1.
Airbus A321
–
The Airbus A321 is a member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. It was the first derivative of the baseline Airbus A320 aircraft, final assembly of the aircraft takes place in Hamburg, Germany or Mobile, Alabama in the US. The A321 is a variant of the Airbus A320 and entered service in 1994 with Lufthansa. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. As of 28 February 2017, a total of 1,461 Airbus A321 aircraft have been delivered, in addition, another 275 airliners are on firm order. As of February 2017, American Airlines was the largest operator of the Airbus A321, in December 2010, Airbus announced a new generation of the A320 family, the A320neo. The similarly lengthened fuselage A321neo variant offers new, more efficient engines, combined with airframe improvements, the aircraft will deliver fuel savings of up to 15%. The A321neo has total orders for 1,384 aircraft as of 28 February 2017, the Airbus A321 was the first derivative of the A320, also known as the Stretched A320, A320-500 and A325. Its launch came on 24 November 1988, around the time as the A320 entered service. The aircraft would be a derivative, apart from a number of minor modifications to the wing. The wing would incorporate double-slotted flaps and minor trailing edge modifications, the fuselage was lengthened by four plugs, giving the A321 an overall length of 6.94 metres longer than the A320. This is achieved by adding a 4.27 m front plug immediately forward of wing, to maintain performance, double-slotted flaps were included, in addition to increasing the wing area by 4 m2, to 128 m2. Other minor modifications were made to accommodate the A321-100s 9,600 kg increase in takeoff weight to 83,000 kg. The length increase required the overwing exits of the A320 to be enlarged and repositioned in front of, the A321 is the largest variant of the A320 family. The centre fuselage and undercarriage were reinforced to accommodate the increase in takeoff weight of 9,600 kg. Lufthansa and Alitalia were the first to order the stretched Airbuses, with 20 and 40 aircraft requested, the first of Lufthansas V2500-A5-powered A321s arrived on 27 January 1994, while Alitalia received its first CFM56-5B-powered aircraft on 22 March 1994. The A321-100 entered service in January 1994 with Lufthansa, final assembly for the A321 would be, as a first for any Airbus, carried out in Germany. The second production line was located at Hamburg, which would subsequently produce the smaller Airbus A319
Airbus A321
–
A320 family A319/A320/A321
Airbus A321
–
Air Inter A320-100 in 1991, one of the few A320-100s
Airbus A321
–
The cockpit of the A321 is similar to that of the A318, A319 and A320. This layout would be incorporated into the
A330,
A340,
A350 and
A380. This "
commonality " enables pilots to quickly transition among these aircraft.
Airbus A321
–
The
horizontal stabilizer of the A320 is produced in Spain. Other A320 parts are manufactured at sites throughout Europe and the world.
2.
Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport
–
Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport is a private airport in the quarter of Finkenwerder, in the southwest part of Hamburg, Germany. It is part of the Hamburg plant of Airbus and is used by them for corporate, freight, test. Finkenwerder is fully able to handle the Airbus A380 and it should not be confused with Hamburg Fuhlsbüttel Airport, the citys international airport. The airfield was built about 10 years after World War II, in 1964 the third prototype of the Transall C-160 made its first flight from the airport. Beginning in April 2006, the runway was extended from 2,684 m to 3,183 m at the southern end, on 16 July 2007, the extended runway was handed over after completion of works to Airbus, around two months ahead of schedule. The airport is part of the Airbus facility in Hamburg, where around 15,000 people are employed, final assembly for all models of the A320 family takes place here, and both the A320 and A380 are fitted with their cabin interiors and painted for final delivery. In addition, final acceptance and delivery of A380s for customers in Europe, the Hamburg factory is also home to Airbus’ A380 major component assembly hall, which houses the structural assembly and the fitting-with equipment of the forward and complete rear fuselage sections. These sections are shipped to France on a specially built ferry. A large spares centre is maintained at Hamburg, and A320 Family maintenance training facilities can also be found on-site. Hamburg also plays a key role in the A330 and A350 XWB programmes, for which it manufactures and equips the forward, there are no public flights to and from the airport. Besides transfer, freight and test flights for Airbus there is a twice daily corporate shuttle service from here to Airbus plant in Toulouse, the airport handles around 10 to 15 aircraft movements per day
Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport
–
Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport Flugplatz Hamburg-Finkenwerder
Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport
–
First touchdown of an Airbus A380 in Finkenwerder
Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport
–
An
Airbus A321 on the
final assembly line at the Airbus plant at Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport
3.
Manufacturing
–
Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Textile factory (
Germany, circa 1975).
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
–
Assembly of Section 41 of a
Boeing 787 Dreamliner
Manufacturing
–
A female industrial
worker amidst heavy steel semi-products (KINEX BEARINGS,
Bytča,
Slovakia, c. 1995–2000)
4.
Interchangeable parts
–
Interchangeable parts are parts that are, for practical purposes, identical. They are made to specifications that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they fit into any assembly of the same type. One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting and this interchangeability allows easy assembly of new devices, and easier repair of existing devices, while minimizing both the time and skill required of the person doing the assembly or repair. Additional innovations included jigs for guiding the machine tools, fixtures for holding the workpiece in the proper position, modern machine tools often have numerical control which evolved into CNC when microprocessors became available. Methods for industrial production of parts in the United States were first developed in the nineteenth century. The term American system of manufacturing was sometimes applied to them at the time, within a few decades such methods were in use in various countries, so American system is now a term of historical reference rather than current industrial nomenclature. Evidence of the use of parts can be traced back over two thousand years to Carthage in the First Punic War. Carthaginian ships had standardized, interchangeable parts that came with assembly instructions akin to tab a into slot b marked on them. In East Asia during the Warring States period and later the Qin Dynasty, bronze crossbow triggers and locking mechanisms were mass-produced and made to be interchangeable. One of the accomplishments of the system was that solid cast cannons were bored to precise tolerances, however, because cores were often off center, the wall thickness determined the size of the bore. Standardized boring allowed cannon to be shorter without sacrificing accuracy and range because of the fit of the shells. It also allowed standardization of the shells, before the 18th century, devices such as guns were made one at a time by gunsmiths, and each gun was unique. If one single component of a firearm needed a replacement, the entire firearm either had to be sent to a gunsmith for custom repairs. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, the idea of replacing these methods with a system of manufacture was gradually developed. The development took decades and involved many people, Gribeauval provided patronage to Honoré Blanc, who attempted to implement the Système Gribeauval at the musket level. By around 1778, Honoré Blanc began producing some of the first firearms with interchangeable flint locks, Blanc demonstrated in front of a committee of scientists that his muskets could be fitted with flint locks picked at random from a pile of parts. Muskets with interchangeable locks caught the attention of Thomas Jefferson through the efforts of Honoré Blanc when Jefferson was Ambassador to France in 1785. President George Washington approved of the idea, and by 1798 a contract was issued to Eli Whitney for 12,000 muskets built under the new system
Interchangeable parts
–
Ford assembly line, 1913. The magneto was the first to be assembled.
Interchangeable parts
–
A pulley block for rigging on a sailing ship
5.
Automobile
–
A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
Automobile
–
Benz "Velo" model (1894) by German inventor
Carl Benz – entered into an
early automobile race as a
motocycle
Automobile
–
A modern car,
BMW E90
Automobile
–
Cugnot's 1771 fardier à vapeur, as preserved at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris
Automobile
–
Karl Benz, the inventor of the modern car
6.
Transportation
–
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
Transportation
–
People walking in front of the
bulk carrier BW Fjord
Transportation
–
French
National Police use several modes of transport, each with their distinct advantages.
Transportation
–
Human-powered transport remains common in developing countries.
Transportation
–
An
Air France Airbus A318 lands at
London Heathrow Airport.
7.
Consumer electronics
–
Consumer electronics or home electronics are electronic or digital equipment intended for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used for entertainment, communications, and home-office activities, in British English, they are often called brown goods by producers and sellers, to distinguish them from white goods such as washing machines and refrigerators. Radio broadcasting in the early 20th century brought the first major consumer product, later products included telephones, personal computers, MP3 players, audio equipment, televisions and calculators. In the 2010s, consumer electronics stores often sell GPS, automotive electronics, video game consoles, electronic instruments, karaoke machines, digital cameras. Stores also sell digital cameras, camcorders, cell phones, some consumer electronics stores, such as Best Buy have also begun selling office and baby furniture. Consumer electronics stores may be bricks and mortar retail stores, online stores. The CEA estimated the value of 2015 consumer electronics sales at US$220 billion, for its first fifty years the phonograph turntable did not use electronics, the needle and soundhorn were purely mechanical technologies. However, in the 1920s radio broadcasting became the basis of production of radio receivers. The vacuum tubes that had made radios practical were used with record players as well, television was soon invented, but remained insignificant in the consumer market until the 1950s. The transistor, invented in 1947 by Bell Laboratories, led to significant research in the field of semiconductors in the early 1950s. The transistors advantages revolutionized that industry along with other electronics, by 1959 Fairchild Semiconductor had introduced the first planar transistor from which come the origins of Moores Law. Integrated circuits followed when manufacturers built circuits on a substrate using electrical connections between circuits within the chip itself. One overriding characteristic of consumer products is the trend of ever-falling prices. This is driven by gains in manufacturing efficiency and automation, lower costs as manufacturing has moved to lower-wage countries. Semiconductor components benefit from Moores Law, a principle which states that, for a given price. While consumer electronics continues in its trend of convergence, combining elements of many products, there is an ever increasing need to keep product information updated and comparable, for the consumer to make an informed choice. Style, price, specification, and performance are all relevant, there is a gradual shift towards e-commerce web-storefronts. Many products include Internet connectivity using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, products not traditionally associated with computer use now provide options to connect to the Internet or to a computer using a home network to provide access to digital content
Consumer electronics
–
A typical
CoCo 3 computer system, from the 1980s
Consumer electronics
–
A
JVC camcorder, a typical consumer electronics device
Consumer electronics
–
A modern flat panel
television set
Consumer electronics
–
Gramophone factory in
Hannover-Nordstadt
8.
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus Cars is an English company that manufactures sports cars and racing cars with its headquarters in Hethel, Norfolk, England, and is a subsidiary of Malaysian automotive company Proton. Notable Lotus cars include the Esprit, Elan, Europa and Elise sports cars, Lotus Cars is based at the former site of RAF Hethel, a World War II airfield in Norfolk. The company designs and builds race and production automobiles of light weight and it also owns the engineering consultancy Lotus Engineering, which has facilities in the United Kingdom, United States, China, and Malaysia. Lotus is owned by DRB-HICOM through its subsidiary Proton, which acquired it following the bankruptcy of former owner Romano Artioli in 1996, the company was formed as Lotus Engineering Ltd. by engineers Colin Chapman and Colin Dare, both graduates of University College, London, in 1952. The four letters in the middle of the stand for the initials of company founder. When the logo was created, Colin Chapmans original partners Michael and Nigel Allen were led to believe that the letters stood for Colin Chapman, the first factory was situated in old stables behind the Railway Hotel in Hornsey, North London. Team Lotus, which was split off from Lotus Engineering in 1954, was active and competitive in Formula One racing from 1958 to 1994, the Lotus Group of Companies was formed in 1959. This was made up of Lotus Cars Limited and Lotus Components Limited, Lotus Components Limited became Lotus Racing Limited in 1971 but the newly renamed entity ceased operation in the same year. The company moved to a purpose built factory at Cheshunt in 1959 and since 1966 the company has occupied a modern factory and road test facility at Hethel and this site is the former RAF Hethel base and the test track uses sections of the old runway. In its early days Lotus sold cars aimed at privateer racers and its early road cars could be bought as kits, in order to save on purchase tax. After the elegant but delicate Lotus Elite of the 1950s, Lotus found critical, Lotus was notable for its use of fibreglass bodies, backbone chassis, and twin cam engines, initially supplied by Coventry Climax but later replaced by Lotus-Ford units. Lotus worked with Ford on the Lotus Cortina, a sports saloon. The Lotus Seven, originating in the 1950s as a simple, Lotus then sold the rights to produce the Seven to Caterham, which has continued to produce the car since then. The mid engined line continued with the Lotus Esprit, which was to one of the companys longest lived. Lotus developed its own series of four cylinder DOHC engines, the Lotus 900 series, and later a V8, variants of the 900 series engine were supplied for the Jensen Healey sports car and the Sunbeam Lotus hot hatchback. In the 1980s, Lotus collaborated with Vauxhall Motors to produce the Lotus Carlton, by 1980, Group Lotus was in serious financial trouble. Production had dropped from 1,200 units per year to a mere 383, in early 1982, Chapman came to an agreement with Toyota to exchange intellectual property and applied expertise. This initially resulted in Lotus Engineering helping to develop the Mk2 Toyota Supra, secondly it allowed Lotus to launch the new Lotus Excel to replace the ageing Lotus Eclat
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus final assembly
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus Cars Limited
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus 77
Lotus Cars
–
Lotus 72
9.
