The standards of decency have varied over time, during the Victorian era, for example, exposure of a womans legs and some extent the arms, was considered indecent in much of the Western world. Hair was sometimes required to be covered in formal occasions as in a form a hat or bonnet. As late as the 1930s and to some extent, the 1950s, an adult woman exposing her navel was also considered indecent in the West into the 1960s and 1970s, and even as late as the 1980s. Moral values changed drastically during the 1990s and 2000s, which in turn changed the criteria for indecent exposure, Public exposure of the navel has been accepted during the 1990s, such as in beaches, while in the 2000s, the buttocks can be exposed while wearing a thong. Today, however, it is common for women to go topless at public beaches throughout Europe and South America. The effects may be enhanced by intended or unintended publication of a photograph or film of the act, breastfeeding in public does not constitute indecent exposure under the laws of the United States, Canada, Australia, or Scotland
Public indecency
–
Protesters gathered outside a courthouse to protest against the arrest of
Simon Oosterman (second from left), Auckland's 13 Feb 2005 WNBR organizer.
13.
Robbery
–
Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take anything of value by force, threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. At common law, robbery is defined as taking the property of another, with the intent to deprive the person of that property. Precise definitions of the offence may vary between jurisdictions, under English law, most forms of theft are triable either way, whereas robbery is triable only on indictment. The word rob came via French from Late Latin words of Germanic origin, among the types of robbery are armed robbery involving use of a weapon and aggravated robbery involving use of a deadly weapon or something that appears to be a deadly weapon. Highway robbery or mugging takes place outside or in a place such as a sidewalk, street. Carjacking is the act of stealing a car from a victim by force, extortion is the threat to do something illegal, or the offer to not do something illegal, in the event that goods are not given, primarily using words instead of actions. Criminal slang for robbery includes blagging or stick-up, and steaming, in Canada, the Criminal Code makes robbery an indictable offence, subject to a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. If the accused uses a restricted or prohibited firearm to commit robbery, there is a minimum sentence of five years for the first offence. Robbery is an offence in the Republic of Ireland. Robbery is an offence in England and Wales. Aggravated theft Robbery is the offence of aggravated theft. Aggravated robbery There are no offences of aggravated robbery and this requires evidence to show a theft as set out in section 1 of the Theft Act 1968. In R v Robinson the defendant threatened the victim with a knife in order to recover money which he was actually owed and his conviction for robbery was quashed on the basis that Robinson had an honest, although unreasonable, belief in his legal right to the money. See also R v Skivington 1 QB166,2 WLR655,131 JP265,111 SJ72,1 All ER483,51 Cr App R167, CA. It was argued that the theft should be regarded as complete by this time, and R v Gomez, should apply, the threat or use of force must take place immediately before or at the time of the theft. Force used after the theft is complete will not turn the theft into a robbery, the words or immediately after that appeared in section 23 of the Larceny Act 1916 were deliberately omitted from section 8. The book Archbold said that the facts in R v Harman and it was held in R v Dawson and James that force is an ordinary English word and its meaning should be left to the jury. This approach was confirmed in R v Clouden and Corcoran v Anderton, stealing may involve a young child who is not aware that taking other persons property is not in order
Robbery
–
Rōnin robbing a merchant's house in
Japan around 1860.
Robbery
–
Marauders attacking a group of travellers, by
Jacques Courtois
Robbery
–
"The Eveleigh Payroll Heist", 1914 was committed in the middle of the day in a busy area and has been reported to be the first robbery in
Australia where a
getaway car was used.
14.
Crime
–
In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition. The most popular view is that crime is a created by law, in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act not only to some individual. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law, the notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is an offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, the state has the power to severely restrict ones liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere, usually, to be classified as a crime, the act of doing something criminal must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the intention to do something criminal. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime, breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate certain behaviors in general. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system, Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity, they may include incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments, legal mutilation, usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. Conversely, at least under U. S. law, nonpersons such as animals cannot commit crimes, the sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states crime is a phenomenon he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning I decide, originally the Latin word crīmen meant charge or cry of distress. The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to a mistake or an offense against the community. In 13th century English crime meant sinfulness, according to etymonline. com and it was probably brought to England as Old French crimne, from Latin crimen. In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following, charge, indictment, accusation, crime, fault, the word may derive from the Latin cernere – to decide, to sift
Crime
Crime
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Criminology and
penology
Crime
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The spiked heads of executed criminals once adorned the gatehouse of the medieval
London Bridge.
15.
Arson
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Arson is a crime of intentionally, deliberately and maliciously setting fire to buildings, wildland areas, abandoned homes, vehicles or other property with the intent to cause damage. It may be distinguished from other such as spontaneous combustion, accidental fires. Arson often involves fires deliberately set to the property of another or to own property in order to collect insurance compensation. A person who commits this crime is called an arsonist, more often than not, arsonists use accelerants to ignite, propel and directionalize fires. It is not required that the defendant acted intentionally or willfully for the purpose of burning a dwelling, burning – at common law charring to any part of dwelling was sufficient to satisfy this element. No significant amount of damage to the dwelling was required, any injury or damage to the structure caused by exposure to heat or flame is sufficient. Of the dwelling – dwelling refers to a place of residence, the destruction of an unoccupied building was not considered arson, since arson protected habitation, the burning of an unoccupied house did not constitute arson. Dwelling includes structures and outbuildings within the curtilage, dwellings were not limited to houses. A barn could be the subject of arson if it was occupied as a dwelling, moreover, for purposes of common law arson, possession or occupancy rather than title determines whose dwelling the structure is. Thus a tenant who sets fire to his house would not be guilty of common law arson. In many states, arson is divided into degrees, depending sometimes on the value of the property but more commonly on its use, first-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to an occupied domain or building such as a school. Second-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to a building such as an empty barn. Third-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to a building or an abandoned area of space such as a field. Many statutes vary the degree of the according to the criminal intent of the accused. In the United States, the common law elements of arson are often varied in different jurisdictions, for example, the element of dwelling is no longer required in most states, and arson occurs by the burning of any real property without consent or with unlawful intent. Arson is prosecuted with attention to degree of severity in the alleged offense, first degree arson generally occurs when persons are harmed or killed in the course of the fire, while second degree arson occurs when significant destruction of property occurs. While usually a felony, arson may also be prosecuted as a misdemeanor, criminal mischief, burglary also occurs, if the arson involved a breaking and entering. A person may be sentenced to death if arson occurred as a method of homicide, as was the case in California of Raymond Lee Oyler, in New York, arson is charged in five degrees
Arson
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The Skyline Parkway Motel at
Rockfish Gap after arson on July 9, 2004.
Arson
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Cars in Hackney, Greater London after arson during the
2011 England Riots
16.
Bribery
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Bribery is the act of giving money, goods or other forms of recompense to a recipient in exchange for an alteration of their behavior that the recipient would otherwise not alter. Gifts of money or other items of value which are available to everyone on an equivalent basis. Offering a discount or a refund to all purchasers is a rebate and is not bribery. Giving the rebate to influence them to look favorably on the utilitys rate increase applications, however. The bribe is the gift bestowed to influence the recipients conduct, in economics, the bribe has been described as rent. Bribery in bureaucracy has been viewed as a reason for the higher cost of production of goods, one must be careful of differing social and cultural norms when examining bribery. Expectations of when a transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Tipping, for example, is considered bribery in some societies, in some Spanish-speaking countries, bribes are referred to as mordida. In Arab countries, bribes may be called baksheesh or shay, french-speaking countries often use the expressions dessous-de-table, pot-de-vin, or commission occulte. While the last two expressions contain inherently a negative connotation, the expression dessous-de-table can be understood as a commonly accepted business practice. In German, the term is Schmiergeld. The forms that bribery take are numerous, for example, a motorist might bribe a police officer not to issue a ticket for speeding, a citizen seeking paperwork or utility line connections might bribe a functionary for faster service. Bribery may also take the form of a commission, a profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment. Euphemisms abound for this Bribers and recipients of bribery are likewise numerous although bribers have one common denominator, Bribery around the world is estimated at about $1 trillion. The reason for this dissociation is to make the steps of a corrupt deal already an offence and, thus. Besides, such a dissociation makes the prosecution of bribery offences easier since it can be difficult to prove that two parties have formally agreed upon a corrupt deal. A grey area may exist when payments to smooth transactions are made, in some countries, this practice is the norm, often resulting from a developing nation not having the tax structure to pay civil servants an adequate salary. Nevertheless, most economists regard bribery as a bad thing because it encourages rent seeking behaviour, a state where bribery has become a way of life is a kleptocracy
Bribery
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Photo of cash found in Congressman
William J. Jefferson 's freezer in the August 2005 raid was shown to jurors on 8 July 2009
Bribery
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Article II, Section 4 of the
United States Constitution
Bribery
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Demonstration in Washington, DC
Bribery
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A campaign to prevent bribes in
Zambia.
17.
Burglary
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Burglary is an unlawful entry into a building or other location for the purposes of committing an offence. Usually that offence is theft, but most jurisdictions include others within the ambit of burglary, to engage in the act of burglary is to burgle or to burglarize. Breaking can be actual, such as by forcing open a door, or constructive. Breaking does not require that anything be broken in terms of damage occurring. Entering can involve either physical entry by a person, or the insertion of an instrument to remove property, insertion of a tool to gain entry may not constitute entering by itself. Note that there must be a breaking and an entering for common law burglary, breaking without entry or entry without breaking is not sufficient for common law burglary. Although rarely listed as an element, the law required that entry occur as a consequence of the breaking. For example, if a wrongdoer partially opens a window with a pry bar—but then notices an open door, the use of the pry bar would not constitute an entry even if a portion of the prybar entered the residence. Under the instrumentality rule the use of an instrument to effect a breaking would not constitute an entry, however, if any part of the perpetrators body entered the residence in an attempt to gain entry, the instrumentality rule did not apply. The use of the word “therein” adds nothing and certainly does not limit the scope of burglary to those wrongdoers who break, the situs of the felony does not matter, and burglary occurs if the wrongdoer intended to commit a felony at the time he broke and entered. The common law elements of burglary often vary between jurisdictions, the etymology originates from Anglo-Saxon or Old English, one of the Germanic languages. According to one textbook, The word burglar comes from the two German words burg, meaning house, and laron, meaning thief, the British verb burgle is a late back-formation. In Canada, breaking and entering is prohibited by section 348 of the Criminal Code and is a hybrid offence, breaking and entering is defined as trespassing with intent to commit an indictable offence. The crime is commonly referred to in Canada as break and enter, there is no crime of burglary as such in Finland. However, if theft is committed during unlawful entering, then a person is guilty of theft or aggravated depending on the circumstances of the felony. In Sweden, burglary does not exist as an offence in itself, instead, if a person simply breaks into any premise, they are technically guilty of either unlawful intrusion or breach of domiciliary peace, depending on the premise in question. Breach of domiciliary peace is only when a person unlawfully intrudes or remains where another has his living quarters. The only punishments available for any of these offences are fines, in such cases, the maximum punishment is two years imprisonment
Burglary
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Israeli forensic policeman inspects a burglary scene.
