1.
United States Department of Defense
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The Department is the largest employer in the world, with nearly 1.3 million active duty servicemen and women as of 2016. Adding to its employees are over 801,000 National Guardsmen and Reservists from the four services and it is headquartered at the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, just outside of Washington, D. C. The Department of Defense is headed by the Secretary of Defense, Military operations are managed by nine regional or functional Unified Combatant Commands. The Department of Defense also operates several joint services schools, including the National Defense University, the history of the defense of the United States started with the Continental Congress in 1775. The creation of the United States Army was enacted on 14 June 1775 and this coincides with the American holiday Flag Day. The Second Continental Congress would charter the United States Navy, on 13 October 1775, today, both the Navy and the Marine Corps are separate military services subordinate to the Department of the Navy. The Preamble of the United States Constitution gave the authority to federal government, to defend its citizens and this first Congress had a huge agenda, that of creating legislation to build a government for the ages. Legislation to create a military defense force stagnated, two separate times, President George Washington went to Congress to remind them of their duty to establish a military. In a special message to Congress on 19 December 1945, the President cited both wasteful military spending and inter-departmental conflicts, deliberations in Congress went on for months focusing heavily on the role of the military in society and the threat of granting too much military power to the executive. The act placed the National Military Establishment under the control of a single Secretary of Defense, the National Military Establishment formally began operations on 18 September, the day after the Senate confirmed James V. Forrestal as the first Secretary of Defense. The National Military Establishment was renamed the Department of Defense on 10 August 1949, under the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, channels of authority within the department were streamlined, while still maintaining the authority of the Military Departments. Also provided in this legislation was a centralized authority, the Advanced Research Projects Agency. The Act moved decision-making authority from the Military Departments to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and it also strengthened the command channel of the military over U. S. forces from the President to the Secretary of Defense. Written and promoted by the Eisenhower administration, it was signed into law 6 August 1958, because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, the statutory authority of the Secretary of Defense is derived from their constitutional authorities. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the Office of the Secretary of Defense is the Secretary and Deputy Secretarys civilian staff. S. Government departments and agencies, foreign governments, and international organizations, OSD also performs oversight and management of the Defense Agencies and Department of Defense Field Activities. OSD also supervises the following Defense Agencies, Several defense agencies are members of the United States Intelligence Community and these are national-level intelligence services that operate under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense but simultaneously fall under the authorities of the Director of National Intelligence
2.
United States Secretary of Defense
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The Secretary of Defense is the leader and chief executive officer of the Department of Defense, an Executive Department of the Government of the United States of America. The Secretary of Defenses power over the United States military is only to that of the President. This position corresponds to what is known as a Defense Minister in many other countries. The Secretary of Defense is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, Secretary of Defense is a statutory office, and the general provision in 10 U. S. C. This is also extended to the United States Coast Guard during any period of time in which its command, only the Secretary of Defense can authorize the transfer of operational control of forces between the three Military Departments and the nine Combatant Commands. The current Secretary of Defense is retired United States Marine Corps general James Mattis, the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps were established in 1775, in concurrence with the American Revolution. Based on the experiences of World War II, proposals were made on how to more effectively manage the large combined military establishment. The Army generally favored centralization while the Navy had institutional preferences for decentralization, the resulting National Security Act of 1947 was largely a compromise between these divergent viewpoints. The Act merged the Department of War with the Department of the Navy to form the National Military Establishment, the Act also separated the Army Air Forces from the Department of the Army to become its own branch of service, the Department of the Air Force. At first, each of the service secretaries maintained quasi-cabinet status, the position of the Deputy Secretary of Defense, the number two position in the department, was also created at this time. The last major revision of the framework concerning the position was done in the Goldwater–Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986. In particular, it elevated the status of joint service for commissioned officers, making it in practice a requirement before appointments to general officer and flag officer grades could be made. Because the Constitution vests all military authority in Congress and the President, as the head of DoD, all officials, employees and service members are under the Secretary of Defense. All of these positions, civil and military, require Senate confirmation. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 describes the relationships within the Department. The latest version, signed by former Secretary of Defense Robert Gates in December 2010, is the first major re-write since 1987, the name of the principally military staff organization, organized under the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, is the Joint Staff. In addition, there is the Joint Meritorious Unit Award, which is the ribbon and unit award issued to joint DoD activities. While the approval authority for DSSM, DMSM, JSCM, JSAM and JMUA is delegated to inferior DoD officials, Permanent Representative to NATO in recognition of U. S
3.