Worker
–
The workforce or labour force is the labour pool in employment. It is generally used to describe those working for a company or industry. Within a company, its value can be labelled as its Workforce in Place, the workforce of a country includes both the employed and the unemployed. The labour force participation rate, LFPR, is the ratio between the force and the overall size of their cohort. The term generally excludes the employers or management, and can imply those involved in manual labour and it may also mean all those who are available for work. Formal labour is any sort of employment that is structured and paid in a formal way, unlike the informal sector of the economy, formal labour within a country contributes to that countrys gross national product. Informal labour is labour that falls short of being a formal arrangement in law or in practice and it can be paid or unpaid and it is always unstructured and unregulated. Formal employment is more reliable than informal employment, generally, the former yields higher income and greater benefits and securities for both men and women. The contribution of informal labourers is immense, informal labour is expanding globally, most significantly in developing countries. According to a study done by Jacques Charmes, in the year 2000 informal labour made up 57% of non-agricultural employment, 40% of urban employment, and 83% of the new jobs in Latin America. That same year, informal labour made up 78% of non-agricultural employment, 61% of urban employment, particularly after an economic crisis, labourers tend to shift from the formal sector to the informal sector. This trend was seen after the Asian economic crisis began in 1997. Gender is frequently associated with informal labour, Women are employed more often informally than they are formally, and informal labour is an overall larger source of employment for females than it is for males. Women frequent the sector of the economy through occupations like home-based workers. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World shows that in the 1990s, 81% of women in Benin were street vendors, 55% in Guatemala, 44% in Mexico, 33% in Kenya, overall, 60% of women workers in the developing world are employed in the informal sector. The specific percentages are 84% and 58% for women in Sub-Saharan Africa, the percentages for men in both of these areas of the world are lower, amounting to 63% and 48% respectively. In Asia, 65% of women workers and 65% of men workers are employed in the informal sector, globally, a large percentage of women that are formally employed also work in the informal sector behind the scenes. These women make up the work force
Worker
–
This is a chart showing employed civilians by occupation and sex in 2007 in the USA
10.
Tool
–
A tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not consumed in the process. Tool use by humans dates back millions of years, and other animals are known to employ simple tools. Tools that are used in fields or activities may have different designations such as instrument, utensil, implement, machine, device. The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is equipment, the knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools is technology. Anthropologists believe that the use of tools was an important step in the evolution of mankind, because tools are used extensively by both humans and wild chimpanzees, it is widely assumed that the first routine use of tools took place prior to the divergence between the two species. These early tools, however, were made of perishable materials such as sticks. Stone artifacts only date back to about 2.5 million years ago, however, a 2010 study suggests the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis ate meat by carving animal carcasses with stone implements. This finding pushes back the earliest known use of tools among hominins to about 3.4 million years ago. Finds of actual tools date back at least 2.6 million years in Ethiopia, one of the earliest distinguishable stone tool forms is the hand axe. Up until recently, weapons found in digs were the tools of “early man” that were studied. Now, more tools are recognized as culturally and historically relevant, as well as hunting, other activities required tools such as preparing food, “…nutting, leatherworking, grain harvesting and woodworking…” Included in this group are “flake stone tools. “Man the hunter” as the catalyst for Hominin change has been questioned, based on marks on the bones at archaeological sites, it is now more evident that pre-humans were scavenging off of other predators carcasses rather than killing their own food. Mechanical devices experienced an expansion in their use in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome with the systematic employment of new energy sources. Their use expanded through the Dark Ages with the addition of windmills, machine tools occasioned a surge in producing new tools in the industrial revolution. Advocates of nanotechnology expect a similar surge as tools become microscopic in size, one can classify tools according to their basic functions, Cutting and edge tools, such as the knife, scythe or sickle, are wedge-shaped implements that produce a shearing force along a narrow face. Ideally, the edge of the needs to be harder than the material being cut or else the blade will become dulled with repeated use. But even resilient tools will require periodic sharpening, which is the process of removing deformation wear from the edge, other examples of cutting tools include gouges and drill bits. Moving tools move large and tiny items, many are levers which give the user a mechanical advantage
Tool
–
A modern
toolbox
Tool
–
Prehistoric
stone tools over 10,000 years old, found in
Les Combarelles cave, France
Tool
–
Carpentry tools recovered from the wreck of a 16th-century sailing ship, the
Mary Rose. From the top, a
mallet,
brace,
plane, handle of a
T-auger, handle of a
gimlet, handle of a
hammer?,
rule.
Tool
–
Stone and metal
knives
11.
Conveyor
–
A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves materials from one location to another. Conveyors are especially useful in applications involving the transportation of heavy or bulky materials, Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient transportation for a wide variety of materials, which make them very popular in the material handling and packaging industries. Many kinds of conveying systems are available and are used according to the needs of different industries. There are chain conveyors as well, chain conveyors consist of enclosed tracks, I-Beam, towline, power & free, and hand pushed trolleys. Conveyor systems are used widespread across a range of industries due to the benefits they provide. Conveyors are able to transport materials from one level to another. They can be installed almost anywhere, and are safer than using a forklift or other machine to move materials. They can move loads of all shapes, sizes and weights, also, many have advanced safety features that help prevent accidents. There are a variety of available for running conveying systems, including the hydraulic, mechanical and fully automated systems. Many factors are important in the selection of a conveyor system. It is important to know how the system will be used beforehand. A conveyor system is often the lifeline to an ability to effectively move its product in a timely fashion. Increasing the service life of a conveyor system involves, choosing the right conveyor type, a conveyor system that is designed properly will last a long time with proper maintenance. Here are six of the biggest problems to watch for in overhead type conveyor systems including I-beam monorails, enclosed track conveyors and power, overhead conveyor systems have been used in numerous applications from shop displays, assembly lines to paint finishing plants and more. Poor take-up adjustment, this is an adjustment on most systems yet it is often overlooked. The chain take-up device ensures that the chain is pulled tight as it leaves the drive unit, as wear occurs and the chain lengthens, the take-up extends under the force of its springs. As they extend, the force becomes less and the take-up has less effect. Simply compress the springs and your problem goes away
Conveyor
–
An overhead chain conveyor conveys cars at Mercedes in Germany
Conveyor
–
A lineshaft roller conveyor conveys boxed produce at a distribution center
Conveyor
–
A
Conveyor belt conveys papers at a newspaper print plant
Conveyor
–
Roller conveyor for carton transport in the apparel industry
12.
Fork lifts
–
A forklift is a powered industrial truck used to lift and move materials short distances. The forklift was developed in the early 20th century by various companies including the manufacturing company Clark. Following World War II the use and development of the truck has greatly expanded worldwide. Forklifts have become a piece of equipment in manufacturing and warehousing operations. In 2013 alone the top 20 manufacturers worldwide posted sales of $30.4 billion with 944,405 machines sold, the middle nineteenth century through the early 20th century saw the developments that led to todays modern forklifts. The forerunners of the modern forklift were manually powered hoists that were used to lift loads, in 1906 the Pennsylvania Railroad introduced battery powered platform trucks for moving luggage at their Altoona, Pennsylvania train station. World War I saw the development of different types of handling equipment in the United Kingdom by Ransomes. This was in due to the labor shortages caused by the war. In 1917 Clark in the United States began developing and using powered tractor, in 1919 the Towmotor Company, and Yale & Towne Manufacturing in 1920, entered the lift truck market in the United States. Continuing development and expanded use of the forklift continued through the 1920s and 1930s, the start of World War II, like World War I before, spurred the use of forklift trucks in the war effort. Following the war, more efficient methods for storing products in warehouses were being implemented, warehouses needed more maneuverable forklift trucks that could reach greater heights and new forklift models were made that filled this need. For example, in 1954 a British company named Lansing Bagnall, now part of KION Group, the development changed the design of warehouses leading to narrower aisles and higher load stacking that increased storage capability. During the 1950s and 1960s operator safety became a concern due to the increasing lifting heights, Safety features such as load back rests and operator cages, called overhead guards, began to be added to forklifts produced in this era. In the late 1980s ergonomic design began to be incorporated in new designs to improve operator comfort, reduce injuries. During the 1990s exhaust emissions from forklift operations began to be addressed which led to emission standards being implemented for forklift manufacturers in various countries, the introduction of AC power forklifts, along with fuel cell technology, are also refinements in continuing forklift development. Forklifts are rated for loads at a maximum weight and a specified forward center of gravity. This information is located on a provided by the manufacturer. In many jurisdictions it is illegal to alter or remove the nameplate without the permission of the forklift manufacturer, an important aspect of forklift operation is that it must have rear-wheel steering
Fork lifts
–
A
US airman operating a Hyster forklift
Fork lifts
–
A forklift truck being used during World War II
Fork lifts
–
Forklift cab with control layout.
Fork lifts
–
Dedicated container forklift of the
HMNZS Canterbury vessel of the
New Zealand Navy
13.
Gravity
–
Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass are brought toward one another, including planets, stars and galaxies. Since energy and mass are equivalent, all forms of energy, including light, on Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects and causes the ocean tides. Gravity has a range, although its effects become increasingly weaker on farther objects. The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a hole, from which nothing can escape once past its event horizon. More gravity results in time dilation, where time lapses more slowly at a lower gravitational potential. Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of nature, the gravitational attraction is approximately 1038 times weaker than the strong force,1036 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 1029 times weaker than the weak force. As a consequence, gravity has an influence on the behavior of subatomic particles. On the other hand, gravity is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale, for this reason, in part, pursuit of a theory of everything, the merging of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics into quantum gravity, has become an area of research. While the modern European thinkers are credited with development of gravitational theory, some of the earliest descriptions came from early mathematician-astronomers, such as Aryabhata, who had identified the force of gravity to explain why objects do not fall out when the Earth rotates. Later, the works of Brahmagupta referred to the presence of force, described it as an attractive force. Modern work on gravitational theory began with the work of Galileo Galilei in the late 16th and this was a major departure from Aristotles belief that heavier objects have a higher gravitational acceleration. Galileo postulated air resistance as the reason that objects with less mass may fall slower in an atmosphere, galileos work set the stage for the formulation of Newtons theory of gravity. In 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton published Principia, which hypothesizes the inverse-square law of universal gravitation. Newtons theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used to predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that could not be accounted for by the actions of the other planets. Calculations by both John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier predicted the position of the planet. A discrepancy in Mercurys orbit pointed out flaws in Newtons theory, the issue was resolved in 1915 by Albert Einsteins new theory of general relativity, which accounted for the small discrepancy in Mercurys orbit. The simplest way to test the equivalence principle is to drop two objects of different masses or compositions in a vacuum and see whether they hit the ground at the same time. Such experiments demonstrate that all objects fall at the rate when other forces are negligible
Gravity
–
Sir Isaac Newton, an English physicist who lived from 1642 to 1727
Gravity
Gravity
–
Two-dimensional analogy of spacetime distortion generated by the mass of an object. Matter changes the geometry of spacetime, this (curved) geometry being interpreted as gravity. White lines do not represent the curvature of space but instead represent the
coordinate system imposed on the curved spacetime, which would be
rectilinear in a flat spacetime.