18.
Fraud
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In law, fraud is deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud itself can be a wrong, a criminal wrong or it may cause no loss of money, property or legal right. The purpose of fraud may be monetary gain or other benefits, a hoax is a distinct concept that involves deliberate deception without the intention of gain or of materially damaging or depriving a victim. In common law jurisdictions, as a wrong, fraud is a tort. Proving fraud in a court of law is said to be difficult. In cases of a fraudulently induced contract, fraud may serve as a defense in an action for breach of contract or specific performance of contract. Fraud may serve as a basis for a court to invoke its equitable jurisdiction, in common law jurisdictions, as a criminal offence, fraud takes many different forms, some general and some specific to particular categories of victims or misconduct. The elements of fraud as a crime similarly vary, section 380 of the Criminal Code provides the general definition for fraud in Canada,380. In addition to the penalties outlined above, the court can issue a prohibition order under s.380.2. It can also make an order under s.380.3. The Canadian courts have held that the offence consists of two elements, A prohibited act of deceit, falsehood or other fraudulent means. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that deprivation is satisfied on proof of detriment, prejudice or risk of prejudice, it is not essential that there be actual loss. Deprivation of confidential information, in the nature of a secret or copyrighted material that has commercial value, has also been held to fall within the scope of the offence. The BBC World Service reported in 2012 that the value lost through fraud in the UK was £66 billion a year. According to a review by the UK anti-fraud charity Fraud Advisory Panel business fraud accounted for £144bn, the FAP has been particularly critical of the support available from the police to victims of fraud in the UK outside of London. In July 2016 it was reported that fraudulent activity levels in the UK increased in the 10 years to 2016 from £52 billion to £193bn. This figure would be an estimate, since as the former commissioner of the City of London Police, Adrian Leppard, has said. Donald Toon, director of the NCAs economic crime command, stated in July 2016, Fraud affects one in ten people in the UK
Fraud
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A possibly fraudulent "work from home" advertisement.
Fraud
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A fraudulent Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price on a speaker.
19.
Larceny
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Larceny is a crime involving the unlawful taking of the personal property of another person or business. It was an offence under the law of England and became an offence in jurisdictions which incorporated the common law of England into their own law. However, larceny remains an offence in parts of the United States and in New South Wales, Australia, the word larceny is a late Middle English word, from the Anglo-Norman word larcin, or theft. Its probable Latin root is latrocinium, a derivative of latro, the common law offence of larceny was abolished on 1 August 2002. However, proceedings for larceny committed before its abolition are not affected by this, the common law offence of larceny was codified by the Larceny Act 1916. It was abolished on 1 January 1969, for all purposes not relating to offences committed before that date and it has been replaced by the broader offence of theft under section 1 of the Theft Act 1968. This offence did incorporate some of the terminology and substance of larceny, the common law offence of larceny was abolished on 1 August 1969, for all purposes not relating to offences committed before that date. It has been replaced by the offence of theft under section 1 of the Theft Act 1969. In the United States, larceny is a common law crime involving theft, under the common law, larceny is the trespassory taking and carrying away of the tangible personal property of another with the intent to deprive him or her of its possession permanently. In almost all states, it has become a crime through codification. In the state of New South Wales, the common law offence of larceny is punishable with up to 5 years imprisonment. Whilst section 117 of the New South Wales Crimes Act specifies the punishment for larceny, it is silent on the elements of the offence, the leading authority on larceny in NSW is the High Court case of Ilich. This case stipulates the mens rea and actus reas elements required to be proven by the prosecution for a successful conviction, Larceny is a crime against possession. Furthermore, it has two elements which must be met, the taking of the property, even if momentarily. Larceny involves the taking of property from possession of another. To understand larceny, one must understand the distinction between custody and possession, a person has possession of property when he has actual physical control over the property or he has the right to exercise considerable control over the disposition or use of the property. A person has custody if he has actual physical control of the property, examples of custody would be a store customer examining the goods of a merchant, or an employee who has been given the property of his employer to be used in his employment. This is to be contested to, for example, a person who has obtained possession of the property by fraud
Larceny
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Chart indicating the distribution of forms of larceny in the 2004
Uniform Crime Report.
20.
Pickpocketing
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Pickpocketing is a form of larceny that involves the stealing of money or other valuables from the person of a victim without them noticing the theft at the time. It requires considerable dexterity and a knack for misdirection, a thief who works in this manner is known as a pickpocket. Pickpockets and other thieves, especially those working in teams, sometimes apply distraction and these distractions sometimes require sleight of hand, speed, misdirection and other types of skills. Pickpockets may be found in any crowded place around the world, however, Barcelona and Rome were recently singled out as being particularly dangerous pickpocket havens. As soon as the thieves have what they want, they simply get off at the next stop leaving the victim unable to figure out who robbed them and when. Pickpocketing skills are employed by some magicians as a form of entertainment, borra, arguably the most famous stage pickpocket of all time, became the highest-paid European performer in circuses during the 1950s. For 60 years he was billed as the King of Pickpockets and encouraged his son, Charly, to follow in his cunning trade, kassagi, a French-Tunisian illusionist, acted as technical advisor on Robert Bressons 1959 film Pickpocket and appeared as instructor and accomplice to the main character. George Barrington is also referenced in the film, james Freedman, also known as The Man of Steal, created the pickpocket sequences for the 2005 film Oliver Twist directed by Roman Polanski. Smith Journal of Australia has described Americas Thomas Blacke as one of the top pickpockets in the world, Famous fictional pickpockets include The Artful Dodger and Fagin, characters from the Charles Dickens novel Oliver Twist. George Barringtons escapades, arrests, and trials, were chronicled in the late 18th century London press. The 17th and 18th centuries saw an important number of men and women pickpockets, operating in public and/or private places. Some of those pickpockets were caught and prosecuted for their theft, however, in most cases, indeed, at the time, pockets were not yet sewn to clothes, as they are today. This means that pockets were a little purse that people close to their body. This was especially true for women, since mens pockets were sewn into the linings of their coats, womens pockets were worn beneath a piece of clothing, and not as opposed to pouches or bags hanging outside their clothes. These external pockets were still in fashion until the mid 19th century, pickpocketing in the 18th century was a gender diverse crime, meaning that many men and many women committed this crime. Alongside with shoplifting, pickpocketing was the type of crime committed by more women than men. This means that the theft was, in cases, not premeditated. However, some pickpockets did work as a gang, in which cases they planned thefts, one reason that may explain why women pickpockets were older is that most of women pickpockets were prostitutes
Pickpocketing
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Eighteenth-century engraving showing pickpocket
George Barrington being apprehended in action.
Pickpocketing
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Hieronymus Bosch:
The Conjurer, 1475-1480. A pickpocket, in cahoots with the conjurer, is shown at far left.
21.
Possession of stolen goods
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Possession of stolen goods is a crime in which an individual has bought, been given, or acquired stolen goods some other way. If the individual did not know the goods were stolen, then the goods are returned to the owner, however, there are often exceptions, due to the difficulty of proving or disproving an individuals knowledge that the goods were stolen. Where the value of the property is greater than $5,000, the punishment on indictment is 10 years for possession only. Otherwise, the maximum on indictment is two years and five respectively, or alternatively punishment by summary conviction. In the United Kingdom this offence is known as Handling stolen goods and this offence is created by section 21 of the Theft Act 1969. In Scotland, this crime is called reset and it includes property that was taken by theft or robbery as well as property taken by breaches of trust including embezzlement, fraud and willful imposition. The offence of handling stolen property is created by section 17 of the Criminal Justice Act,2001, in the United States, Receipt of stolen property is a federal crime under 18 U. S. C. §2315, defined as receiving, concealing, or disposing of stolen property with a value of at least $5,000 that also constitutes interstate commerce. A person can be guilty of that offense only if all of the following facts are proven. The items were moving as, or constituted a part of, the items had a value in excess of $5,000. The person acted knowingly and willfully, the government must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the person either received, concealed, stored, sold, or disposed of the stolen property. To be guilty of the offense, a person must know that the property had been stolen, but he need not know that it was moving as, or constituted a part of, interstate commerce. The term interstate commerce merely refers to the movement of property from one U. S. Also, in many states, the burden to prove criminal intent is not as stringent or is nonexistent. This means that one can be charged with the crime - usually a minor degree of felony - even if the person did not know the item in question was stolen. In the Ohio case of State v. Awad, the goods did not need to actually be stolen, receiving stolen property and possession of stolen property are treated as separate offenses in some jurisdictions. The distinguishing element is when the person knew that the property was stolen, if the person knew that the property was stolen at the time he received it, the crime is receiving stolen property. If the person did not know the property was stolen at the time she received it but found out after receiving possession, the state must prove that the defendant received or possessed the property for a dishonest purpose. If, for example, the person acquired possession for the purpose of returning the property to its lawful owner, no crime has been committed
Possession of stolen goods
–
Officers of the
Vancouver Police Department checking for stolen goods at a
flea market
22.