United States Deputy Secretary of Defense
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The Deputy Secretary of Defense is a statutory office and the second-highest-ranking official in the Department of Defense of the United States of America. The Deputy Secretary is the civilian deputy to the Secretary of Defense. The Deputy Secretary of Defense position is held by Robert O. Work. Former Assistant to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Stephen Early, public Law 92-596, October 27,1972, established a Second Deputy Secretary of Defense position, with both deputies performing duties as prescribed by the Secretary of Defense. The second deputy position was not filled until December 1975, Robert F. Ellsworth, serving from December 23,1975 until 10 January 1977, was the only one to ever hold that office. Public Law 95-140,21 October 1977, the law establishing two Under Secretaries of Defense, abolished the second deputy position, the Deputy Secretary is first in the line of succession to the office of Secretary of Defense. Traditionally, the Deputy Secretary has been the civilian official guiding the process of the Quadrennial Defense Review.1, Functions of the Department of Defense, Department of Defense Key Officials 1947–2015. Washington DC, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Historical Office, Deputy Secretary of Defense position profile at Prunes Online defense. gov
4.
The Pentagon
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The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, located in Arlington County, Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D. C. As a symbol of the U. S. military, The Pentagon is often used metonymically to refer to the U. S. Department of Defense, the Pentagon was designed by American architect George Bergstrom, and built by general contractor John McShain of Philadelphia. Ground was broken for construction on September 11,1941, General Brehon Somervell provided the major motive power behind the project, Colonel Leslie Groves was responsible for overseeing the project for the U. S. Army. The Pentagon is one of the worlds largest office buildings, with about 6,500,000 sq ft, approximately 23,000 military and civilian employees and about 3,000 non-defense support personnel work in the Pentagon. It has five sides, five floors above ground, two basement levels, and five ring corridors per floor with a total of 17.5 mi of corridors. It was the first significant foreign attack on Washingtons governmental facilities since the city was burned by the British, when World War II broke out in Europe, the War Department rapidly expanded in anticipation that the United States would be drawn into the conflict. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson found the situation unacceptable, with the Munitions Building overcrowded, Stimson told U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in May 1941 that the War Department needed additional space. On July 17,1941, a hearing took place, organized by Virginia congressman Clifton Woodrum. Reybold agreed to back to the congressman within five days. The War Department called upon its construction chief, General Brehon Somervell, Government officials agreed that the War Department building, officially designated Federal Office Building No 1, should be constructed across the Potomac River, in Arlington County, Virginia. Requirements for the new building were that it be no more than four stories tall, the requirements meant that, instead of rising vertically, the building would be sprawling over a large area. Possible sites for the building included the Department of Agricultures Arlington Experimental Farm, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery, the site originally chosen was Arlington Farms which had a roughly pentagonal shape, so the building was planned accordingly as an irregular pentagon. Concerned that the new building could obstruct the view of Washington, D. C. from Arlington Cemetery, the building retained its pentagonal layout because a major redesign at that stage would have been costly, and Roosevelt liked the design. Freed of the constraints of the asymmetric Arlington Farms site, it was modified into a pentagon which resembled the star forts of the gunpowder age. While the project went through the process in late July 1941, Somervell selected the contractors, including John McShain, Inc. and Doyle and Russell. In addition to the Hoover Airport site and other government-owned land, construction of the Pentagon required an additional 287 acres, which were acquired at a cost of $2.2 million. The Hells Bottom neighborhood, a slum with numerous pawnshops, factories, approximately 150 homes, Later 300 acres of land were transferred to Arlington National Cemetery and to Fort Myer, leaving 280 acres for the Pentagon. Contracts totaling $31,100,000 were finalized with McShain and the contractors on September 11
5.
Arlington County, Virginia
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Arlington County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia. It is coterminous with the U. S. Census Bureau-census-designated place of Arlington, as a result, the county is often referred to in the region simply as Arlington or Arlington, Virginia. In 2015, the population was estimated at 229,164. The land that became Arlington was originally donated by Virginia to the United States government to form part of the new federal district of Columbia. In 1846, Congress returned the land southwest of the Potomac River donated by Virginia due to issues involving Congressional representation, the General Assembly of Virginia changed the countys name to Arlington in 1920 to avoid confusion with the adjacent City of Alexandria. The county is situated in Northern Virginia on the bank of the Potomac River directly across from Washington. Arlington is also bordered by Fairfax County and City of Falls Church to the northwest, west and southwest, as of the 2010 census, the population was 207,627. Due to the proximity to downtown Washington, D. C. It is also home to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, the many federal agencies, government contractors, and service industries contribute to Arlingtons stable economy. It is the county in the United States by median family income. According to a 2016 study by Bankrate. com, Arlington is the best place to retire, the area that now constitutes Arlington County was originally part of Fairfax County in the Colony of Virginia. Land grants from the British monarch were awarded to prominent Englishmen in exchange for political favors, one of the grantees was Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who lends his name to both Fairfax County and the City of Fairfax. George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of First Lady Martha Washington, the estate was eventually passed down to Mary Anna Custis Lee, wife of General Robert E. Lee. The property later became Arlington National Cemetery during the American Civil War, the area that now contains Arlington County was ceded to the new United States federal government by the Commonwealth of Virginia. With the passage of the Residence Act in 1790, Congress approved a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the Residence Act originally only allowed the President to select a location within Maryland as far east as what is now the Anacostia River. However, President Washington shifted the federal territorys borders to the southeast in order to include the city of Alexandria at the Districts southern tip. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve the new site, however, this amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the River Potomac. As permitted by the U. S. Constitution, the shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles on each side
6.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
7.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
8.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
9.