Gravity
–
Ball falling freely under gravity. See text for description.
14.
Overhead crane
–
An overhead crane, commonly called a bridge crane, is a type of crane found in industrial environments. An overhead crane consists of parallel runways with a bridge spanning the gap. A hoist, the component of a crane, travels along the bridge. If the bridge is supported on two or more legs running on a fixed rail at ground level, the crane is called a gantry crane or a goliath crane. Unlike mobile or construction cranes, overhead cranes are used for either manufacturing or maintenance applications. Demag Cranes & Components Corp. was one of the first companies in the world to mass-produce the first steam-powered crane. In 1876 Sampson Moore in England designed and supplied the first ever electric overhead crane, since that time Alliance Machine, now defunct, holds an AISE citation for one of the earliest cranes in the USA market. This crane was in service until approximately 1980, and is now in a museum in Birmingham, over the years important innovations, such as the Weston load brake and the wire rope hoist, have come and gone. The original hoist contained components mated together in what is now called the built-up style hoist and these built up hoists are used for heavy-duty applications such as steel coil handling and for users desiring long life and better durability. They also provide for easier maintenance, see the Hoists Manufacturers Institute site for true life calculation which is based on load and hours used. In todays modern world for the North American market there are a few governing bodies for the industry, the Overhead Alliance is a group that represents Crane Manufacturers Association of America, Hoist Manufacturers Institute, and Monorail Manufacturers Association. These product counsels of the Material Handling Industry of America have joined forces to create promotional materials to raise the awareness of the benefits to overhead lifting, the members of this group are marketing representatives of the member companies. 1830, First Crane company in Germany Ludwig Stuckenholz company now Demag Cranes & Components GmbH,1861, the first steam powered overhead crane is installed by John Ramsbottom at the Crewe Railway workshops. Power was transmitted to the crane from a pulley driven by a stationary engine through an endless cotton rope,1887, the Ludwig Stuckenholz company introduces electrical components to overhead cranes determining industry design. 1910, the first mass-produced electric motor hoist starts in Germany, configurations, While sharing major components, overhead cranes are manufactured in a number of configurations based on applications. This is most common type of crane, found in most factories. As obvious from name, these cranes are electrically operated by a control pendant and this type of overhead crane has one end of the bridge mounted on a fixed pivot and the other end carried on an annular track, the bridge traverses the circular area beneath. This offers improvement over a jib crane by making possible a longer reach, Overhead cranes are commonly used in the refinement of steel and other metals such as copper and aluminium
Overhead crane
–
An overhead crane, featuring runways, bridge, and hoist in a traditional industrial environment.
Overhead crane
–
Gantry-style overhead crane at the
Skanska precast concrete factory in
Hjärup
Overhead crane
–
Overhead cranes of the Hainaut carries in
Soignies (
Belgium).
Overhead crane
–
Overhead crane and
hoist (device) mounted on a trolley that can be moved across the bridge beam
15.
Henry Ford
–
Henry Ford was an American industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, and the sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production. Although Ford invented neither the nor the assembly line, he developed and manufactured the first automobile that many middle class Americans could afford. In doing so, Ford converted the automobile from an expensive curiosity into a practical conveyance that would impact the landscape of the 20th Century. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry, as the owner of the Ford Motor Company, he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with Fordism, mass production of inexpensive goods coupled with high wages for workers, Ford had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the Ford Foundation, Ford was also widely known for his pacifism during the first years of World War I, and for promoting antisemitism through his newspaper The Dearborn Independent and the book The International Jew. Henry Ford was born July 30,1863, on a farm in Greenfield Township, Henry Fords siblings were Margaret Ford, Jane Ford, William Ford and Robert Ford. His father gave him a watch in his early teens. At 15, Ford dismantled and reassembled the timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times, at twenty, Ford walked four miles to their Episcopal church every Sunday. Ford was devastated when his mother died in 1876 and his father expected him to eventually take over the family farm, but he despised farm work. He later wrote, I never had any love for the farm—it was the mother on the farm I loved. In 1879, Ford left home to work as an apprentice machinist in Detroit, flower & Bros. and later with the Detroit Dry Dock Co. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and he was later hired by Westinghouse to service their steam engines. During this period Ford also studied bookkeeping at Goldsmith, Bryant & Stratton Business College in Detroit, Ford married Clara Jane Bryant on April 11,1888 and supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had one child, Edsel Ford, in 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company. After his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and these experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of a self-propelled vehicle which he named the Ford Quadricycle. He test-drove it on June 4, after various test drives, Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle. Also in 1896, Ford attended a meeting of Edison executives, Edison approved of Fords automobile experimentation
Henry Ford
–
Ford in 1919
Henry Ford
–
Henry Ford with
Thomas Edison and
Harvey Firestone.
Fort Myers, Florida, February 11, 1929.
Henry Ford
–
Ford assembly line, 1913
Henry Ford
–
Time magazine, January 14, 1935
16.
Car
–
A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
Car
–
Benz "Velo" model (1894) by German inventor
Carl Benz – entered into an
early automobile race as a
motocycle
Car
–
A modern car,
BMW E90
Car
–
Cugnot's 1771 fardier à vapeur, as preserved at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris
Car
–
Karl Benz, the inventor of the modern car
17.
Car engine
–
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
Car engine
–
Diagram of a cylinder as found in 4-stroke gasoline engines.: C –
crankshaft. E – exhaust
camshaft. I – inlet
camshaft. P –
piston. R –
connecting rod. S –
spark plug. V –
valves. red: exhaust, blue: intake. W –
cooling water jacket. gray structure –
engine block.
Car engine
–
Reciprocating engine as found inside a car
Car engine
–
Big Diesel generator used for backup power
Car engine
–
Combined cycle power plant
18.
Hood (vehicle)
–
The hood or bonnet is the hinged cover over the engine of motor vehicles that allows access to the engine compartment for maintenance and repair. In British terminology, hood refers to a cover over the passenger compartment of the car. On passenger cars, a hood may be held down by a concealed latch and it is designed to protect a car from thefts, damage and sudden hood opening on the road. The hood release system is common on the most of vehicles and usually consists of interior hood latch handle, hood release cable, the hood latch handle is usually located below the steering wheel, beside the drivers seat or set into the door frame. When a driver pulls a hood latch handle the hood panel pops up, on race cars or cars with aftermarket hoods the hood may be held down by hood pins. A hood may sometimes contain a hood ornament, hood scoop, power bulge, hoods are typically made out of steel, but aluminum is rapidly gaining popularity with auto companies. Aftermarket manufacturers may construct hoods out of fiberglass, carbon fiber, dry carbon, aftermarket hoods are usually sold unpainted or come primered in flat matte black paint. It means that such hoods require additional painting, to choose a paint that match vehicles original shade and hue, special color code is used. This code is printed in the label that is located under the hood or on the driver side door jamb. Some car owners however prefer to leave their black primed hoods unpainted, carbon fiber custom hoods require no painting, as they already come with protective clear coating. In Japan and Europe, regulations have come into effect in recent years that place a limit on the severity of head injury when struck by a motor vehicle. This is leading to more advanced designs, as evidenced by multicone hood inner panel designs as found on the Mazda RX-8. Other changes are being made to use the hood as an active structure and this may be achieved by mechanical or pyrotechnic devices
Hood (vehicle)
–
A flipfront provides easy access to the engine bay (
Saab Sonett)
Hood (vehicle)
Hood (vehicle)
Hood (vehicle)
19.
Wheel
–
A wheel is a circular component that is intended to rotate on an axle bearing. The wheel is one of the components of the wheel. Wheels, in conjunction with axles, allow heavy objects to be moved easily facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load, wheels are also used for other purposes, such as a ships wheel, steering wheel, potters wheel and flywheel. Common examples are found in transport applications, a wheel greatly reduces friction by facilitating motion by rolling together with the use of axles. In order for wheels to rotate, a moment needs to be applied to the wheel about its axis, cognates within Indo-European include Icelandic hjól wheel, tyre, Greek κύκλος kúklos, and Sanskrit chakra, the latter both meaning circle or wheel. The invention of the falls into the late Neolithic. Note that this implies the passage of several wheel-less millennia even after the invention of agriculture and of pottery, precursors of wheels, known as tournettes or slow wheels, were known in the Middle East by the 5th millennium BCE. These were made of stone or clay and secured to the ground with a peg in the center, but required effort to turn. True potters wheels were apparently in use in Mesopotamia by 3500 BCE and possibly as early as 4000 BCE, and the oldest surviving example, which was found in Ur, dates to approximately 3100 BCE. The earliest well-dated depiction of a vehicle is on the Bronocice pot. The oldest securely dated real wheel-axle combination, that from Stare Gmajne near Ljubljana in Slovenia is now dated in 2σ-limits to 3340–3030 BCE, the axle to 3360–3045 BCE. Two types of early Neolithic European wheel and axle are known, a type of wagon construction. They both are dated to c, in China, the wheel was certainly present with the adoption of the chariot in c.1200 BCE, although Barbieri-Low argues for earlier Chinese wheeled vehicles, c.2000 BC. In Britain, a wooden wheel, measuring about 1 m in diameter, was uncovered at the Must Farm site in East Anglia in 2016. The specimen, dating from 1, 100–800 years BCE, represents the most complete, the wheels hub is also present. A horses spine found nearby suggests the wheel may have part of a horse-drawn cart. The wheel was found in a settlement built on stilts over wetland and it is thought that the primary obstacle to large-scale development of the wheel in the Americas was the absence of domesticated large animals which could be used to pull wheeled carriages. The only large animal that was domesticated in the Western hemisphere, Nubians from after about 400 BCE used wheels for spinning pottery and as water wheels
Wheel
–
Three wheels on an antique
tricycle
Wheel
–
A depiction of an
onager -drawn cart on the
Sumerian "battle standard of
Ur " (c. 2500 BC)
Wheel
–
A figurine featuring the
New World 's independently invented wheel
Wheel
–
An
aluminium alloy wheel
20.
Industrial Revolution
–
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
Industrial Revolution
–
A
Watt steam engine. The
steam engine, made of iron and fueled primarily by
coal, became widely used in the
United Kingdom during the Industrial Revolution.
Industrial Revolution
–
Iron and Coal, 1855–60, by
William Bell Scott illustrates the rise of coal and iron working in the Industrial Revolution and the heavy engineering projects they made possible.
Industrial Revolution
–
Model of the
spinning jenny in a museum in
Wuppertal. Invented by
James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.
Industrial Revolution
–
The only surviving example of a
spinning mule built by the inventor
Samuel Crompton.
21.