Smuggling
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There are various motivations to smuggle. Examples of non-financial motivations include bringing banned items past a security checkpoint or the removal of classified documents from a government or corporate office, Smuggling is a common theme in literature, from Bizets opera Carmen to the James Bond spy books Diamonds are Forever and Goldfinger. The verb smuggle, from Low German schmuggeln or Dutch smokkelen, apparently a frequentative formation of a meaning to sneak. Smuggling has a long and controversial history, probably dating back to the first time at which duties were imposed in any form, in England smuggling first became a recognised problem in the 13th century, following the creation of a national customs collection system by Edward I in 1275. Medieval smuggling tended to focus on the export of highly taxed export goods — notably wool, merchants also, however, sometimes smuggled other goods to circumvent prohibitions or embargoes on particular trades. Most studies of historical smuggling have been based on official sources — such as court records, according to Dr Evan Jones, the trouble with these is that they only detail the activities of those dumb enough to get caught. This has led him and others, such as Prof Huw Bowen to use records to reconstruct smuggling businesses. Grain smuggling by members of the elite, often working closely with corrupt customs officers, has also been shown to have been prevalent in East Anglia during the later 16th century. In England wool was smuggled to the continent in the 17th century, the principal reason for the high duty was the need for the government to finance a number of extremely expensive wars with France and the United States. The thievery was boasted about and romanticized until it seemed a kind of heroism and it did not have any taint of criminality and the whole of the south coast had pockets vying with one another over whose smugglers were the darkest or most daring. The Smugglers Inn was one of the commonest names for a bar on the coast, in Henley Road, smuggling in colonial times was a reaction to the heavy taxes and regulations imposed by mercantilist trade policies. After American independence in 1783, smuggling developed at the edges of the United States at places like Passamaquoddy Bay, St. Marys in Georgia, Lake Champlain, and Louisiana. During Thomas Jeffersons embargo of 1807-1809, these places became the primary places where goods were smuggled out of the nation in defiance of the law. Like Britain, a gradual liberalization of laws as part of the free trade movement meant less smuggling. In 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt tried to cut down on smuggling by establishing the Roosevelt Reservation along the United States-Mexico Border, Smuggling revived in the 1920s during Prohibition, and drug smuggling became a major problem after 1970. In the 1990s, when sanctions were imposed on Serbia. The state unofficially allowed this to continue or otherwise the entire economy would have collapsed, much smuggling occurs when enterprising merchants attempt to supply demand for a good or service that is illegal or heavily taxed. As a result, illegal trafficking, and the smuggling of weapons, as well as the historical staples of smuggling, alcohol
Smuggling
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A skirmish with smugglers from
Finland at the
Russian border, 1853. A painting by Vasily Hudiakov.
Smuggling
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The International Anti-Opium Association, Peking "The War Against Opium
Smuggling
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A poster warning the German women and girls about the danger of human traffic in the USA (ca 1900)
Smuggling
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Actress and
UNICEF Ambassador Lucy Liu spoke out against human trafficking and lauded USAID efforts to increase awareness
23.
Tax evasion
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Tax evasion is the illegal evasion of taxes by individuals, corporations, and trusts. Tax evasion is an activity associated with the informal economy. In contrast, tax avoidance is the use of tax laws to reduce ones tax burden. In 1968, Nobel laureate economist Gary Becker first theorized the economics of crime, allingham and A. Sandmo produced, in 1972, an economic model of tax evasion. This model deals with the evasion of tax, the main source of tax revenue in developed countries. According to the authors, the level of evasion of income tax depends on the detection probability, the literatures theoretical models are elegant in their effort to identify the variables likely to affect non-compliance. Alternative specifications, however, yield conflicting results concerning both the signs and magnitudes of variables believed to affect tax evasion, empirical work is required to resolve the theoretical ambiguities. Income tax evasion appears to be influenced by the tax rate, the unemployment rate. The U. S. Tax Reform Act of 1986 appears to have reduced tax evasion in the United States, customs duties are an important source of revenue in developing countries. Importers purport to evade customs duty by under-invoicing and misdeclaration of quantity, when there is ad valorem import duty, the tax base can be reduced through underinvoicing. Misdeclaration of quantity is more relevant for products with specific duty, production description is changed to match a H. S. Code commensurate with a lower rate of duty. Smuggling is importation or exportation of products by illegal means. Smuggling is resorted to for total evasion of customs duties, as well as for the importation of contraband, during the second half of the 20th century, value-added tax emerged as a modern form of consumption tax throughout the world, with the notable exception of the United States. Producers who collect VAT from consumers may evade tax by under-reporting the amount of sales, the US has no broad-based consumption tax at the federal level, and no state currently collects VAT, the overwhelming majority of states instead collect sales taxes. Canada uses both a VAT at the level and sales taxes at the provincial level, some provinces have a single tax combining both forms. In addition, most jurisdictions which levy a VAT or sales tax also legally require their residents to report and this is especially prevalent in federal countries like Nigeria, US and Canada where sub-national jurisdictions charge varying rates of VAT or sales tax. In Nigeria, for example, some federated states enforce VAT on each item of goods sold by traders, the price must be clearly stated and the VAT shown separately from the basic price. If the trader does not comply this is punishable as an attempt to siphon the VAT, therefore, it is not generally cost-effective to enforce tax collection on low-value goods carried in private vehicles from one jurisdiction to another with a different tax rate
Tax evasion
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The ten countries with the largest absolute levels of tax evasion per year. A 2011 estimate was that tax evasion amounts to 5 percent of the global economy.
Tax evasion
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The size of the shadow economy in Europe, 2011.
Tax evasion
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A "Lion's Mouth" postbox for anonymous denunciations at the
Doge's Palace in Venice, Italy. Text translation: "Secret denunciations against anyone who will conceal favors and services or will collude to hide the true revenue from them."
24.
Theft
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In common usage, a theft is the illegal taking of another persons property or services without that persons permission or consent with the intent to deprive the rightful owner of it. The word is used as an informal shorthand term for some crimes against property, such as burglary, embezzlement, larceny, looting, robbery, shoplifting, library theft. In some jurisdictions, theft is considered to be synonymous with larceny, in others, someone who carries out an act of or makes a career of theft is known as a thief. The act of theft is known by other terms such as stealing, thieving. Theft is the name of an offence in California, Canada, England and Wales, Hong Kong, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland. But if she realises the mistake when she gets home and could return the scarf to Y, note that there may be civil liability for the torts of trespass to chattels or conversion in either eventuality. Section 322 of the Criminal Code provides the definition for theft in Canada,322. Because of this, confidential information cannot be the subject of theft and it cannot be converted, not because it is an intangible, but because, save in very exceptional far‑fetched circumstances, the owner would never be deprived of it. However, the theft of trade secrets in certain circumstances does constitute part of the offence of economic espionage, which can be prosecuted under s.19 of the Security of Information Act. Where a motor vehicle is stolen, Section 333.1 provides for a punishment of 10 years for an indictable offence. Theft is a crime with related articles in the Wetboek van Strafrecht, Article 310 prohibits theft, which is defined as taking away any object that belongs to someone else, with the intention to appropriate it illegally. Maximum imprisonment is 4 years or a fine of the fifth category, Article 311 consists of the following, Part 1. Punishable with maximum imprisonment of 6 years or a fine of the category is,1. Theft during certain occasions,3. Theft during night in a residence by someone who is there without knowledge or permission of the owner,4, Theft by 2 or more organized people,5. Theft, where the thief got access by means of violence, climbing in, when theft if committed as in 3 with the situation of 4 and 5, the punishment is a maximum imprisonment of 9 nears or a fine of the fifth category. Article 312 consists of the following, Part 1 prohibits robbery, maximum imprisonment is 9 years or a fine with the fifth category Part 2 allows maximum imprisonment of 12 years or a fine of the fifth category when,1. Robbery was committed during night, in a residence, on the road or moving train,2
Theft
–
Constant Wauters The caught thief servant, oil on panel, 50 x 39,5, 1845
Theft
–
"Hildebrands Deutscher Kakao" (Hildebrands German Cocao) and "Verbesserte Röntgenstrahlen im Jahre 2000" (Improved X-Rays in the year 2000)
Theft
–
Two young
waifs steal a fine pair of boots.
25.
Compounding a felony
–
Compounding a felony was an offence under the common law of England and was classified as a misdemeanour. It consisted of a prosecutor or victim of an offence accepting anything of value under an agreement not to prosecute, or to hamper the prosecution of, to compound, in this context, means to come to a settlement or agreement. It is not compounding for the victim to accept an offer to return stolen property, or to make restitution, under the common law, compounding a felony was punishable as a misdemeanor. Many states have enacted statutes that punish the offense as a felony, compounding a misdemeanor is not a crime. However, an agreement not to prosecute a misdemeanor is unenforceable as being contrary to public policy, compounding has been abolished in England and Wales, in Northern Ireland, in the Republic of Ireland, and in New South Wales. In each of these cases, it has replaced by a statutory offence
Compounding a felony
–
Classes of crimes
26.
Miscarriage of justice
–
The ninth season of CSI, Crime Scene Investigation premiered on CBS on October 9,2008 and ended May 14,2009. The series stars William Petersen, Marg Helgenberger and Laurence Fishburne, as the team grieve for their fallen colleague, Grissom makes a life changing decision, during the ninth season of CSI. Raymond Langston face-to-face with the CSI team, nick, meanwhile, investigates the happenings of a seedy motel over the course of a year, and Hodges and Wendy attend a sci-fi convention. William Petersen and Gary Dourdan both depart the main cast, and are replaced by Lauren Lee Smith and Laurence Fishburne, respectively
Miscarriage of justice
–
Season 9 U.S. DVD Cover
Miscarriage of justice
27.
Perverting the course of justice
–
Perverting the course of justice is an offence committed when a person prevents justice from being served on him/herself or on another party. In England and Wales it is a common law offence, carrying a sentence of life imprisonment. Statutory versions of the offence exist in Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Ireland, doing an act tending and intending to pervert the course of public justice is an offence under the common law of England and Wales. This offence is sometimes referred to as attempting to pervert the course of justice. An attempt to pervert the course of justice is a common law offence. It is not a form of the offence of attempt, and this offence is triable only on indictment. In Canada, the equivalent offence is referred to as obstructing justice and it is set out s 139 of the Criminal Code,139. The maximum penalty is 14 years imprisonment
Perverting the course of justice
–
Classes of crimes
28.