Term of office
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A term of office is the length of time a person serves in a particular elected office. In many jurisdictions there is a limit on how long terms of office may be before the officeholder must be subject to re-election. Some jurisdictions exercise term limits, setting a number of terms an individual may hold in a particular office. Being the origin of the Westminster system, aspects of the United Kingdoms system of government are replicated in other countries. The monarch serves as head of state until his or her death or abdication, in the United Kingdom Members of Parliament in the House of Commons are elected for the duration of the parliament. Following dissolution of the Parliament, an election is held which consists of simultaneous elections for all seats. For most MPs this means that their terms of office are identical to the duration of the Parliament, an MP elected in a by-election mid-way through a Parliament, regardless of how long they have occupied the seat, is not exempt from facing re-election at the next general election. The Septennial Act 1715 provided that a Parliament expired seven years after it had been summoned, prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 parliaments had no minimum duration. Parliaments could be dissolved early by the monarch at the Prime Ministers request, the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 mandated that Parliaments should last their full five years. Early dissolution is possible, but under much more limited circumstances. Hereditary peers and life peers retain membership of the House of Lords for life, Lords Spiritual hold membership of the House of Lords until the end of their time as bishops, though a senior bishop may be made a life peer upon the end of their bishopric. The devolved administrations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are variations on the system of government used at Westminster, the office of the leader of the devolved administrations has no numeric term limit imposed upon it. However, in the case of the Scottish Government and the Welsh Assembly Government there are fixed terms for which the legislatures can sit and this is imposed at four years. Elections may be held before this time but only if no administration can be formed, offices of local government other regional elected officials follow similar rules to the national offices discussed above, with persons elected to fixed terms of a few years. Federal judges have different terms in office, however, the majority of the federal judiciary, Article III judges, such as those of the Supreme Court, courts of appeal, and federal district courts, serve for life. The terms of office for officials in state governments according to the provisions of state constitutions. The term for state governors is four years in all states but Vermont and New Hampshire, the National Conference of State Legislatures reported in January 2007 that among state legislatures,44 states had terms of office for the lower house of the state legislature at two years. Five had terms of office at four years,37 states had terms of office for the upper house of the state legislature at four years
10.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
11.
Civilian
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In general, a civilian is a person who is not a member of the military or of a police or firefighting force, as defined by Merriam Websters Dictionary. From the perspective of the U. S, in military and law enforcement slang, the term Civies or Civvies are often used to refer civilian population or civilian clothing. Under the laws of war, a civilian is one not being a member of the services and does not take a direct part of hostilities in times of armed conflict. The term civilian is slightly different from a non-combatant under the laws of war, the privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one or an international one. The word civilian goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien, Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term non-combatant now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities, there is no intermediate status, nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, the ICRC has expressed the opinion that If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered unlawful or unprivileged combatants or belligerents. They may be prosecuted under the law of the detaining state for such action. According to Article 50 of the 1977 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions,1, a civilian is any person who does not belong to one of the categories of persons referred to in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of this Protocol. In case of whether a person is a civilian, that person shall be considered to be a civilian. The civilian population comprises all persons who are civilians, the presence within the civilian population of individuals who do not come within the definition of civilians does not deprive the population of its civilian character. The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories, the categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore, the Commentary to the Protocol pointed that, any one who is not a member of the forces is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict, civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population, chapter III of Protocol I regulates the targeting of civilian objects. The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematical, starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. The claim was repeated on Wikipedias Did You Know on 14 December 2010 and these claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of the evidence, particularly that relating to wars that are central to the claims. It has lost none of its political, legal and moral salience, although it is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts
12.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
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News media