Artisan
–
Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist. The adjective artisanal is sometimes used in describing hand-processing in what is viewed as an industrial process. Thus, artisanal is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a word to describe or imply some relation with the crafting of handmade food products, such as bread. Many of these have traditionally been handmade, rural or pastoral goods but are now commonly made on a larger scale with automated mechanization in factories. Artisans were the dominant producers of products prior to the Industrial Revolution. In ancient Greece, artisans were drawn to agoras and often built workshops nearby, during the Middle Ages, the term artisan was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers, Artisans were divided into two distinct groups, those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. Those who owned their businesses were called masters, while the latter were the journeymen, one misunderstanding many people have about this social group is that they picture them as workers in the modern sense, employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners, the owners enjoyed a higher social status in their communities. Shokunin is a Japanese word for artisan or craftsman, which implies a pride in ones own work. In the words of shokunin Tashio Odate, Shokunin means not only having technical skill, a social obligation to work his best for the general welfare of the people, obligation both material and spiritual. Applied art Artist Arts and Crafts movement Caste — Tarkhan Guild Handicraft The dictionary definition of artisan at Wiktionary History of Artisans
Artisan
–
Glassblowing artisans at work in a
crystal glass workshop
Artisan
–
Craftsman of salt in Salinas Grandes,
Salta province (
Argentina)
Artisan
–
An artist blacksmith and a striker working as one
Artisan
–
Wood carver in Bali
22.
File (tool)
–
A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It is common in woodworking, metalworking, and other similar trade, most are hand tools, made of a case hardened steel bar of rectangular, square, triangular, or round cross-section, with one or more surfaces cut with sharp, generally parallel teeth. A narrow, pointed tang is common at one end, to which a handle may be fitted, a rasp is a form of file with distinct, individually cut teeth used for coarsely removing large amounts of material. Files have also developed with abrasive surfaces, such as natural or synthetic diamond grains or silicon carbide, allowing removal of material that would dull or resist metal. Relatedly, lapping is also ancient, with wood and beach sand offering a natural pair of lap. The Disston authors state, To abrade, or file, ancient man used sand, grit, coral, bone, fish skin, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age had various kinds of files and rasps. Archaeologists have discovered rasps made from bronze in Egypt, dating back to the years 1200–1000 BC, archaeologists have also discovered rasps made of iron used by the Assyrians, dating back to the 7th Century BC. During the Middle Ages files were already advanced, thanks to the extensive talents of blacksmiths. By the 11th century, there already existed hardened files that would seem quite modern even to todays eyes. For example, in the 13th century, ornamental iron work at Paris was done skillfully with the aid of files, but the process was a secret known only to a master craftsman. The Disston authors state, It was not until the fourteenth century, however, that those who practiced art in ironwork began to use tools, besides heat. This statement could mislead in the sense that stoning and lapping have never been rare activities among humans, but by the late Middle Ages, however, the transition was extensive. The Disston authors mention Nuremberg, Sheffield, and Remscheid as leading centers of production for files as well as tools in general, the activity in Remscheid reflects the metalworking spirit of the Rhine-Ruhr region in general rather than representing a single village of geniuses in isolation. Most files of the period were smithed by hand in a sequence in which the iron was forged, then the teeth were cut with a chisel, among the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci is a sketch of a machine tool for the cutting of files. Prior to the industrialization of machining and the development of parts during the 19th century. Component parts were roughly shaped by forging, casting, and by primitive machining operations and these components were then individually hand-fit for assembly by careful and deliberate filing. The potential precision of fitting is much higher than generally assumed. Locks, clocks, and firearms were manufactured in this way for centuries before the Industrial Revolution, machining in the mid-19th century was heavily dependent on filing, because milling practice was slowly evolving out of its infancy
File (tool)
–
Detail of a double-cut flat file
File (tool)
–
Relative tooth sizes for smooth, 2nd cut and bastard files
File (tool)
–
A selection of diamond impregnated files
File (tool)
–
A selection of small needle files
23.
Knives
–
A knife is a tool with a cutting edge or blade, hand-held or otherwise, with most having a handle. Some types of knives are used as utensils, including knives used at the dining table, many types of knives are used as tools, such as the utility knife carried by soldiers, the pocket knife carried by hikers and the hunting knife used by hunters. Knives are also used as a traditional or religious implement, such as the kirpan, some types of knives are used as weapons, such as daggers or switchblades. Some types of knives are used as sports equipment, Knives are also used in agriculture, food harvesting etc. the sickle, the scythe and even the combine harvester are knives. Knife-like tools were used at least two-and-a-half million years ago, as evidenced by the Oldowan tools. Originally made of rock, bone, flint, and obsidian, knives have evolved in construction as technology has, with blades being made from bronze, copper, iron, steel, ceramics, many cultures have their unique version of the knife. Due to its role as humankinds first tool, certain cultures have attached spiritual, most modern-day knives follow either a fixed-blade or a folding construction style, with blade patterns and styles as varied as their makers and countries of origin. The word knife possibly descends from an old Norse word knifr for blade, single-edged knives may have a reverse edge or false edge occupying a section of the spine. These edges are serrated and are used to further enhance function. The handle, used to grip and manipulate the blade safely, may include a tang, Knives are made with partial tangs or full tangs. The handle may include a bolster, a piece of heavy material situated at the front or rear of the handle, the bolster, as its name suggests, is used to mechanically strengthen the knife. Knife blades can be manufactured from a variety of materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages, carbon steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, can be very sharp. It holds its edge well, and remains easy to sharpen, stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, possibly nickel, and molybdenum, with only a small amount of carbon. It is not able to quite as sharp an edge as carbon steel. High carbon stainless steel is steel with a higher amount of carbon, intended to incorporate the better attributes of carbon steel. High carbon stainless steel blades do not discolor or stain, laminate blades use multiple metals to create a layered sandwich, combining the attributes of both. For example, a harder, more brittle steel may be sandwiched between a layer of softer, tougher, stainless steel to reduce vulnerability to corrosion. In this case, however, the part most affected by corrosion, pattern-welding is similar to laminate construction
Knives
–
A Bowie-class knife of pattern-welded steel
Knives
–
A butter knife resting on a stand
Knives
–
Characteristic parts of a knife
Knives
–
Knife blade mass production
24.
Craft production
–
Craft production is the process of manufacturing by hand with or without the aid of tools. In the craft manufacturing process, the product is unique. While the product may be of high quality, the uniqueness can be detrimental as seen in the case of early automobiles. Womack, Jones and Roos in the book The Machine That Changed the World detailed that early automobiles were craft produced, because each vehicle was unique, replacement parts had to be manufactured from scratch or at least customized to fit a specific vehicle. The advent of Mass production and the standardization of replacement parts guaranteed a parts compatibility with a variety of vehicle models, Mass production has many drawbacks to craft production, including that production quality can be lower than a craft-produced item. For example, in some automobile manufacturing facilities, craftsmen rework flawed, mass-produced vehicles to give the appearance of a quality product. Lean manufacturing aims to bring back or exceed the quality of craft production, craft production is a part of the informal economy in many cities, such as Istanbul, Turkey where the informal craft economy is a vital source of income for the Turkish craftspeople. Craft markets are highly dependent on interactions, and verbal training which results in variations in the goods produced. Often, the economy consists of craft neighbourhoods, by which a community is structured on the craft activity present in the area. Often used in the household, many craft goods such as historic Muman Pottery in Korea, changes in the craft economies have often coincided with changes in household organization, and social transformations, as in Korea in the Early to Middle Mumun Period. The production of crafts have a high technical demand, and therefore require full-time specialization of the skill-set in the form of workshops, or verbal. The verbal interaction between teacher and student encourages strong social bonds, which leads to cohesive communities, typical of modern day craft communities. Craft economies are highly related to place, craft-specialization explores how portable goods are integral to the social relations of a community, and links groups of people together through the creation of tangible items. Places where craft economic activity is taking place indicate strong linkages between sociopolitical organization and societal complexity and these communities are often tight-knit, with strong linkages to materials produced and sold, as well as mutual respect for fellow tradesmen in the market place. Artisan Batch production Craftsmanship Lean manufacturing Mass production Preorder economy Roos, Daniel, the Machine That Changed the World, The Story of Lean Production, Harper Perennial, ISBN 978-0060974176
Craft production
–
A craftsman making boxes in the manner of the 19th century
Shakers.
25.
Mass-produced
–
Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
Mass-produced
–
Mass production of
Consolidated B-32 Dominator airplanes at
Consolidated Aircraft Plant No. 4, near Fort Worth, Texas, during World War II.
Mass-produced
–
A modern
automobile assembly line.
Mass-produced
–
The assembly plant of the Bell Aircraft Corporation in 1944. Note parts of
overhead crane at both sides of photo near top.
Mass-produced
–
Ford assembly line, 1913. The magneto assembly line was the first.
26.
Adam Smith
–
Adam Smith FRSA was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and author. He was a philosopher, a pioneer of political economy. He is best known for two works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and An Inquiry into the Nature. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, after graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote, in his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of free market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of division of labour, Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in the moralising tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time, the minor planet 12838 Adamsmith was named in his memory. Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife and his father, also Adam Smith, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet, advocate, and prosecutor and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy. In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry and his father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow. The date of Smiths baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723, and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth, Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, in 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition. Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, according to William Robert Scott, The Oxford of time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework. Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown
Adam Smith
–
Adam Smith
Adam Smith
–
Portrait of Smith's mother, Margaret Douglas
Adam Smith
–
David Hume was a friend and contemporary of Smith.
Adam Smith
–
François Quesnay, one of the leaders of the
Physiocratic school of thought
27.
Pins
–
A pin is a device used for fastening objects or material together. Pins often have two components, a body and sharp tip made of steel, or occasionally copper or brass. The sharpened body penetrates the material, while the larger head provides a driving surface and it is formed by drawing out a thin wire, sharpening the tip, and adding a head. Nails are related, but are typically larger, in machines and engineering, pins are commonly used as pivots, hinges, shafts, jigs, and fixtures to locate or hold parts. The development of the pin closely paralleled that of its perforated counterpart, archaeological evidence suggests that curved sewing pins have been used for over four thousand years. Originally, these were fashioned out of iron and bone by the Sumerians and were used to hold clothes together, later, pins were also used to hold pages of books together by threading the needle through their top corner. Many later pins were made of brass, a relatively hard and this development was followed by the use of steel which was much stronger but tended to rust when exposed to humid air. The development of inexpensive electroplating techniques allowed the steel to be plated with nickel, nickel did not rust, but tended to flake off the steel in humid weather, again allowing it to rust. Note, however, that some modern specialty pins are made out of rust-proof, walter Hunt invented the safety pin by forming an eight-inch brass pin into a bent pin with a spring and guard. He sold the rights to his invention to pay a debt to a friend, the push pin was invented in 1900 by Edwin Moore and quickly became a success. These pins are also called thumbtacks, there is also a new push pin called a paper cricket. Thin, hardened pins can be driven into wood with a hammer with the goal of not being seen, a different style pin, somewhat thicker,2 cm short and with rounded tip is used with gramophones. The vibration of the stylus transforms the physical waves of the groove in a record to the movement of a membrane, in this way the sound recorded can be heard. In engineering and machine design, a pin is an element that secures the position of two or more parts of a machine relative to each other. A large variety of types has been known for a long time, clevis pin Cotter pin Spring pin Split pin Henry Petroski, The Evolution of Useful Things, Chapter 4. Robert Parmley, Standard handbook of fastening and joining
Pins
–
A collection of push-pins in a
cork board
Pins
–
A bobby pin
28.