Victimless crime
–
A victimless crime is a term used to refer to actions that have been made illegal but which do not directly violate or threaten the rights of any other individual. It often involves consensual acts, or solitary acts in which no person is involved. Such acts would not lead to any person calling for help from the police, for example, in most countries current victimless crimes include recreational drug use. In politics, a lobbyist or an activist might use this phrase with the implication that the law in question should be abolished, in theory, each polity determines for itself the laws it wants to have, so as to maximize the happiness of its citizens. As knowledge progresses and behavior changes, and values change as well, once it is obvious to a vast majority that the law is unnecessary at best, the law, until it is repealed, will be prohibiting a victimless crime. Many victimless crimes begin because of a desire to obtain illegal products or services that are in high demand, criminal penalties thus tend to limit the supply more than the demand, driving up the black-market price and creating monopoly profits for those criminals who remain in business. This crime tariff encourages the growth of sophisticated and well-organized criminal groups, organized crime in turn tends to diversify into other areas of crime. Large profits provide ample funds for bribery of officials, as well as capital for diversification. The War on Drugs is a cited example of prosecution of victimless crime. The reasoning behind this is that drug use does not directly harm other people and it is argued that the criminalization of drugs leads to highly inflated prices for drugs. For example, Bedau and Schur found in 1974 that In England the pharmacy cost of heroin 0.06 cents per grain, in the United States street price $30-90 per grain. In addition to the creation of a market for drugs. It is reasoned that this reduction of the workforce is ultimately harmful to an economy reliant on labor, the number of drug arrests increases every year. In a poll taken by the Bureau of Justice Statistics between 1980 and 2009, 30-year period, rates for drug possession or use doubled for whites and tripled for blacks. Many activities that were once considered crimes are no longer illegal in some countries, two large categories of victimless crimes are sexual pleasure and recreational drug use. On the first, Following the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution led by Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, the new Bolshevik legal code contained within it the concept that, if there was no victim, there was no crime. When Joseph Stalin came to power, these changes were reversed bit by bit, in the UK in the 1950s, the Wolfenden report recommended the legalization of homosexual behaviour between consenting adults in private, for these reasons. Almost fifty years later, Lawrence v. Texas struck down U. S. sodomy laws, as of 2015, sale of sex toys remains illegal in Alabama
Victimless crime
–
Criminology and
penology
29.
Adultery
–
Adultery is extramarital sex that is considered objectionable on social, religious, moral, or legal grounds. A single act of intercourse is generally sufficient to constitute adultery. Historically, many cultures have considered adultery to be a serious crime. Adultery often incurred severe punishment, usually for the woman and sometimes for the man, with penalties including capital punishment, mutilation, such punishments have gradually fallen into disfavor, especially in Western countries from the 19th century. In most Western countries, adultery itself is no longer a criminal offense, Adultery is not a ground for divorce in jurisdictions which have adopted a no-fault divorce model. In some societies and among certain religious adherents, adultery may affect the status of those involved. In countries where adultery is an offense, punishments range from fines to caning. A joint statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in states that. In Muslim countries that follow Sharia law for justice, the punishment for adultery may be stoning. There are fifteen countries in which stoning is authorized as lawful punishment, though in recent times it has been carried out only in Iran. In some jurisdictions, having sexual relations with the wife or the wife of his eldest son constitutes treason. The term adultery refers to acts between a married person and someone who is not that persons spouse. It may arise in criminal law or in family law, for instance, in the United Kingdom, adultery is not a criminal offense, but is a ground for divorce, with the legal definition of adultery being physical contact with an alien and unlawful organ. Extramarital sexual acts not fitting this definition are not adultery though they may constitute unreasonable behavior, the application of the term to the act appears to arise from the idea that criminal intercourse with a married woman. Tended to adulterate the issue of an innocent husband, and to expose him to support and provide for another mans. Thus, the purity of the children of a marriage is corrupted, the term adultery, rather than extramarital sex, implies a moral condemnation of the act, as such it is usually not a neutral term because it carries an implied judgment that the act is wrong. In the traditional English common law, adultery was a felony, although the legal definition of adultery differs in nearly every legal system, the common theme is sexual relations outside of marriage, in one form or another. Traditionally, many cultures, particularly Latin American ones, had double standards regarding male and female adultery
Adultery
–
Public punishment of adulterers in Venice, 17th century
Adultery
–
Anne Boleyn was found guilty of adultery and treason and executed in 1536. There is controversy among historians as to whether she had actually committed adultery.
Adultery
–
Le supplice des adultères, by Jules Arsène Garnier, showing adulteresses being punished
Adultery
–
Joan II of Navarre - her paternity and succession rights were disputed her whole life because her mother
Margaret of Burgundy was claimed to have committed adultery
30.
Buggery
–
The British English term buggery is very close in meaning to the term sodomy, often used interchangeably in law and popular speech. It may also be a common law offence encompassing both sodomy and bestiality. The definition of buggery was not specified in these or any statute, such a case has not, to date, come before the courts of a common law jurisdiction in any reported decision. In the 1817 case of Rex v. Jacobs, the Crown Court ruled that oral intercourse, even with an underage and/or non-consenting animal, at common law consent was not a defence nor was the fact that the parties were married. In the UK, the punishment for buggery was reduced from hanging to life imprisonment by the Offences against the Person Act 1861, as with the crime of rape, buggery required that penetration must have occurred, but ejaculation is not necessary. Most common law jurisdictions have now modified the law to permit anal sex between consenting adults, the legislation eventually took the name The Wolfenden Report. Homosexual buggery was decriminalised in England and Wales in 1967 with an age of consent at 21 years, rape is charged when the penetration is clearly not consensual. Buggery with an animal is still unlawful under Section 69 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003, in the Republic of Ireland, the Criminal Law Act 1993 abolished the offence of buggery between persons. For some years prior to 1993, criminal prosecution had not been made for buggery between consenting adults. The 1993 Act created an offence of buggery with a person under the age of 17 years, penalised similar to statutory rape, the Criminal Law Act 2006 replaced this offence with defilement of a child, encompassing both sexual intercourse and buggery. Buggery with an animal is still unlawful under Section 69 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003, in 2012 a man was convicted of this offence for supplying a dog in 2008 to a woman who had intercourse with it and died. The word bugger and buggery are still used in modern English as a mild exclamation. Buggery is also synonymous with anal sex, buggery first appears in English in 1330, though bugger in a sexual sense is not recorded until 1555. Smith & Hogan, Criminal Law, ISBN 0-406-94801-1 The dictionary definition of buggery at Wiktionary
Buggery
–
Depiction of the buggery of a goat, by
Paul Avril
31.
Comstock law
–
The Act criminalized usage of the U. S. Half of the states passed similar anti-obscenity statutes that also banned possession and sale of obscene materials, the law was named after its chief proponent, Anthony Comstock. Due to his own personal enforcement of the law during its early days, the text of the federal bill read, in part, Be it enacted. That whoever, within the District of Columbia or any of the Territories of the United States, the Comstock Act targeted pornography, contraceptive equipment, and such educational materials as descriptions of contraceptive methods and other reproductive health-related materials. Of particular note were advertisements for abortifacients found in penny papers, Comstocks ideas of what is obscene, lewd, or lascivious were quite broad. During his time of greatest power, some anatomy textbooks were prohibited from being sent to students by the United States Postal Service. The Comstock Act clearly hinges on definitions, particularly of obscenity, though the courts originally adopted the British Hicklin test, in 1957 an American test was put into place in Roth v. The main support and active persecutor for the purposes of the Comstock laws was the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice. This memorandum linked the main message of the Y. M. C. A. to facts and figures that were drawn from the census, tax data, the 1866 memorandum supported a plan to construct a centrally located building to better serve the younger men of New York. Not only was the building to support the spiritual, mental, however, the memorandum was also used as a call to action to investigate whether or not a law was in place to reprimand and confiscate obscene literature. After conferring with an attorney, a committee was organized to write up a bill to be pushed through the New York State legislature. In 1868, the bill was passed however it was not as strong as the association would have liked it to be, after the passing of the bill, the Y. M. C. A appointed a committee to oversee the enforcement of the law. If the indicted party ended up being found guilty, the materials that were confiscated in the raid were destroyed, Anthony Comstock stated that he was determined to act the part of a good citizen, meaning that he had every intention of upholding the law. He started off by beginning a campaign against the saloons in his New York neighborhood of Brooklyn, the biggest contributor to igniting Comstocks mission to rid of any and all obscene material was when one of his dear friends died. As for a person to blame, Comstock laid all of it on Charles Conroy, after this incident, continued on with the crusade all throughout his neighborhood and in doing so, he kept a ledger that had a record of every single arrest he had made. Comstock became linked with the YMCA shortly after writing a financial request to Robert McBurney to continue with his efforts, once the current President, Morris Jesup, became aware of the letter he immediately went to see Comstock and allocated the funds towards his efforts. On top of the allocated for Comstocks efforts, Jesup also gave him a bonus for his efforts. Comstock was invited to speak before the YMCAs Committee on Obscene Literature, which was renamed the Suppression of Vice
Comstock law
–
The symbol of Comstock's
New York Society for the Suppression of Vice.
32.
Dueling
–
A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two individuals with matched weapons in accordance with agreed-upon rules. Duels in this form were chiefly practiced in early modern Europe with precedents in the code of chivalry. During the 17th and 18th centuries, duels were fought with swords. But beginning in the late 18th century in England, duels were more commonly fought using pistols, fencing and pistol duels continued to co-exist throughout the 19th century. The duel was based on a code of honor, on rare occasions, duels with pistols or swords were fought between women, these were sometimes known as petticoat duels. Legislation against dueling goes back to the medieval period, the Fourth Council of the Lateran outlawed duels, and civil legislation in the Holy Roman Empire against dueling was passed in the wake of the Thirty Years War. From the early 17th century, duels became illegal in the countries where they were practiced, Dueling largely fell out of favor in England by the mid-19th century and in Continental Europe by the turn of the 20th century. Dueling declined in the Eastern United States in the 19th century and by the time the American Civil War broke out, dueling had begun to decline, public opinion, not legislation, caused the change. In Western society, the concept of a duel developed out of the medieval judicial duel. In Medieval society, judicial duels were fought by knights and squires to end various disputes, countries like Germany, United Kingdom, and Ireland practiced this tradition. Judicial combat were of two forms in society, the feat of arms and chivalric combat. The feat of arms were done to settle hostilities between two parties and supervised by a judge. The battle was fought when one partys honor was disrespected or challenged upon in which the conflict cannot be resolved in court, a spiked hand guard for pumbling, and extra grip for half swording. The duel lasted until the party was too weak to fight back. In early cases, the party was then subsequently executed. If a traveling venans did not have weapons or horse to meet the challenge, one might be provided, if a lady passed unescorted, she would leave behind a glove or scarf, to be rescued and returned to her by a future knight who passed that way. The Roman Catholic Church was critical of dueling throughout medieval history, judicial duels were deprecated by the Lateran Council of 1215, but the judicial duel persisted in the Holy Roman Empire into the 15th century. The word duel comes from the Latin duellum, cognate with bellum, during the early Renaissance, dueling established the status of a respectable gentleman, and was an accepted manner to resolve disputes
Dueling
–
"The Code Of Honor—A Duel In The Bois De Boulogne, Near Paris", wood engraving by
Godefroy Durand (
Harper's Weekly, January 1875)
Dueling
–
German students of a
Burschenschaft fighting a sabre duel, around 1900, painting by
Georg Mühlberg (1863–1925)
Dueling
–
Dueling remained highly popular in European society, despite various attempts at banning the practice.