The Wealth of Nations
–
First published in 1776, the book offers one of the worlds first collected descriptions of what builds nations wealth, and is today a fundamental work in classical economics. By reflecting upon the economics at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the touches upon such broad topics as the division of labour, productivity. An important theme that persists throughout the work is the idea that the system is automatic, and. This is often referred to as the “invisible hand, the Wealth of Nations was published 9 March 1776, during the Scottish Enlightenment and the Scottish Agricultural Revolution. It influenced a number of authors and economists, as well as governments, for example, Alexander Hamilton was influenced in part by The Wealth of Nations to write his Report on Manufactures, in which he argued against many of Smiths policies. Interestingly, Hamilton based much of this report on the ideas of Jean-Baptiste Colbert and it provided the foundation for new economists, politicians, mathematicians, biologists, and thinkers of all fields to build upon. Five editions of The Wealth of Nations were published during Smiths lifetime, in 1776,1778,1784,1786, numerous editions appeared after Smiths death in 1790. To better understand the evolution of the work under Smiths hand, the differences were published along with an edited sixth edition in 1904. They found minor but numerous differences between the first and the editions, both of which were published in two volumes. Among other things, the Additions and Corrections included entirely new sections, finally, Cannan notes only trivial differences between the fourth and fifth editions – a set of misprints being removed from the fourth and a different set of misprints being introduced. The first edition of the sold out in six months. Strahan also wrote, What you say of Mr. Gibbons, gibbon wrote to Adam Ferguson on 1 April, What an excellent work is that with which our common friend Mr. Adam Smith has enriched the public. An extensive science in a book, and the most profound ideas expressed in the most perspicuous language. The review of the book in the Annual Register was probably written by Whig MP Edmund Burke, Smiths biographer John Rae contends that The Wealth of Nations shaped government policy soon after it was published. In 1777 the Prime Minister, Lord North, in the first budget after the book was published, the budget of 1778 introduced the inhabited house duty and the malt tax, both recommended by Smith. In 1779 Smith was consulted by politicians Henry Dundas and Lord Carlisle on the subject of giving Ireland free trade, in that book it was stated that the only way to become rich was to manage matters so as to make ones income exceed ones expenses. This maxim applied equally to an individual and to a nation, the proper line of conduct therefore was by a well-directed economy to retrench every current expense, and to make as large a saving during the peace as possible. In 1796 when Fox was dining with Lord Lauderdale, Lauderdale remarked that they knew nothing of political economy before Adam Smith wrote, pooh, replied Fox, your Adam Smiths are nothing, but that is his love, we must spare him there
The Wealth of Nations
–
The Wealth of Nations
The Wealth of Nations
–
Bust of Smith in the Adam Smith Theatre, Kirkcaldy
The Wealth of Nations
–
Bustling with work and activity, "The Wealth of the Nation" by
Seymour Fogel is an interpretation of the theme of Social Security.
29.
Venetian Arsenal
–
The Venetian Arsenal is a complex of former shipyards and armories clustered together in the city of Venice in northern Italy. Owned by the state, the Arsenal was responsible for the bulk of the Venetian republics naval power during the part of the second millennium AD. It was one of the earliest large-scale industrial enterprises in history, construction of the Arsenal began around 1104, during Venices republican era. It became the largest industrial complex in Europe before the Industrial Revolution, spanning an area of about 45 hectares, surrounded by a 2-mile rampart, laborers and shipbuilders regularly worked within the Arsenal, building ships that sailed from the citys port. These parts could then be assembled into a ship in as little as one day, an exclusive forest owned by the Arsenal navy, in the Montello hills area of Veneto, provided the Arsenals wood supply. It is located in the Castello district of Venice, and it is now owned by the state and it definitely existed by the early 13th century. Initially the state dockyard worked merely to maintain privately built naval ships and it enabled all the states navy and the larger merchant ships to be both constructed and maintained in one place. The Arsenal incidentally became an important center for manufacture. Venice developed methods of mass-producing warships in the Arsenal, including the frame-first system to replace the Roman hull-first practice and this new system was much faster and required less wood. The muzzle velocity of handguns was improved beyond that of the crossbow, the Arsenals main gate, the Porta Magna, was built around 1460 and was the first Classical revival structure built in Venice. It was perhaps built by Antonio Gambello from a design by Jacopo Bellini, two lions taken from Greece situated beside it were added in 1687. One of the lions, known as the Piraeus Lion, has runic defacements carved in it by invading Scandinavian mercenaries during the 11th century, in the late 16th century, the Arsenals designers experimented with larger ships as platforms for heavy naval guns. The largest was the galleass, already used at the Battle of Lepanto against the Ottoman Turks and it was huge, propelled by both sails and oars, with guns mounted on wheeled carriages along the sides in the modern fashion. It was slow and unwieldy in battle, however, and few were ever built, the galleon, also developed at the Arsenal, was an armed sailing ship, a slimmer version of the merchant round ship. It was useful in naval battles, but not in the small bays. Significant parts of the Arsenal were destroyed under Napoleonic rule, and it is also used as a research center and an exhibition venue during the Venice Biennale, and is home to a historic boat preservation center. The Arsenal was something different, a harbinger of future times, the Venetian Arsenal was not the mass production facility that it was to be until about 1320 with the creation of the Arsenale Nuovo. The Arsenale Nuovo was simply a larger and more efficient version of the original, prior to this time the Arsenal had served mainly as a place to maintain privately built ships
Venetian Arsenal
–
The Porta Magna at the Venetian Arsenal.
Venetian Arsenal
–
View of the Entrance to the Arsenal by
Canaletto, 1732.
Venetian Arsenal
–
Statue of Galileo Galilei.
Venetian Arsenal
–
The
Venetian arsenal at Govino Bay,
Corfu
30.
Galley
–
A galley is a type of ship that is propelled mainly by rowing. The galley is characterized by its long, slender hull, shallow draft, virtually all types of galleys had sails that could be used in favorable winds, but human strength was always the primary method of propulsion. This allowed galleys to navigate independently of winds and currents, Galleys were the warships used by the early Mediterranean naval powers, including the Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans. They remained the dominant types of vessels used for war and piracy in the Mediterranean Sea until the last decades of the 16th century and they were the first ships to effectively use heavy cannons as anti-ship weapons. As highly efficient gun platforms they forced changes in the design of medieval seaside fortresses as well as refinement of sailing warships. The zenith of galley usage in warfare came in the late 16th century with battles like that at Lepanto in 1571, by the 17th century, however, sailing ships and hybrid ships like the xebec displaced galleys in naval warfare. From the mid-16th century galleys were in intermittent use in the Baltic Sea, with its short distances, there was a minor revival of galley warfare in the 18th century in the wars between Russia, Sweden and Denmark. The term galley derives from the medieval Greek galea, a version of the dromon. The origin of the Greek word is unclear but could possibly be related to galeos, the word galley has been attested in English from c. It was only from the 16th century that a unified galley concept came in use, before that, particularly in antiquity, there was a wide variety of terms used for different types of galleys. Ancient galleys were named according to the number of oars, the number of banks of oars or lines of rowers, the terms are based on contemporary language use combined with more recent compounds of Greek and Latin words. The earliest Greek single-banked galleys are called triaconters and penteconters, for later galleys with more than one row of oars, the terminology is based on Latin numerals with the suffix -reme from rēmus, oar. A monoreme has one bank of oars, a two and a trireme three. Since the maximum banks of oars was three, any expansion above that did not refer to additional banks of oars, but of additional rowers for every oar. Quinquereme was literally a five-oar, but actually meant that there were several rowers to certain banks of oars which made up five lines of oar handlers, for simplicity, they have by many modern scholars been referred to as fives, sixes, eights, elevens, etc. Anything above six or seven rows of rowers was not common, any galley with more than three or four lines of rowers is often referred to as a polyreme. Oared military vessels built on the British Isles in the 11th to 13th centuries were based on Scandinavian designs, many of them were similar to birlinns, close relatives of longship types like the snekkja. By the 14th century, they were replaced with balingers in southern Britain while longship-type Irish galleys remained in use throughout the Middle Ages in northern Britain, Medieval and early modern galleys used a different terminology than their ancient predecessors
Galley
–
A model of a Maltese design typical of the 16th century, the last great era of the war galley
Galley
–
The English-built
Charles Galley, a "galley frigate" built in the 1670s. It was not a "true" galley, but the term still became part of its name due to its oars.
Galley
–
Watercolor of United States ships at the
battle of Valcour Island, depicting several "
row galleys "; similar function, but based on very different designs than Mediterranean galleys.
Galley
–
Assyrian warship, a
bireme with pointed bow. 700 BC
31.
Textile
–
A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
Textile
–
Sunday textile market on the sidewalks of
Karachi, Pakistan
Textile
–
Simple textile (magnified)
Textile
–
A small fabric shop in
Al-Mukalla, Yemen
Textile
–
Late antique textile,
Egyptian, now in the
Dumbarton Oaks collection
32.
Firearm
–
A firearm is a portable gun - a barreled weapon that launches one or more projectiles, often driven by the action of an explosive force. The first primitive firearms originated in 13th-century China when the fire lance was combined with projectiles. The technology gradually spread through the rest of East Asia, South Asia, older firearms typically used black powder as a propellant, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants. Most modern firearms have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability, modern firearms can be described by their caliber or in the case of shotguns their gauge, by the type of action employed together with the usual means of deportment. The word firearms usually is used in a sense restricted to small arms, shooters aim firearms at their targets with hand-eye co-ordination, using either iron sights or optical sights. The accurate range of pistols generally does not exceed 100 yards, while most rifles are accurate to 550 yards using iron sights, some purpose-built sniper rifles are accurate to ranges of more than 2,200 yards. The smallest of all firearms is the handgun, there are three common types of handguns, single-shot pistols, revolvers, and semi-automatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers or charge holes in a revolving cylinder, semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. Each press of the fires a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. This is opposed to double-action revolvers which accomplish the end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger pull. Prior to the 19th century, virtually all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders, with the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted revolvers in military applications by the end of World War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, both designs are common among civilian gun owners, depending on the owners intention. A long gun is any firearm that is larger than a handgun and is designed to be held. Early long arms, from the Renaissance up to the century, were generally smoothbore firearms that fired one or more ball shot. Most modern long guns are either rifles or shotguns, both are the successors of the musket, diverging from their parent weapon in distinct ways. A rifle is so named for the spiral fluting machined into the surface of its barrel. Shotguns are predominantly smoothbore firearms designed to fire a number of shot, shotguns are also capable of firing single slugs, or specialty rounds such as bean bags, tear gas or breaching rounds
Firearm
–
US Navy sailor shoots a firearm at a target.
Firearm
–
A
Colt Single Action Army revolver
Firearm
–
A
Glock 17 semi-automatic
pistol
Firearm
–
Springfield Armory
M1903 rifle
33.