Dueling
–
An anti-duelling sermon written by an acquaintance of
Alexander Hamilton.
33.
Fornication
–
Fornication is generally consensual sexual intercourse between two people not married to each other. The significance of sexual acts to which the term is applied varies between religions, societies and cultures, in modern usage, the term is often replaced with a value judgment term like extramarital sex. The first recorded use in English is in the Cursor Mundi,1300, the Oxford English Dictionary records a figurative use as well, The forsaking of God for idols. Fornicated as an adjective is used in botany, meaning arched or bending over. The Pauline epistles contain multiple condemnations of various forms of extramarital sex, First Corinthians and the Epistle to the Galatians also address fornication. The Apostolic Decree of the Council of Jerusalem also includes a prohibition of fornication, throughout history, most theologians have argued that any and all forms of premarital sex are immoral. An historical example is the medieval English monastic, John Baconthorpe, a more contemporary example is the modern-day theologian Lee Gatiss who argues that premarital sex is immoral based on scripture. He states that, from a Biblical perspective, physical union should not take place outside of a one flesh union, in chapter 7 Paul addresses the situation of two unmarried Christians who are burning with passion who should either exercise self-control or be permitted to marry. The underlying assumptions are the same as those in Deuteronomy 22, however, a minority of theologians have argued in more recent times that premarital sex may not be immoral in some limited circumstances. An example is John Witte, who argues that the Bible itself is silent on the issue of consensual, premarital sex between an engaged couple, some of the debate arises from the question of which theological approach is being applied. A deontological view of sex interprets porneia, aselgeia and akatharsia in terms of whether the couple are married or non-married, what makes sex moral or immoral is the context of marriage. Elsewhere in First Corinthians, incest, homosexual intercourse and prostitution are all explicitly forbidden by name, Paul is preaching about activities based on sexual prohibitions laid out in Leviticus in the context of achieving holiness. One theory therefore suggests that it is these behaviours, and only these, however, most mainstream Christian sources believe that porneia encompasses all forms of premarital sex. Likewise, Fribergs Analytical Lexicon to the Greek New Testament defines porneia as being generally, every kind of extramarital, Lee Gatiss also argues that porneia encompasses all forms of premarital sex. He states that the word fornication has gone out of fashion and is not in use to describe non-marital sex. However, it is an excellent translation for porneia, which referred to any kind of sex outside of marriage. But the overwhelming weight of scholarship and all the evidence from the ancient world points firmly in this direction. Flee sexual immorality and pursue self-control was the message to Christians in a sex-crazed world
Fornication
–
Paolo and Francesca, whom
Dante 's
Inferno describes as
damned for fornication. (
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, 1819)
Fornication
–
Prince William and
Kate Middleton on the balcony of Buckingham Palace
34.
Gambling
–
Gambling is the wagering of money or something of value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning money and/or material goods. Gambling thus requires three elements be present, consideration, chance and prize, the term gaming in this context typically refers to instances in which the activity has been specifically permitted by law. However, this distinction is not universally observed in the English-speaking world, for instance, in the United Kingdom, the regulator of gambling activities is called the Gambling Commission. Gambling is also an international commercial activity, with the legal gambling market totaling an estimated $335 billion in 2009. In other forms, gambling can be conducted with materials which have a value, many popular games played in modern casinos originate from Europe and China. Games such as craps, baccarat, roulette, and blackjack originate from different areas of Europe, a version of keno, an ancient Chinese lottery game, is played in casinos around the world. In addition, pai gow poker, a hybrid between pai gow and poker is also played, many jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban gambling or heavily control it by licensing the vendors. Such regulation generally leads to gambling tourism and illegal gambling in the areas where it is not allowed, there is generally legislation requiring that the odds in gaming devices are statistically random, to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible. Since these high-payoffs have very low probability, a bias can quite easily be missed unless the odds are checked carefully. Most jurisdictions that allow gambling require participants to be above a certain age, in some jurisdictions, the gambling age differs depending on the type of gambling. For example, in many American states one must be over 21 to enter a casino, E. g. Nonetheless, both insurance and gambling contracts are typically considered aleatory contracts under most legal systems, though they are subject to different types of regulation. Under common law, particularly English Law, a contract may not give a casino bona fide purchaser status. For case law on recovery of gambling losses where the loser had stolen the funds see Rights of owner of money as against one who won it in gambling transaction from thief. This was a plot point in a Perry Mason novel, The Case of the Singing Skirt. Religious perspectives on gambling have been mixed, ancient Hindu poems like the Gamblers Lament and the Mahabharata testify to the popularity of gambling among ancient Indians. However, the text Arthashastra recommends taxation and control of gambling, ancient Jewish authorities frowned on gambling, even disqualifying professional gamblers from testifying in court. For these social and religious reasons, most legal jurisdictions limit gambling, in at least one case, the same bishop opposing a casino has sold land to be used for its construction. Although different interpretations of law exist in the Muslim world
Gambling
–
Caravaggio,
The Cardsharps, c. 1594
Gambling
–
Gamblers in the
Ship of Fools, 1494
Gambling
–
Bag with 65 Inlaid Gambling Sticks, Tsimshian (Native American), 19th century,
Brooklyn Museum
Gambling
–
The
Caesars Palace main fountain. The statue is a copy of the ancient
Winged Victory of Samothrace.
35.
Incest
–
Incest is sexual activity between family members or close relatives. The incest taboo is and has one of the most widespread of all cultural taboos. Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages, in societies where it is illegal, consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime. Some cultures extend the incest taboo to relatives with no consanguinity such as milk-siblings, stepsiblings, third-degree relatives on average share 12. 5% genes, and sexual relations between them is viewed differently in various cultures, from being discouraged to being socially acceptable. The children of incestuous relationships were regarded as illegitimate, and are still so regarded in some societies today, in most cases, the parents did not have the option to marry to remove that status, as incestuous marriages were, and are, normally also prohibited. A common justification for prohibiting incest is avoiding inbreeding, a collection of genetic disorders suffered by the children of parents with a genetic relationship. But inbreeding is not the basis for the incest taboo for two reasons. First, most prohibitions on incest cover affinity relationships—that is, relationships created by marriage —as well as created by adoption. And second, the incest taboo also applies to non-procreative sex—for example, some societies, such as the Balinese and some Inuit tribes, have different views about what constitutes illegal and immoral incest. However, sexual relations with a first-degree relative are almost universally forbidden, the English word incest is derived from the Latin incestus, which has a general meaning of impure, unchaste. It was introduced into Middle English, both in the generic Latin sense and in the modern sense. The derived adjective incestuous appears in the 16th century, before the Latin term came in, incest was known in Old English as sib-leger or mǣġhǣmed but in time, both words fell out of use. In ancient China, first cousins with the surnames were not permitted to marry. Several of the Egyptian Pharaohs married their siblings and had children with them. For example, Tutankhamun married his half-sister Ankhesenamun, and was himself the child of an union between Akhenaten and an unidentified sister-wife. It is now accepted that sibling marriages were widespread among all classes in Egypt during the Graeco-Roman period. Numerous papyri and the Roman census declarations attest to many husbands and wives being brother and sister, in the sequel to Oedipus, Antigone, his four children are also punished for their parents incestuousness. Incest appears in the accepted version of the birth of Adonis
Incest
–
Maya king
Shield Jaguar II with his
aunt-wife,
Lady Xoc. AD 709
Incest
–
The number in each box indicates the degree of relationship
Incest
–
Charles II of Spain was born mentally and physically disabled due to centuries of inbreeding in the
House of Habsburg
Incest
–
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor married his first cousin
Maria of Spain.
36.
Exhibitionism
–
Exhibitionism is the act of exposing in a public or semi-public context those parts of ones body that are not normally exposed – for example, the breasts, genitals or buttocks. Exposing oneself only to a partner is normally not regarded as exhibitionism. In law, the act of exhibitionism may be called indecent exposure, exposing ones person, public exhibitionism by women has been recorded since classical times, often in the context of women shaming groups of men into committing, or inciting them to commit, some public action. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus gives an account of exhibitionistic behaviors from the fifth century BC in The Histories, Herodotus writes that, When people travel to Bubastis for the festival, this is what they do. Every baris carrying them there overflows with people, a crowd of them. Some of the women have clappers, while some of the men have pipes which they play throughout the voyage, the rest of the men and women sing and clap their hands. When in the course of their journey they reach a community — not the city of their destination, every riverside community receives this treatment. The development of new such as smartphones and tablets has permitted some exhibitionists to reorient their methods such as with nelfies. Exhibitionism was first described as a disorder in 1877 by French physician, the DSM states that the highest possible prevalence for exhibitionistic disorder in men is 2%-4%. It is thought to be less common in women. In a Swedish survey,2. 1% of women and 4. 1% of men admitted to becoming sexually aroused from the exposure of their genitals to a stranger. A research team asked a sample of 185 exhibitionists, How would you have preferred a person to react if you were to expose your privates to him or her. The most common response was Would want to have intercourse, followed by No reaction necessary at all, To show their privates also, Admiration. Only very few exhibitionists chose Anger and disgust or Fear, various types of behavior are classified as exhibitionism, including, Anasyrma, the lifting of the skirt when not wearing underwear, to expose genitals. Candaulism, when a person exposes his or her partner in a provocative manner. Flashing, the display of bare female breasts by a woman with an up-and-down lifting of the shirt and/or bra or the exposure of a mans or womans genitalia. Martymachlia, a paraphilia which involves attraction to having others watch the execution of a sexual act. Mooning, the display of bare buttocks by pulling down of trousers, the act is most often done for the sake of humour, disparagement, or mockery
Exhibitionism
–
Mark Roberts, a well-known
streaker, at the
Hong Kong Sevens Rugby tournament in 1994.
Exhibitionism
–
Students mooning at
Stanford University, intended as both an unspecified protest and also a
world record attempt of the greatest number of people simultaneously mooning others
Exhibitionism
–
Nude women being photographed on a street corner
37.
Obscenity
–
An obscenity is any utterance or act that strongly offends the prevalent morality of the time. It is derived from the Latin obscaena a cognate of the Ancient Greek root skene, because some potentially offensive content, the word can be used to indicate a strong moral repugnance, in expressions such as obscene profits or the obscenity of war. Federal obscenity law in the U. S. is unusual in that there is no national standard. Ut I know it when I see it, while most recent obscenity cases in the United States have revolved around images and films, the first obscenity cases dealt with textual works. The classification of obscene and thus illegal for production and distribution has been judged on printed text-only stories starting with Dunlop v. U. S.165 U. S. One of these was A Book Named John Clelands Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure v. Attorney General of Com. of Massachusetts,383 U. S.413 wherein the book Fanny Hill, written by John Cleland c. 1760, was judged to be obscene in a proceeding that put the book itself on trial rather than its publisher, in 2005, the U. S. Department of Justice formed the Obscenity Prosecution Task Force in a push to prosecute obscenity cases. Red Rose Stories, a dedicated to text-only fantasy stories. The government alleged that Red Rose Stories contained depictions of child rape, extreme pornographer Max Hardcore served 30 months of a 46-month prison sentence for obscenity. Many U. S. states have had bans on the sale of sex toys, some states have seen their sex toy bans ruled unconstitutional in the courts. That ruling leaves only Mississippi, Alabama, and Virginia with current bans on the sale of obscene devices, literature communicating contraceptive information was prohibited by several states. The last such prohibition, in Connecticut, was overturned judicially in 1965, in 1957, two associates of acclaimed poet Allen Ginsberg were arrested and jailed for selling his book Howl and Other Poems to undercover police officers at a beatnik bookstore in San Francisco. Eventually the California Supreme Court declared the literature to be of redeeming social value, because the poem Howl contains pornographic slang and overt references to drugs and homosexuality, the poem was frequently censored and confiscated, however, it remains a landmark case. FCC v. Pacifica better known as the seven dirty words case. In that ruling, the Court found that only repetitive and frequent use of the words in a time or place when a minor could hear can be punished, in Reno v. ACLU, the Supreme Court struck down indecency laws applying to the Internet. In Miller v. Decisions regarding whether material was obscene should be based on local, not national, standards superseded by the Miller Test include, Wepplo, If material has a substantial tendency to deprave or corrupt its readers by inciting lascivious thoughts or arousing lustful desires. Hicklin test, the effect of isolated passages upon the most susceptible persons, roth Standard, Whether to the average person applying contemporary community standards, the dominant theme of the material, taken as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest. Roth v. United States 354 U. S.476 - overturned by Miller Roth-Jacobellis, community standards applicable to an obscenity are national, material is utterly without redeeming social importance
Obscenity
–
The 18th century book
Fanny Hill has been subject to obscenity trials at various times (image: plate XI: The bathing party; La baignade)
Obscenity
–
Cover of an undated American edition of Fanny Hill, ca. 1910
38.
Recreational drug use
–
Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive drug to alter ones mental state in a way that modifies emotions, perceptions, and feelings for recreational purposes. When a substance enters the body, it brings on an intoxicating effect. Generally, people use drugs that fall into three categories, depressants, stimulants, and psychedelic drugs. In popular usage, it is considered to be a tolerated social behaviour rather than a serious medical condition such as self-medication. The substances classified as controlled and illegal drugs vary by country, in 2009 it was estimated that about 3% to 6% of people aged 15 to 65 had used illegal drugs at least once. International and domestic law enforcement agencies are perpetually occupied with interdiction efforts against illegal use, manufacture. Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use, there has not been agreement around any one single cause. Instead, experts tend to apply the biopsychosocial model, any number of these factors are likely to influence an individual’s drug use as they are not mutually exclusive. Regardless of genetics, mental health or traumatic experiences, social factors play a role in exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs. According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, many go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status. Plant says, “From the users point of there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure, becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience. ”Anthropological research has suggested that humansmay have evolved to counter-exploit plant neurotoxins. The ability to use chemicals to serve the function of endogenous neurotransmitters may have improved survival rates. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasised the apparent benefit of consuming psychoactive drugs, severity and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user interact with each drug differently. Overall, some studies suggest that alcohol is one of the most dangerous of all drugs, only heroin, crack cocaine. Researcher David Nutt stated that studies showing benefits for moderate alcohol consumption lacked control for the variable of what the subjects were drinking
Recreational drug use
–
Adriaen Brouwer 's
The Smokers, circa 1636
Recreational drug use
–
The Drinkers by
Jean Béraud, c. 1908
Recreational drug use
–
Martini, a popular
cocktail, containing
alcohol a common
depressant
Recreational drug use
–
Cappuccino, a
coffee drink containing
caffeine a popular
stimulant
39.
Alcohol
–
In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which the hydroxyl functional group is bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the alcohol ethanol, the predominant alcohol in alcoholic beverages. The suffix -ol in non-systematic names also typically indicates that the substance includes a functional group and, so. But many substances, particularly sugars contain hydroxyl functional groups without using the suffix, an important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members is the saturated straight chain alcohols, the general formula for which is CnH2n+1OH. The word alcohol is from the Arabic kohl, a used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English, alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide Sb 2S3, hence the essence or spirit of this substance. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic, the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when spirits as a synonym for hard liquor. Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, Vigo wrote, the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or alcofoll, for moost fine poudre. The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as antimonium sive stibium, by extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including alcohol of wine, the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia refers to vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum, Johnson glosses alcohol vini as quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat. The words meaning became restricted to spirit of wine in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as alcohols in modern chemistry after 1850, the term ethanol was invented 1892, based on combining the word ethane with ol the last part of alcohol. In the IUPAC system, in naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds ol, e. g. as in methanol and ethanol. When necessary, the position of the group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the ol, propan-1-ol for CH 3CH 2CH 2OH, propan-2-ol for CH 3CHCH3. If a higher priority group is present, then the prefix hydroxy is used, in other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word alcohol, e. g. methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary, and tertiary, based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. The primary alcohols have general formulas RCH2OH, the simplest primary alcohol is methanol, for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which R=CH3, the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RRCHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol, for the tertiary alcohols the general form is RRRCOH
Alcohol
–
Biofuels
Alcohol
–
Ball-and-stick model of the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group in an alcohol molecule (R 3 COH). The three "R's" stand for carbon substituents or hydrogen atoms.
40.
Prohibition
–
The earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty and it was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. Another record was in the Code of Hammurabi specifically banning the selling of beer for money, in the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, in some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned, Sale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan. In Bangladesh, alcohol is prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed in the country, the Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians in this country drink and purchase wine for their holy communion. In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public, in India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, the state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol, election days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao, Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran. Alcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores, the consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Alcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith, the Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to tourists on resort islands
Prohibition
–
A police raid confiscating illegal alcohol, in
Elk Lake, Canada, in 1925.
Prohibition
–
The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier supporting the temperance movement, January 1846.
Prohibition
–
This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette shows the
Anti-Saloon League and the
Women's Christian Temperance Union 's campaign against beer brewers. The
"water cure" was a torture which was in the news because of its use in the Philippines.
Prohibition
–
Prescription form for medicinal liquor
41.
Sodomy
–
Sodomy is generally anal or oral sex between people or sexual activity between a person and a non-human animal, but it may also mean any non-procreative sexual activity. Originally, the sodomy, which is derived from the story of Sodom. Sodomy laws in many countries criminalized these behaviors, and other disfavored sexual activities as well, in the Western world, many of these laws have been overturned or are not routinely enforced. The term is derived from the Ecclesiastical Latin peccatum Sodomiticum or sin of Sodom, Genesis tells how God wished to destroy the sinful cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Two angels are invited by Lot to take refuge with his family for the night, the men of Sodom surround Lots house and demand that he bring the messengers out so that they may know them. Lot protests that the messengers are his guests and offers the Sodomites his virgin daughters instead, then the angels strike the Sodomites blind, so that they wearied themselves to find the door. In current usage, the term is used in law. Laws prohibiting sodomy were seen frequently in past Jewish, Christian, and Islamic civilizations, but the term has little modern usage outside Africa, Islamic countries, and these laws in the United States have been challenged and have sometimes been found unconstitutional or been replaced with different legislation. Many cognates in other languages, such as French sodomie, Spanish sodomía, in modern German, the word Sodomie has no connotation of anal or oral sex and specifically refers to bestiality. The same goes for the Polish sodomia, the Norwegian word sodomi carries both senses. In Danish, sodomi is rendered as unnatural carnal knowledge with someone of the sex or with animals. In Arabic and Persian, the word for sodomy, لواط, is derived from the source as in Western culture. Its direct reference is to Lot and a literal interpretation of the word is the practice of Lot. The word sod, a noun or verb used as an insult, is derived from sodomite and it is a general-purpose insult term for anyone the speaker dislikes without specific reference to their sexual behaviour. Sod is used as slang in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth and is mildly offensive. However, in New Zealand and Australia it is not considered offensive at all, but only coarse, because it is assumed, even if incorrect. While religion and the law have had a role in the historical definition and punishment of sodomy, sodomitical texts present considerable opportunities for ambiguity. Sodomy is both a real occurrence and an imagined category, in the course of the eighteenth century, what is identifiable as sodomy often becomes identified with effeminacy, for example, or in opposition to a discourse of manliness
Sodomy
–
François Elluin, Sodomites provoking the wrath of God, from Le Pot-Pourri de Loth, 1781
Sodomy
–
Dante and
Virgil interview the sodomites, from Guido da Pisa (it) 's commentary on the Commedia, c. 1345
Sodomy
–
An execution taking place outside Newgate Prison
42.