Clockmaking
–
A clockmaker is an artisan who makes and/or repairs clocks. Since almost all clocks are now factory-made, most modern clockmakers only repair clocks, modern clockmakers may be employed by jewellers, antique shops, and places devoted strictly to repairing clocks and watches. The trade requires fine motor coordination as clockmakers must frequently work on devices with small gears, originally, clockmakers were master craftsmen who designed and built clocks by hand. A qualified clockmaker can typically design and make a piece for a clock without access to the original component. Clockmakers generally do not work on watches, the skills and tools required are different enough that watchmaking is a field, handled by another specialist. The earliest use of the term clokkemaker is said to date from 1390, from the beginning in the 15th century through the 17th century, clockmaking was considered the leading edge, most technically advanced trade existing. Historically, the best clockmakers often also built instruments, as for a long time they were the only craftsmen around trained in designing precision mechanical apparatus. In one example, the harmonica was invented by a young German clockmaker, prior to 1800 clocks were entirely handmade, including all their parts, in a single shop under a master clockmaker. Examples of these complex movements can be seen in the many longcase clocks constructed in the 16th and 17th centuries. By the 19th century, clock parts were beginning to be made in factories, but the skilled work of designing, assembling. By the 20th century, interchangeable parts and standardized designs allowed the clock to be assembled in factories. As the art of making clocks became widespread and distinguished. There are many guilds where clockmakers meet to buy, sell and get clocks to repair from customers, early clockmakers fashioned all the intricate parts and wheelwork of clocks by hand, using hand tools. They developed specialized tools to help them, balance Truing Caliper, This device was used in fashioning the wheels and gearwork of the clock, to make sure the wheel, particularly the balance wheel was balanced and circular. The pivots of the wheel were mounted in the caliper, an index arm was moved next to the edge and the wheel was spun to see if the edge was true. Die/Screw Plate, The die plate was used to cut threads on small screws and it had a number of threaded die holes of different sizes for making different threads. A piece of wire was inserted in a hole and turned to cut a thread on the end, then a head would be formed on the other end of the wire to make a screw. File, Hardened steel files were used to shape the metal before it was used to make, there were many variations of files
Clockmaking
–
The statue of the clockmaker (Jean Cuypers - 19th century) -
Brussels.
Clockmaking
–
Woodcut of medieval clockmakers, 1568.
Clockmaking
–
Lateral view of a
Timothy Mason (clockmaker) longcase clock movement with striking mechanism, circa: 1730
Clockmaking
–
View inside the
Relojes Centenario factory in
Zacatlán, Puebla Mexico
34.
Horse-drawn vehicle
–
A horse-drawn vehicle is a mechanized piece of equipment pulled by one horse or by a team of horses. These vehicles typically had two or four wheels and were used to carry passengers and/or a load and they were once common worldwide, but they have mostly been replaced by automobiles and other forms of self-propelled transport. A two-wheeled horse-drawn vehicle is a cart, four-wheeled vehicles have many names – one for heavy loads is most commonly called a wagon. Very light carts and wagons can also be pulled by donkeys, other smaller animals are occasionally used, such as large dogs, llamas and goats. Heavy wagons, carts and agricultural implements can also be pulled by other large animals such as oxen, water buffalo, yaks or even camels. Vehicles pulled by one animal have two shafts which attach either side of the rearmost animal, Vehicles which are pulled by a pair have a pole which attaches between the wheel pair. Other arrangements are possible, for example three or more abreast, a wheel pair with a single lead animal, or a wheel pair with three lead animals abreast. Very heavy loads sometimes had a team behind to slow the vehicle down steep hills. Sometimes at a hill with frequent traffic such a team would be hired to passing wagons to help them up or down the hill. Two-wheeled vehicles are balanced by the distribution of weight of the load over the axle, four-wheeled vehicles remain level on their own, and so the shafts or pole are hinged vertically, allowing them to rise and fall with the movement of the animals. A four-wheeled vehicle is steered by the shafts or pole, which are attached to the front axle. Ambulance, much the purpose as the modern sense. Details of the varied but would be a lightly built and well-sprung, enclosed vehicle with provision for seated casualties. Barouche, an elegant, high-slung, open carriage with a seat in the rear of the body and a bench at the front for the driver. Berlin Brake Britzka Brougham Buckboard Bus, see omnibus Buggy, a light, open, four-wheeled carriage, joseph Hansom based the design of his public hire vehicle on the cabriolet so the name cab stuck to vehicles for public hire. Cabriolet Calash or Calèshe, see barouche, cape cart Cariole Carriage, in the late eighteenth century, roughly equivalent to the modern word vehicle. It later came to be restricted to vehicle and even to private. This last is the adopted by the linked article
Horse-drawn vehicle
–
A horse tram (
horsecar) in
Danzig,
Germany (present day
Gdańsk,
Poland)
Horse-drawn vehicle
–
Petroglyph of a chariot in Parco nazionale delle incisioni rupestri di Naquane,
Capo di Ponte.
Horse-drawn vehicle
–
A horse and buggy circa 1910
Horse-drawn vehicle
–
Resting coachmen at a Fiaker (fiacre) in
Vienna
35.
Locomotive
–
A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles and these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains. Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front, however, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive at the front, at the rear, or at each end. Prior to locomotives, the force for railroads had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power. The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick, in 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 long tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles, the locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside in northern England, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murrays rack locomotive, Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the locomotives of Trevithick. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives, Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers, in 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials and this success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. The first inter city passenger railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, there are a few basic reasons to isolate locomotive train power, as compared to self-propelled vehicles. Maximum utilization of power cars Separate locomotives facilitate movement of costly motive power assets as needed, flexibility Large locomotives can substitute for small locomotives when more power is required, for example, where grades are steeper. As needed, a locomotive can be used for freight duties. Obsolescence cycles Separating motive power from payload-hauling cars enables replacement without affecting the other, to illustrate, locomotives might become obsolete when their associated cars did not, and vice versa
Locomotive
–
Three body styles of
diesel locomotive:
cab unit,
hood unit and
box cab. These locomotives are operated by
Pacific National in
Australia.
Locomotive
–
R class steam locomotive number R707 as operated by the
Victorian Railways of
Australia.
Locomotive
–
A
Green Cargo RC 4 class
electric locomotive repainted in its original livery for the
Swedish 150-year railway anniversary in 2006.
Locomotive
–
The first passenger railway, the
Liverpool and Manchester Railway, in
England.
36.
Sewing machine
–
A sewing machine is a machine used to stitch fabric and other materials together with thread. Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies, home sewing machines are designed for one person to sew individual items while using a single stitch type. Industrial sewing machines, by contrast to machines, are larger, faster, and more varied in their size, cost, appearance. Charles Fredrick Wiesenthal, a German-born engineer working in England was awarded the first British patent for a device to aid the art of sewing. His invention consisted of a pointed needle with an eye at one end. In 1790, the English inventor Thomas Saint invented the first sewing machine design and his machine was meant to be used on leather and canvas material. His sewing machine used the chain stitch method, in which the machine uses a thread to make simple stitches in the fabric. Saints machine was designed to aid the manufacture of leather goods, including saddles and bridles, but it was also capable of working with canvas. Although his machine was advanced for the era, the concept would need steady improvement over the coming decades before it could become a practical proposition. In 1804, a machine was built by the Englishmen Thomas Stone and James Henderson. An Austrian tailor, Josef Madersperger, began developing his first sewing machine in 1807 and he presented his first working machine in 1814. The first practical and widely used sewing machine was invented by Barthélemy Thimonnier, the patent for his machine was issued on 17 July 1830, and in the same year, he opened the first machine-based clothing manufacturing company in the world to create army uniforms for the French Army. However, the factory was burned down, reportedly by workers fearful of losing their following the issuing of the patent. A model of the machine is exhibited at the London Science Museum, the machine is made of wood and uses a barbed needle which passes downward through the cloth to grab the thread and pull it up to form a loop to be locked by the next loop. The first American lockstitch sewing machine was invented by Walter Hunt in 1832 and his machine used an eye-pointed needle carrying the upper thread and a falling shuttle carrying the lower thread. The curved needle moved through the fabric horizontally, leaving the loop as it withdrew, the shuttle passed through the loop, interlocking the thread. The feed let the machine down, requiring the machine to be stopped frequently, Hunt eventually lost interest in his machine and sold individual machines without bothering to patent his invention, and only patenting it at a late date of 1854. In 1842, John Greenough patented the first sewing machine in the United States, the British partners Newton and Archibold introduced the eye-pointed needle and the use of two pressing surfaces to keep the pieces of fabric in position, in 1841
Sewing machine
–
Diagram of a modern sewing machine
Sewing machine
–
Elliptic sewing machine with elliptic hook and stationary bobbin, American Institute Fair, 1862
Sewing machine
–
Singer treadle sewing machine
Sewing machine
–
An 1880 machine from the Wheeler and Wilson Company
37.
Bicycle
–
A bicycle, often called a bike or cycle, is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or bicyclist, Bicycles were introduced in the 19th century in Europe and as of 2003, more than 1 billion have been produced worldwide, twice as many as the number of automobiles that have been produced. They are the means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a form of recreation, and have been adapted for use as childrens toys, general fitness, military and police applications, courier services. The basic shape and configuration of an upright or safety bicycle, has changed little since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885. But many details have been improved, especially since the advent of modern materials and these have allowed for a proliferation of specialized designs for many types of cycling. The bicycles invention has had an effect on society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. The word bicycle first appeared in English print in The Daily News in 1868, to describe Bysicles and trysicles on the Champs Elysées, the word was first used in 1847 in a French publication to describe an unidentified two-wheeled vehicle, possibly a carriage. The design of the bicycle was an advance on the velocipede, Other words for bicycle include bike, pushbike, pedal cycle, or cycle. In Unicode, the point for bicycle is 0x1F6B2. The entity 🚲, in HTML produces
Bicycle
–
The most popular bicycle model—and most popular
vehicle of any kind in the world—is the Chinese
Flying Pigeon, with 500 million produced.
Bicycle
–
Group of bicycles of various types and sizes (in
Buenos Aires).
Bicycle
–
Wooden
draisine (around 1820), the first two-wheeler and as such the archetype of the bicycle
Bicycle
–
Michaux's son on a velocipede 1868
38.
Industrial engineering
–
Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems or organizations. Industrial engineers work to eliminate waste of time, money, materials, man-hours, machine time, energy, according to the Institute of Industrial and Systems Engineers, they figure out how to do things better, they engineer processes and systems that improve quality and productivity. Some engineering universities and educational agencies around the world have changed the term industrial to broader terms such as production or systems, the various topics concerning industrial engineers include, Process engineering, design, operation, control, and optimization of chemical, physical, and biological processes. Systems engineering, a field of engineering that focuses on how to design. Safety engineering, a discipline which assures that engineered systems provide acceptable levels of safety. Value engineering, a method to improve the value of goods or products. Quality engineering, a way of preventing mistakes or defects in manufactured products, Project management, is the process and activity of planning, organizing, motivating, and controlling resources, procedures and protocols to achieve specific goals in scientific or daily problems. It includes the movement and storage of raw materials, work-in-process inventory, ergonomics, the practice of designing products, systems or processes to take proper account of the interaction between them and the people that use them. Logistics, the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to some requirements. Many of the tools and principles of engineering can be applied to the configuration of work activities within a project. The application of engineering and operations management concepts and techniques to the execution of projects has been thus referred to as Project Production Management. Traditionally, an aspect of industrial engineering was planning the layouts of factories and designing assembly lines. And now, in manufacturing systems, industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy. There is a consensus among a historian that the roots of the Industrial Engineering Profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The concept of the system had its genesis in the factories created by these innovations. Eli Whitney and Simeon North proved the feasibility of the notion of Interchangeable parts in the manufacture of muskets, under this system, individual parts were mass-produced to tolerances to enable their use in any finished product. The result was a significant reduction in the need for skill from specialized workers, frederick Taylor is generally credited as being the father of the Industrial Engineering discipline. He earned a degree in engineering from Stevens University
Industrial engineering
–
General topics
39.
Logistics
–
Logistics is generally the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. In a general sense, logistics is the management of the flow of things between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet requirements of customers or corporations. The resources managed in logistics can include items such as food, materials, animals, equipment. The logistics of physical items usually involves the integration of information flow, material handling, production, packaging, inventory, transportation, warehousing, and often security. In military science, logistics is concerned with maintaining army supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy, since an armed force without resources and transportation is defenseless. Military logistics was already practiced in the ancient world and as modern military have a significant need for logistics solutions, in military logistics, logistics officers manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed. The complexity of logistics can be modeled, analyzed, visualized, the minimization of the use of resources is a common motivation in all logistics fields. A professional working in the field of management is called a logistician. The prevalent view is that the term comes from the late 19th century. Others attribute a Greek origin to the word, λόγος, meaning reason or speech, λογιστικός, the Oxford English Dictionary defines logistics as the branch of military science relating to procuring, maintaining and transporting material, personnel and facilities. As such, logistics is commonly seen as a branch of engineering that creates people systems rather than machine systems and that being said, from a modeling perspective, there are similarities between operations management and logistics, and companies sometimes use hybrid professionals, with for ex. Director of Operations or Logistics Officer working on similar problems, furthermore, the term supply chain management originally refers to, among other issues, having an integrated vision in of both production and logistics from point of origin to point of production. All these terms may suffer from semantic change as an effect of advertising. Outbound logistics is the related to the storage and movement of the final product. Advance Logistics consists of the required to set up or establish a plan for logistics activities to occur. Distribution logistics has, as main tasks, the delivery of the products to the customer. It consists of processing, warehousing, and transportation. Distribution logistics is necessary because the time, place, and quantity of production differs with the time, place, disposal logistics has as its main function to reduce logistics cost and enhance service related to the disposal of waste produced during the operation of a business
Logistics
–
Configuring and managing warehouses is a central concern for both
business logistics and
military logistics.
Logistics
–
Logistics Specialist inventories supplies in a storeroom aboard the aircraft carrier
USS George H.W. Bush, where inventorying means making a report on stock availability. Notice how every
stock keeping unit has an individual code and a code corresponding to a specific subclass from a given drawer.
Logistics
–
A forklift truck loads a pallet of humanitarian aid to Pakistan on board a C-17 aircraft, following
devastating floods in the country in 2010.
Logistics
–
Punjab Regiment uses mules for carrying cargo in
Burma during WWII. Animals have been used for logistic purposes by different people throughout history, the Roman army in particular preferred mules over donkeys for their moving capacity.
40.
Pulley
–
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable, supporting shell is referred to as a block. A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have a groove or grooves between two flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a system can be a rope, cable, belt. Hero of Alexandria identified the pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift weights, pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to power from one rotating shaft to another. A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the axle from a block. Two blocks with an attached to one of the blocks. A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point, the ideal mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number of parts of the rope that support the moving block. This system is included in the list of simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists, if the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the load. This can be shown as follows, consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that support this block. If there are p of these parts of the supporting the load W. This means the force on the rope is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces the force by the factor p. The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless, and it is also assumed that the lines do not stretch. In equilibrium, the forces on the block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts and this means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block must each support half the load. These are different types of systems, Fixed, A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference, mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter
Pulley
–
Pulleys on a ship. In this context, pulleys are usually known as
blocks.
Pulley
–
Pulley in oil derrick
Pulley
–
A hoist using the compound pulley system yielding an advantage of 4. The single fixed pulley is installed on the
hoist (device). The two movable pulleys (joined together) are attached to the
hook. One end of the rope is attached to the crane frame, another to the winch.
Pulley
–
A double tackle has two pulleys in both the fixed and moving blocks with four rope parts supporting the load W.
41.
Portsmouth Block Mills
–
The Portsmouth Block Mills form part of the Portsmouth Dockyard at Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, and were built during the Napoleonic Wars to supply the British Royal Navy with pulley blocks. They started the age of mass-production using all-metal machine tools and are regarded as one of the buildings of the British Industrial Revolution. They are also the site of the first stationary steam engines used by the Admiralty, since 2003 English Heritage has been undertaking a detailed survey of the buildings and the records relating to the machines. The Royal Navy had evolved with Britains development by the middle of the century into what has been described as the greatest industrial power in the western world. The dock system at Portsmouth has its origins in the work of Edmund Dummer in the 1690s and he constructed a series of basins and wet and dry docks. Alterations were made to these in the course of the eighteenth century, One of the basins had become redundant by 1770 and it was proposed to use this as a sump into which all the water from the other facilities could drain. The water was pumped out by a series of horse-operated chain pumps and his office employed several specialists as his assistants—Mechanists, Draughtsmen, Architects, Chemists, Clerks, and others. They also introduced similar modernisation at the other Naval dockyards in conjunction with M I Brunel, by 1797 work had started on building additional dry docks and on deepening the basins, and Bentham realised that the existing drainage system would not cope with the increased demand. This well was some 400 ft away and the pumps operated by a horizontal reciprocating wooden spear housed in a running from the engine house to the top of the well. The Sadler engine was a table engine installed in a single-storey engine house with integral boiler. This engine was replaced in 1807 in the house by another, more powerful, table engine made by Fenton, Murray and Wood of Leeds and, in turn. In 1800 a Boulton and Watt beam engine was ordered as back-up and was housed in an engine house in line with the Sadler engine house. This engine was replaced in 1837 by another made by James Watt. The northern range was directly over the vaults and was to house more woodworking machinery, the buildings were designed by Samuel Bunce, the architect of Benthams staff. While the vaults were under construction Bentham was ordering woodworking machinery of his own design, mostly up-and-down saws, the final drives to the machines was by flat belts running on pulleys. There is evidence that he had developed a rotary wood-planing machine, there is also evidence that the complex housed a pipe boring machine, whereby straight elm trees were bored out for pump dales. These could be up to 40 ft long and were fitted through the decks of a vessel to pump seawater to the deck, there was a machine for making treenails—long wooden dowels used for fixing wooden parts of a ship together. The Royal Navy used large numbers of blocks, which were all hand-made by contractors and their quality was not consistent, the supply problematic and they were expensive
Portsmouth Block Mills
–
Portsmouth Dockyard Block Mills - showing the overhead belt drive system used to power the manufacturing machinery designed and patented by
Marc Isambard Brunel.
Portsmouth Block Mills
–
A wooden block
42.
Flour
–
Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains or roots and used to make many different foods. While wheat is the most common base for flour, maize flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times, rye flour is a constituent of bread in central Europe. The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, both derive from the Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning blossom, and a figurative meaning the finest. The phrase fleur de farine meant the finest part of the meal, since flour resulted from the elimination of coarse, the earliest archaeological evidence for wheat seeds crushed between simple millstones to make flour dates to 6000 BC. The Romans were the first to grind seeds on cone mills, in 1879, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam mill was erected in London. In the 1930s, some began to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s, an important problem of the industrial revolution was the preservation of flour. Transportation distances and a relatively slow distribution system collided with natural shelf life, the reason for the limited shelf life is the fatty acids of the germ, which react from the moment they are exposed to oxygen. This occurs when grain is milled, the fatty acids oxidize, depending on climate and grain quality, this process takes six to nine months. In the late 19th century, this process was too short for a production and distribution cycle. As vitamins, micronutrients and amino acids were completely or relatively unknown in the late 19th century, without the germ, flour cannot become rancid. Degermation started in densely populated areas and took approximately one generation to reach the countryside, heat-processed flour is flour where the germ is first separated from the endosperm and bran, then processed with steam, dry heat or microwave and blended into flour again. Milling of flour is accomplished by grinding grain between stones or steel wheels, today, stone-ground usually means that the grain has been ground in a mill in which a revolving stone wheel turns over a stationary stone wheel, vertically or horizontally with the grain in between. These terms are now applied broadly to uses of water. More recently, the Unifine mill, a mill, was developed in the mid-20th century. Home users have begun grinding their own flour from organic wheat berries on a variety of electric flour mills, the grinding process is not much different from grinding coffee but the mills are larger. This provides fresh flour with the benefits of wheat germ and fiber without spoilage, Flour contains a high proportion of starches, which are a subset of complex carbohydrates also known as polysaccharides. The kinds of used in cooking include all-purpose flour, self-rising flour
Flour
–
Three different kinds of wheat and rye flour. From left to right: wheat flour Type 550, wheat flour Type 1050, rye flour Type 1150
Flour
–
A field of wheat prior to harvesting
Flour
–
Flour being stored in large cloth sacks
Flour
–
A variety of types of flour and cereals sold at a bazaar in
Bishkek,
Kyrgyzstan
43.
Mill (grinding)
–
A mill is a device that breaks solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting. Such comminution is an important unit operation in many processes, there are many different types of mills and many types of materials processed in them. Historically mills were powered by hand, working animal, wind or water, today they are usually powered by electricity. The grinding of solid matters occurs under exposure of mechanical forces that trench the structure by overcoming of the interior bonding forces, after the grinding the state of the solid is changed, the grain size, the grain size disposition and the grain shape. Milling also refers to the process of breaking down, separating, sizing, aggregate milling processes are also used to remove or separate contamination or moisture from aggregate or soil and to produce dry fills prior to transport or structural filling. To calculate the needed grinding work against the grain size changing three half-empirical models are used and these can be related to the Hukki relationship between particle size and the energy required to break the particles. In stirred mills, the Hukki relationship does not apply and instead, a reliable value for the grain sizes dA and dE is d80. This value signifies that 80% of the matter has a smaller grain size. The Bonds grinding coefficient for different materials can be found in various literature, to evaluate the grinding results the grain size disposition of the source material and of the ground material is needed. Grinding degree is the ratio of the sizes from the grain disposition, pretended grinding degree Z a = d 1 a The discharge die gap a of the grinding machine is used for the ground solid matter in this formula. In materials processing a grinder is a machine for producing fine particle size reduction through attrition, see also crusher for mechanisms producing larger particles. A typical type of grinder is the ball mill. Ball mills normally operate with a ball charge of 30%. Ball mills are characterized by their diameter and longer length. The feed is at one end of the cylinder and the discharge is at the other, ball mills are commonly used in the manufacture of Portland cement and finer grinding stages of mineral processing, one example being the Sepro tyre drive Grinding Mill. Industrial ball mills can be as large as 8.5 m in diameter with a 22 MW motor, however, small versions of ball mills can be found in laboratories where they are used for grinding sample material for quality assurance. A rotating drum causes friction and attrition between steel rods and ore particles, but note that the term rod mill is also used as a synonym for a slitting mill, which makes rods of iron or other metal. Rod mills are less common than ball mills for grinding minerals, the rods used in the mill, usually a high-carbon steel, can vary in both the length and the diameter
Mill (grinding)
–
A tabletop hammer mill
Mill (grinding)
–
Principle of SAG Mill operation
44.