Animals
–
Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
Animals
–
Carl Linnaeus, known as the father of modern
taxonomy
Animals
–
Had'n
Animals
–
The use of
love darts by the land snail
Monachoides vicinus is a form of
sexual selection
Animals
–
A
newt lung cell stained with
fluorescent dyes undergoing the early
anaphase stage of
mitosis
43.
Cruelty to animals
–
Cruelty to animals sometimes encompasses inflicting harm or suffering for personal amusement, as in zoosadism. Laws concerning animal cruelty are designed to prevent the needless cruelty, divergent approaches to such laws occur in different jurisdictions throughout the world. For example, some laws govern methods of killing animals for food, clothing, or other products, Cruelty to animals is not necessarily the same thing as disrespect towards animals. In broad terms, there are three approaches to the issue of cruelty to animals. Utilitarian advocates argue from the position of costs and benefits and vary in their conclusions as to the treatment of animals. Some utilitarians argue for an approach which is closer to the animal welfare position. Animal rights theorists criticize these positions, arguing that the unnecessary and humane are subject to widely differing interpretations. They say that the way to ensure protection for animals is to end their status as property. Certain thinkers, however, still viewed cruelty against animals as an injustice, renaissance polymath Leonardo da Vincis regard for animal welfare, for example, is well-documented. He was particularly troubled by the sight of birds in captivity, da Vinci also expressed anger within his notebooks with the fact that humans use their strength and power to raise animals for slaughter. René Descartes contrarily believed that non-humans are automata, complex machines with no soul, mind, in Cartesian dualism, consciousness was unique to human among all other animals and linked to physical matter by divine grace. However, close analysis shows that many features such as complex sign usage, tool use. Charles Darwin, by presenting the theory of evolution, revolutionized the way that humans viewed their relationship with other species, Darwin believed that not only did human beings have a direct kinship with other animals, but the latter had social, mental and moral lives too. Later, in The Descent of Man, he wrote, There is no difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties. Some philosophers and intellectuals, such as Peter Singer and Tom Regan, have argued that animals ability to feel pain as humans does make their well-being worthy of equal consideration, There are many precursors of this train of thought. Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, famously wrote in his An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, The question is not, can they reason nor can they talk. These arguments have prompted some to suggest that animals well-being should enter a social welfare function directly, in one survey of United States homeowners, 68% of respondents said they actually consider the price of meat a more important issue. Animal cruelty can be broken down into two categories, active and passive
Cruelty to animals
–
The Second Stage of Cruelty – Coachman Beating a Fallen Horse, from the series
The Four Stages of Cruelty by
William Hogarth, 1751, depicting the beating and prodding of various domesticated animals
Cruelty to animals
–
Man beating a chained
pitbull terrier with a strap. The strap is visible in the foreground.
Cruelty to animals
–
Starved and bruised horse eating at a veterinary clinic after rescue
Cruelty to animals
–
Egg laying hens
44.
Wildlife smuggling
–
Wildlife smuggling or trafficking involves the illegal gathering, transportation, and distribution of animals and their derivatives. This can be done either internationally or domestically, estimates of the money generated by wildlife smuggling vary, in part because of its illegal nature. Wildlife smuggling is estimated at $7. 8bn to $10bn a year, when considered with illegal timber and fisheries, wildlife trafficking is a major illegal trade along with narcotics, human trafficking, and counterfeit products. Products demanded by the trade include exotic pets, food, traditional medicine, clothing, and jewellery made from animals tusks, fins, skins, shells, horns, and internal organs. Smuggled wildlife is a global demand, it is estimated that the US, China. In many parts of Africa, the demand for illegal wildlife comes from the consumption of bushmeat. Wild animals are a preferred as a source of protein and primates are considered a delicacy and it is believed that up to 40,000 monkeys are killed and eventually consumed each year in Africa alone via smuggling. Many primates are killed by hunters, who supply to markets all over Africa, Europe. Traditional Chinese medicines are taken by hundreds of millions of people, for example, some practitioners drink an expensive liquid made from tiger bones to improve their circulation, treat arthritis, and strengthen the body, in general. The sale of bones and products made from them is an example of the confusion that can exist on the topic. The sale of bones was outlawed in China in 1993, however and this can create a confusion in the minds of buyers as to whether the bones were legally obtained. Many of the traditional Chinese medicines fail to cure anything, although the demand for them continues to expand greatly, exotic pets are animals desired by consumers and are rare or simply not easily available in the owners region. Television shows and movies can make certain animals popular, reptiles, such as bearded dragons and geckos, and birds, such as scarlet macaws and certain falcons, make up the largest share of animals captured and sold. Exotic mammals including three-toed sloths, sugar gliders, prairie dogs, hedgehogs, an estimated 5,000 to 7,000 tigers are kept in the United States. The range of numbers is due, in part, to the lack of required reporting in some areas. For comparison, less than 400 of these big cats are in U. S. zoos accredited by the Association of Zoos, tropical fish, nonhuman primates, and other animals are also part of the illicit pet trade. These often transnational efforts require a funding and a network of poachers, processors, smugglers, sellers, well armed, highly organized poaching activities, such as the murderous 2012 attacks in Chad and the Republic of Congo, have captured headlines. The appeal, in part, is the low risk of detection, in addition, trafficking can reap significant profits for those leading such efforts
Wildlife smuggling
–
Confiscated wildlife products at
JFK Airport
45.
Bestiality
–
Zoophilia is a paraphilia involving a sexual fixation on non-human animals. Bestiality is cross-species sexual activity between human and non-human animals, the terms are often used interchangeably, but some researchers make a distinction between the attraction and the act. Although sex with animals is not outlawed in some countries, in most countries, three key terms commonly used in regards to the subject — zoophilia, bestiality, and zoosexuality — are often used somewhat interchangeably. Some researchers distinguish between zoophilia and bestiality, because bestiality is not driven by a sexual preference for animals. Some studies have found that a preference for animals is rare among people who engage in contact with animals. Furthermore, some report that they have never had sexual contact with an animal. People with zoophilia are known as zoophiles, though sometimes as zoosexuals. Zooerasty, sodomy, and zooerastia are other terms related to the subject but are less synonymous with the former terms. Bestiosexuality was discussed briefly by Allen, but never became widely established, ernest Bornemann coined the separate term zoosadism for those who derive pleasure – sexual or otherwise – from inflicting pain on animals. Zoosadism specifically is one member of the Macdonald triad of precursors to sociopathic behavior, the term zoophilia derives from the combination of two nouns in Greek, ζῷον and φιλία. Although Krafft-Ebing also coined the term zooerasty for the paraphilia of exclusive sexual attraction to animals, the term zoosexual was proposed by Hani Miletski in 2002 as a value-neutral term. The legal term bestiality has two pronunciations, ˌbɛstiæləti or ˌbistiæləti, the latter being more prevalent in the United States. Confusing the matter yet further, writing in 1962, Masters used the term bestialist specifically in his discussion of zoosadism, Colin J. Williams and Weinberg also quoted a British newspaper saying that zoophilia is a term used by apologists for bestiality. The Kinsey reports rated the percentage of people who had sexual interaction with animals at some point in their lives as 8% for men and 3. The percentage of males who reported sexual interactions with animals in 1974 was 4. 9%, Miletski believes this is not due to a reduction in interest but merely a reduction in opportunity. Nancy Fridays 1973 book on sexuality, My Secret Garden, comprised around 190 fantasies from different women. Crépault and Couture reported that 5.3 percent of the men they surveyed had fantasized about sexual activity with an animal during heterosexual intercourse, in a 2014 study, 3% of women and 2. 2% of men reported fantasies about having sex with an animal. A1982 study suggested that 7.5 percent of 186 university students had interacted sexually with an animal, sexual arousal from watching animals mate is known as faunoiphilia
Bestiality
–
Japanese
ukiyo-e woodblock print from
Utagawa Kunisada 's series, "Eight Canine Heroes of the House of Satomi", 1837.
Bestiality
–
An 18th-century Indian miniature depicting women practising zoophilia in the bottom register.
Bestiality
–
Hokusai 's (1760–1849)
The Dream of the Fisherman's Wife.
Bestiality
–
Art by
Franz von Bayros depicting
oral sex between an adolescent and a
deer
46.
Ignorantia juris non excusat
–
European-law countries with a tradition of Roman law may also use an expression from Aristotle translated into Latin, nemo censetur ignorare legem or ignorantia iuris nocet. Thus, the law imputes knowledge of all laws to all persons within the jurisdiction no matter how transiently, if they do not, they cannot complain if they incur liability. In the ancient phrase of Gratian, Leges instituuntur cum promulgantur, in order that a law obtain the binding force which is proper to a law, it must be applied to the men who have to be ruled by it. Such application is made by their being given notice by promulgation, a secret law is no law at all. Although the defendant was convicted, the sentence was an absolute discharge, in addition, there were, particularly in the days before satellite communication and cellular phones, persons who could genuinely be ignorant of the law due to distance or isolation. For example, in a case in British Columbia, a pair of hunters were acquitted of game offenses where the law was changed during the period they were in the wilderness hunting. An alternate explanation of the origin of the maxim, though not particularly relevant to the context, can be found with the philosophy of the Greeks. These were cultures heavily influenced by legal systems. Within such a system, law is learned as a person participates in the culture, thus it is unreasonable to believe a person could have avoided learning them. These rules and customs were also interwoven with ethical and religious dialog so that laws expressed what is right and good and this law cannot be departed from without guilt. Nor is there one law at Rome and another at Athens, one thing now and another afterward, plato wrote similarly in Minos, What’s right is right and what’s wrong is wrong. And isn’t this believed by everyone, even among the Persians, and always. What is fine, no doubt, is everywhere legislated as fine, and what is shameful as shameful, presumed knowledge of the law is the principle in jurisprudence that one is bound by a law even if one does not know of it. It has also defined as the prohibition of ignorance of the law. The concept comes from Roman law, and is expressed in the brocard ignorantia legis non excusat, the essential public character of a law requires that the law, once properly promulgated, must apply to anyone in the jurisdiction where the law applies. Thus, no one can justify his conduct on the grounds that he was not aware of the law and this is commonly intended as a constitutional regulation, and in fact many constitutions or statutes exactly describe the correct procedures. However, some recent interpretations weaken this concept, particularly in civil law, regard can be had to the difficulty of being informed of the existence of a law considering the lifestyle of the average citizen. On the penal side, the quality of the knowledge of the law can affect the evaluation of the animus nocendi or the mens rea, in that certain subjective conditions can weaken personal responsibility
Ignorantia juris non excusat
–
Classes of crimes
47.
Contract
–
A contract is a voluntary arrangement between two or more parties that is enforceable by law as a binding legal agreement. Contract is a branch of the law of obligations in jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, Contract law concerns the rights and duties that arise from agreements. A contract arises when the parties agree that there is an agreement, formation of a contract generally requires an offer, acceptance, consideration, and a mutual intent to be bound. Each party to a contract must have capacity to enter the agreement, minors, intoxicated persons, and those under a mental affliction may have insufficient capacity to enter a contract. Some types of contracts may require formalities, such as a memorialization in writing, at common law, the elements of a contract are offer, acceptance, intention to create legal relations, and consideration. Not all agreements are necessarily contractual, as the parties generally must be deemed to have an intention to be legally bound, a so-called gentlemens agreement is one which is not intended to be legally enforceable, and which is binding in honour only. In order for a contract to be formed, the parties must reach mutual assent and this is typically reached through offer and an acceptance which does not vary the offers terms, which is known as the mirror image rule. An offer is a statement of the offerors willingness to be bound should certain conditions be met. If a purported acceptance does vary the terms of an offer, it is not an acceptance but a counteroffer and, therefore, the Uniform Commercial Code disposes of the mirror image rule in §2-207, although the UCC only governs transactions in goods in the USA. As a court cannot read minds, the intent of the parties is interpreted objectively from the perspective of a reasonable person and it is important to note that where an offer specifies a particular mode of acceptance, only an acceptance communicated via that method will be valid. Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral, a bilateral contract is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or set of promises to each other. For example, in a contract for the sale of a home, less common are unilateral contracts in which one party makes a promise, but the other side does not promise anything. In these cases, those accepting the offer are not required to communicate their acceptance to the offeror, in a reward contract, for example, a person who has lost a dog could promise a reward if the dog is found, through publication or orally. The payment could be conditioned on the dog being returned alive. Those who learn of the reward are not required to search for the dog, but if someone finds the dog and delivers it, the High Court of Australia stated that the term unilateral contract is unscientific and misleading. In certain circumstances, a contract may be created. A contract is implied in fact if the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly, quantum meruit claims are an example. Carbolic, a firm, advertised a smoke ball marketed as a wonder drug that would, according to the instructions
Contract
–
Bill of sale of a male slave and a building in Shuruppak,
Sumerian tablet, circa 2600 BC
Contract
–
The Carbolic Smoke Ball offer
Contract
–
A contract from the
Tang dynasty that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five Chinese coins
Contract
–
German marriage contract, 1521 between
Gottfried Werner von Zimmern (de) and Apollonia von Henneberg-Römhild
48.
Evidence (law)
–
The law of evidence also known as the rules of evidence, encompasses the rules and legal principles that govern the proof of facts in a legal proceeding. These rules determine what evidence must or must not be considered by the trier of fact in reaching its decision, the trier of fact is a judge in bench trials, or the jury in any cases involving a jury. The law of evidence is also concerned with the quantum, quality, the rules vary depending upon whether the venue is a criminal court, civil court, or family court, and they vary by jurisdiction. The quantum of evidence is the amount of evidence needed, the quality of proof is how reliable such evidence should be considered, important rules that govern admissibility concern hearsay, authentication, relevance, privilege, witnesses, opinions, expert testimony, identification and rules of physical evidence. There are several types of evidence, depending on the form or source, Evidence governs the use of testimony, exhibits, documentary material, or demonstrative evidence, which are admissible in a judicial or administrative proceeding. The law must ensure certain guidelines are set out in order to ensure that evidence presented to the court can be regarded as trustworthy. The rules of evidence were developed several centuries and are based upon the rules from Anglo-American common law brought to the New World by early settlers. Their purpose is to be fair to both parties, disallowing the raising of allegations without a basis in provable fact and they are sometimes criticized as a legal technicality, but are an important part of the system for achieving a just result. Perhaps the most important of the rules of evidence is that, in general, there are several examples where presiding authorities are not bound by the rules of evidence. These include the military tribunals in the United States and tribunals used in Australia to try health professionals, in every jurisdiction based on the English common law tradition, evidence must conform to a number of rules and restrictions to be admissible. Evidence must be relevant – that is, it must be directed at proving or disproving a legal element, however, the relevance of evidence is ordinarily a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition for the admissibility of evidence. For example, relevant evidence may be excluded if it is unfairly prejudicial, confusing, there is also general agreement that assessment of relevance or irrelevance involves or requires judgements about probabilities or uncertainties. Beyond that, there is little agreement, many legal scholars and judges agree that ordinary reasoning, or common sense reasoning, plays an important role. There is less agreement about whether or not judgements of relevance or irrelevance are defensible only if the reasoning that supports such judgements is made fully explicit. However, most trial judges would reject any such requirement and would say that some judgements can and must rest partly on unarticulated and unarticulable hunches, california Evidence Code section 352 also allows for exclusion to avoid substantial danger of undue prejudice. The United States has a complicated system of evidentiary rules, for example. In Professor Friedmans words, A trained judge would not need all these rules, and indeed, the law of evidence in systems that lack a jury is short, sweet, however, Friedmans views are characteristic of an earlier generation of legal scholars. Under English law, evidence that would otherwise be admissible at trial may be excluded at the discretion of the judge if it would be unfair to the defendant to admit it
Evidence (law)
–
Classes of crimes
49.
Property law
–
Property law is the area of law that governs the various forms of ownership and tenancy in real property and in personal property, within the common law legal system. In the civil law system, there is a division between movable and immovable property, movable property roughly corresponds to personal property, while immovable property corresponds to real estate or real property, and the associated rights, and obligations thereon. The concept, idea or philosophy of property underlies all property law, in some jurisdictions, historically all property was owned by the monarch and it devolved through feudal land tenure or other feudal systems of loyalty and fealty. The word property, in usage, refers to an object owned by a person — a car, a book, or a cellphone —. In law, the concept acquires a more nuanced rendering, most broadly and concisely, property in the legal sense refers to the rights of people in or over certain objects or things. James Wilson, U. S. Supreme Court Justice and professor of law at the University of Pennsylvania, in 1790 and 1791, undertook a survey of the philosophical grounds of American property law. He proceeds from two premises, “Every crime includes an injury, every injury includes a violation of a right. ”The government’s role in protecting property depends upon an idea of right, Wilson traces the history of property in his essay On the History of Property. In his lecture, Of the natural rights of individuals, he articulates related contemporary theory. While he doubts this is so, he states, “In his unrelated state, man has a natural right to his property, to his character, to liberty. Or was it, by an establishment, to acquire a new security for the possession or the recovery of those rights…. ”He indicates a preference for the latter. In the opening sentence of On the History of Property, he quite clearly, “Property is the right or lawful power, which a person has to a thing. ”He then divides the right into three degrees, possession, the lowest, possession and use, and, possession, use. Further, he states, “Man is intended for action, useful and skilful industry is the soul of an active life. But industry should have her just reward and that reward is property, for of useful and active industry, property is the natural result. ”From this simple reasoning he is able to present the conclusion that exclusive, as opposed to communal property, is to be preferred. Wilson does, however, give a survey of communal property arrangements in history, not only in colonial Virginia, non-legally recognized or documented property rights are known as informal property rights. These informal property rights are non-codified or documented, but recognized among local residents to varying degrees, different parties may claim a competing interest in the same property by mistake or by fraud. For example, the party creating or transferring an interest may have a valid title, a court resolves the dispute by adjudicating the priorities of the interests. To transfer property is to such an act. Property rights are rights over things enforceable against all other persons, by contrast, contractual rights are rights enforceable against particular persons
Property law
–
Air
Property law
–
Classes of crimes
50.
Will (law)
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For the devolution of property not disposed of by will, see inheritance and intestacy. Thus, the word will validly applies to personal and real property. A will may also create a testamentary trust that is only after the death of the testator. Throughout most of the world, disposal of an estate has been a matter of social custom, according to Plutarch, the written will was invented by Solon. Originally it was a device intended solely for men who died without an heir, the English phrase will and testament is derived from a period in English law when Old English and Law French were used side by side for maximum clarity. Other such legal doublets include breaking and entering and peace and quiet, the conception of the freedom of disposition by will, familiar as it is in modern England and the United States, both generally considered common law systems, is by no means universal. In fact, complete freedom is the rather than the rule. Civil law systems often put some restrictions on the possibilities of disposal, advocates for gays and lesbians have pointed to the inheritance rights of spouses as desirable for same-sex couples as well, through same-sex marriage or civil unions. Opponents of such advocacy rebut this claim by pointing to the ability of same-sex couples to disperse their assets by will, types of wills generally include, nuncupative - oral or dictated, often limited to sailors or military personnel. Holographic will - written in the hand of the testator, in many jurisdictions, the signature, self-proved - in solemn form with affidavits of subscribing witnesses to avoid probate. Notarial - will in public form and prepared by a civil-law notary, servicemans will - will of person in active-duty military service and usually lacking certain formalities, particularly under English law. Reciprocal/mirror/mutual/husband and wife wills - wills made by two or more parties that make similar or identical provisions in favor of each other, unsolemn will - will in which the executor is unnamed. Will in solemn form - signed by testator and witnesses, some jurisdictions recognize a holographic will, made out entirely in the testators own hand, or in some modern formulations, with material provisions in the testators hand. The distinctive feature of a holographic will is less that it is handwritten by the testator, in Louisiana this type of testament is called an Olographic or Mystic will. It must be written, dated, and signed in the handwriting of the testator. Although the date may appear anywhere in the testament, the testator must sign the testament at the end of the testament, any additions or corrections must also be entirely hand written to have effect. In England, the formalities of wills are relaxed for soldiers who express their wishes on active service, a minority of jurisdictions even recognize the validity of nuncupative wills, particularly for military personnel or merchant sailors. However, there are constraints on the disposition of property if such an oral will is used
Will (law)
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Wills,
trusts and
estates
Will (law)
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Muhammad Ali Jinnah 's will, excerpt
Will (law)
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Alfred Nobel's will, in which he endows the
Nobel prize.
Will (law)
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Last will and testament of
Tennessee Williams