Oliver Evans
–
A pioneer in the fields of automation, materials handling and steam power, Evans was one of the most prolific and influential inventors in the early years of the United States. Born in Newport, Delaware, Evans received little formal education, going into business with his brothers, he worked for over a decade designing, building and perfecting an automated mill with devices such as bucket chains and conveyor belts. In doing so Evans designed a process of manufacturing that required no human labor. This novel concept would prove critical to the Industrial Revolution and the development of mass production, Evans was a driving force in the development and adoption of high-pressure steam engines in the United States. Evans dreamed of building a wagon and would eventually construct. Known as the Oruktor Amphibolos, it was the first automobile in the country, Evans was a visionary who produced designs and ideas far ahead of their time. Evans had influential backers and political allies, but lacked social graces and was disliked by many of his peers. Disappointed and then angry at the lack of recognition for his contributions, Evans became combative and bitter in later years. Despite the importance of his work, his contributions were frequently overlooked so he never became a household name alongside the other pioneers of his era. Oliver Evans was born in Newport, Delaware on September 13,1755 to Charles and Ann Stalcop Evans. His father was a cordwainer by trade, though he purchased a farm to the north of Newport on the Red Clay Creek. Oliver was the fifth of twelve children, he had four sisters, little else is known of Evanss early life, and surviving records provide few details as to his formative years. The nature and location of his education has not been preserved, however his literacy was demonstrably strong from a young age. Aged 17, Evans was apprenticed to a wheelwright and wagon-maker in Newport, an anecdote from the period recalls that his master, an illiterate and extremely frugal man, forbade Evans the use of candles to illuminate his reading in the evenings. Evans found another way by collecting scraps and shavings of wood from his work during the day to serve as fuel for small fires, the Revolutionary War began when Evans was 19. He enlisted in a Delaware militia company, but saw no service during the war. A desire to increase the efficiency of this led him to his first invention—a machine which would bend wire into teeth. George Latimer, then a justice of the peace in Newport, saw its potential and tasked a blacksmith with creating the machine, which became one of Evanss early successes when it was introduced in 1778
Oliver Evans
–
"Oliver Evans, the Watt of America" Original portrait caption
Oliver Evans
–
Evans's design for the automated flour mill, 1790
Oliver Evans
–
The
Brandywine Village became an influential early adopter of Evans's milling processes.
Oliver Evans
–
An artistic reconstruction of Oruktor Amphibolos, 1834
45.
Bulk material handling
–
It can also relate to the handling of mixed wastes. Advanced bulk material handling systems feature integrated bulk storage, conveying, other industries using bulk materials handling include flour mills and coal-fired utility boilers. Providing storage and inventory control and possibly material blending is usually part of a material handling system. In ports handling large quantities of bulk materials continuous ship unloaders are replacing gantry cranes, non-bulk materials handling classifications include palletization and containerization. Bulk cargo Bulk carrier Caking Rotary car dumper Self-discharger
Bulk material handling
–
A boat being loaded at Pier 86 Grain Terminal in
Seattle
46.
Screw conveyor
–
A screw conveyor or auger conveyor is a mechanism that uses a rotating helical screw blade, called a flighting, usually within a tube, to move liquid or granular materials. They are used in many bulk handling industries, the first type of screw conveyor was the Archimedes screw, used since ancient times to pump irrigation water. The rate of transfer is proportional to the rotation rate of the shaft. In industrial control applications the device is used as a variable rate feeder by varying the rotation rate of the shaft to deliver a measured rate or quantity of material into a process. Screw conveyors can be operated with the flow of material inclined upward, when space allows, this is a very economical method of elevating and conveying. As the angle of inclination increases, the capacity of a given unit rapidly decreases, the rotating part of the conveyor is sometimes called simply an auger. The grain auger is used in agriculture to move grain from trucks, a grain auger may be powered by an electric motor, a tractor, through the power take-off, or sometimes an internal combustion engine mounted on the auger. The helical rotates inside a metal tube, moving the grain upwards. On the lower end, a hopper receives grain from the truck or grain cart, a chute on the upper end guides the grain into the destination location. The modern grain auger of todays farming communities was invented by Peter Pakosh and his grain mover employed a screw-type auger with a minimum of moving parts, a totally new application for this specific use. This type of auger is known as a drill fill, grain augers with a small diameter, regardless of the use they are put to, are often called pencil augers. Various other applications of the screw or auger conveyor include its use in snowblowers, to move snow towards an impeller, combine harvesters use both enclosed and open augers to move the unthreshed crop into the threshing mechanism and to move the grain into and out of the machines hopper. Ice resurfacers use augers to remove loose ice particles from the surface of the ice, an auger is also a central component of an injection molding machine. An auger is used in some rubbish compactors to push the rubbish into a plate at one end for compaction. Augers are also present in food processing, in a conventional meat grinder, chunks of meat are led by the auger through a spinning blade and a holed plate. This method emulsifies the fat in beef to soften hamburger patties, augers are also used to force food products through dies to produce pellets. These are then processed further to produce such as bran flakes. Augers are also used in oil fields as a method of transporting rock cuttings away from the shakers to skips, augers are also used in some types of pellet stoves and barbecue grills, to move fuel from a storage hopper into the firebox in a controlled manner
Screw conveyor
–
Centreless screw conveyor
Screw conveyor
–
This
combine harvester uses a screw conveyor within the tube to discharge grain into the trailer alongside
47.
Marc Isambard Brunel
–
Sir Marc Isambard Brunel, FRS FRSE was a French-born engineer who settled in England. He preferred the name Isambard, but is known to history as Marc to avoid confusion with his more famous son Isambard Kingdom Brunel. His most famous achievement was the construction of the Thames Tunnel, Brunel was the second son of Jean Charles Brunel and Marie Victoire Lefebvre. Jean Charles was a farmer in Hacqueville, Normandy. It was customary for the first son to inherit the farm and his father therefore started Marc on a classical education, but he showed no liking for Greek or Latin and instead showed himself proficient in drawing and mathematics. He was also very musical from an early age, at the age of eleven he was sent to a seminary in Rouen. The superior of the seminary allowed him to learn carpentry, and he also sketched ships in the local harbour. As he showed no desire to become a priest, his father sent him to stay with relatives in Rouen, in 1786, as a result of this tuition, Marc became a naval cadet on a French frigate and during his service visited the West Indies several times. He made a quadrant for himself of brass and ivory, during Brunels service abroad, the French Revolution began, in 1789. In January 1792, Brunels frigate paid off its crew, and he was a Royalist sympathiser, as were most inhabitants of Normandy. In January 1793, whilst visiting Paris during the trial of Louis XVI, Brunel unwisely publicly predicted the demise of Robespierre and he was lucky to get out of Paris with his life, and returned to Rouen. However it was evident that he would have to leave France, during his stay in Rouen, Brunel had met Sophia Kingdom, a young Englishwoman who was an orphan and was working as a governess. Unfortunately he was forced to leave her behind when he fled to Le Havre and boarded the American ship Liberty, Brunel arrived in New York on 6 September 1793, and he subsequently travelled to Philadelphia and Albany. He got involved in a scheme to link the Hudson River by canal with Lake Champlain, the judges were very impressed with the design, but it was not selected. In 1796, after taking American citizenship, Brunel was appointed Chief Engineer of the city of New York and he designed various houses, docks, commercial buildings, an arsenal, and a cannon factory. No official records exist of the projects that he carried out in New York, in 1798, during a dinner conversation, Brunel learnt of the difficulties that the Royal Navy had in obtaining the 100,000 pulley blocks that it required each year to fit out its ships. Each of these was being made by hand, Brunel quickly produced an outline design of a machine that would automate the production of pulley blocks. He decided to sail to England and put his invention before the Admiralty and he sailed for England on 7 February 1799 with a letter of introduction to the Navy Minister, and on 7 March his ship, Halifax landed at Falmouth
Marc Isambard Brunel
–
Sir Marc Isambard Brunel, by
James Northcote
Marc Isambard Brunel
–
Bust of Marc Isambard Brunel, Science Museum, London
Marc Isambard Brunel
–
A pulley block for rigging on a sailing ship
Marc Isambard Brunel
–
Inside the Thames Tunnel during construction, 1830
48.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
Isambard Kingdom Brunel by the launching chains of the
SS Great Eastern by
Robert Howlett, 1857 (detail)
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
The
Thames Tunnel in 2005.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
The
Clifton Suspension Bridge spans
Avon Gorge, linking
Clifton in Bristol to
Leigh Woods in North
Somerset.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
–
The
Maidenhead Railway Bridge, at the time the largest span for a brick arch bridge.
49.
Henry Maudslay
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Henry Maudslay was a British machine tool innovator, tool and die maker, and inventor. He is considered a father of machine tool technology. His inventions were an important foundation for the Industrial Revolution, Maudslays invention about 1800 of a metal lathe to cut metal enabled the manufacture of standard screw thread sizes. Standard screw thread sizes allowed interchangeable parts and the development of mass production, Henry Maudslay was the fifth of seven children of Henry Maudslay, a wheelwright in the Royal Engineers, and Margaret a young widow. His father was wounded in action and so in 1756 became an artificer at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, London, Maudslay began work at the age of 12 as a powder monkey, one of the boys employed in filling cartridges at the Arsenal. After two years, he was transferred to a carpenter’s shop followed by a blacksmith’s forge, where at the age of fifteen he began training as a blacksmith and he seems to have specialised in the lighter, more complex kind of forge work. During his time at the Arsenal, Maudslay also worked at the Royal Foundry, Maudslay acquired such a good reputation that Joseph Bramah called for his services on the recommendation of one of his employees. Bramah was surprised that he was eighteen, but Maudslay demonstrated his ability and started work at Bramah’s workshop in Denmark Street. Bramah designed and patented a type of lock based on the tumbler principle. Maudslay built the lock that was displayed in Bramah’s shop window with a notice offering a reward of 200 guineas to anyone who could pick it and it resisted all efforts for forty-seven years. Maudslay designed and made a set of tools and machines that allowed the lock to be made at an economic price. Bramah had designed a hydraulic press, but was having problems sealing both the piston and the rod where it fitted into the cylinder. The usual method was hemp packing but the pressures were too high for this to work, Maudslay came up with the idea of a leather cup washer, which gave a perfect seal but offered no resistance to movement when the pressure was released. The new hydraulic press worked perfectly thereafter, but Maudslay, who had made a major contribution to its success, received little credit for it. Maudslay developed the first industrially practical screw-cutting lathe in 1800, allowing standardisation of screw thread sizes for the first time and this allowed the concept of interchangeable parts to be practically applied to nuts and bolts. When Maudslay began working for Bramah, the lathe was worked by a treadle. This did not allow for precision, especially in cutting iron, nuts were rare, metal screws, when made at all, were usually for use in wood. Metal bolts passing through wood framing to a metal fastening on the side were usually fastened in non-threaded ways
Henry Maudslay
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Portrait by Pierre Louis ('Henri') Grevedon 1827
Henry Maudslay
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Interior of the Thames Tunnel, mid-19th century
50.
Block (sailing)
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In sailing, a block is a single or multiple pulley. One or a number of sheaves are enclosed in an assembly between cheeks or chocks, in use, a block is fixed to the end of a line, to a spar, or to a surface. A line is reeved through the sheaves, and maybe one or more matching blocks at some far end. The purchase of a tackle refers to its mechanical advantage, in general the more sheaves in the blocks that make up a tackle, the higher its mechanical advantage. The matter is complicated by the fact that every tackle has a working end where the final run of rope leaves the last sheave. More mechanical advantage can be obtained if this end is attached to the moving load rather than the end of the tackle. There are various types of blocks that are used in sailing, some blocks are used to increase mechanical advantage and others are used simply to change the direction of a line. A ratchet block turns freely when a line is pulled in one direction but does not turn the other direction, although the line may slip past the sheave. This kind of block makes a line easier to hold by hand. Chock a block Refers literally to the situation where pulling on the line will not raise the load any further because the cheeks of one lifting block are already against the other. Figuratively this has come to mean that something is as full or as close as it can be, Block and tackle Two six heave Portsmouth Block Mills
Block (sailing)
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Several different types of block connections as used on sailing ships, including the regular shackle, upset shackle, reverse shackle, reverse upset shackle, swivel jaw, swivel eye made round or oval, loose front hook, loose swivel hook,stiff swivel hook, loose side hook, stiff front hook, and side sister hook.
Block (sailing)
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Various types of blocks of both wood and metal found on the 16th century ship
Mary Rose
Block (sailing)
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A bird perched near a wooden block
Block (sailing)
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A modern single block made of
stainless steel and
reinforced plastic. The ball bearing is made of Delrin (
polyoxymethylene)
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