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The news media or news industry are those elements of the mass media that focus on delivering news to the general public or a target public. These include print media, broadcast news, and more recently the Internet, a medium is a carrier of something. Common things carried by media include information, art, or physical objects, a medium may provide transmission or storage of information or both. The industries which produce news and entertainment content for the media are often called the media. In the late 20th century it became commonplace for this usage to be construed as singular rather than as the traditional plural, broadcasting is the distribution of audio and video signals to a number of recipients that belong to a large group. This group may be the public in general, or a large audience within the public. Thus, an Internet channel may distribute text or music worldwide, the sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable, by coding signals and having decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services. A broadcasting organization may broadcast several programs at the time, through several channels, for example BBC One. On the other hand, two or more organizations may share a channel and each use it during a part of the day. Digital radio and digital television may also transmit multiplexed programming, with several channels compressed into one ensemble, when broadcasting is done via the Internet the term webcasting is often used. Broadcasting forms a large segment of the mass media. Broadcasting to a narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting. In a broadcast system, journalists or reporters are also involved editing the video material that has been shot alongside their research. Broadcast journalists often make an appearance in the story at the beginning or end of the video clip. In television or broadcast journalism, news analysts examine, interpret, anchors present this as news, either videotaped or live, through transmissions from on-the-scene reporters. News films can vary in length, there are some which may be as long as ten minutes, others that need to fit in all the relevant information and material in two or three minutes. News channels these days have begun to host special documentary films that stretch for much longer durations and are able to explore a news subject or issue in greater detail
14.
George E. Little
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George E. Little is a former Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs for the U. S. Department of Defense and was replaced by Brent Colburn. He was appointed to his position on July 19,2011, Little began his communications work at the CIA in April 2007 as chief of media relations. S. Governments progress in the fight against al-Qaeda and other terrorist groups, Little previously worked as an intelligence community and business consultant with Booz Allen Hamilton and IBM. He is a 1990 graduate of Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and his wife, Bethany Little, is chief education counsel for the U. S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions
15.
John Kirby (admiral)
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John F. Kirby is a retired Rear Admiral in the United States Navy who served as the Spokesperson for the United States Department of State from 2015 to 2017. Kirby was the deputy assistant secretary of defense for media operations. He served as one of two Pentagon press secretaries during that time, the other being George E. Little, in 2017, Kirby became a military and diplomatic analyst for CNN. Kirby grew up in St. Petersburg, Florida and he is a 1981 graduate of Saint Petersburg Catholic High School, and a 1985 graduate of the University of South Florida in Tampa, Florida, where he earned a bachelor of arts degree in history. He holds a master of science degree in international relations from Troy University, Kirby was commissioned in September 1986 after completing Officer Candidate School at Naval Station Newport, Rhode Island. He qualified as a Surface Warfare Officer aboard the guided-missile frigate USS Aubrey Fitch before obtaining a transfer to the Restricted Line as a Public Affairs Officer. While ashore, Kirby completed tours as an instructor at the U. S. S, Naval Forces Europe, Chief of Naval Operations, and the special assistant for public affairs to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. His most recent assignment was serving as the deputy assistant secretary of defense for media operations, as the Navys Chief of Information, he led the Navys public affairs community consisting of more than 2,700 active and reserve officer, enlisted, and civilian communication professionals. In December 2013, he was appointed by SECDEF Chuck Hagel to be the Pentagon press secretary, on April 22,2015, it was announced that Kirby would be the new spokesman for the United States Department of State after he retired from the military later in the year. Admiral Kirby officially became spokesman for the State Department on May 12,2015 and he left office following the inauguration of President Trump on Jan. Professional CV from US Navy website Kirbys Twitter account This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Government
16.
Defense Media Activity
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The Defense Media Activity is a United States Department of Defense field activity. It provides a range of high-quality multimedia products and services to inform, educate. The Defense Media Activity is located on Fort Meade, Maryland, DMA operates as a separate DoD Component under the authority, direction and control of the Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs. The Defense Media Activity can trace its lineage to the first publication of the Stars and Stripes newspaper produced by Union soldiers during the Civil War. The DMA is one in a line of media related organizations established, consolidated or subsumed within the military departments. DMA was established as a result of the BRAC2005 decisions, the Defense Base Realignment and Closure Commission accepted the DoD recommendation and included the recommendation in its report to the President on September 8,2005. On September 8,2005, the President approved the BRAC Commission recommendations, on September 20,2005, the U. S. Congress failed to disapprove the BRAC Commissions recommendations. Under the provisions of the Defense Base Realignment and Closure Act of 1990 the recommendations were effectively approved, the approved BRAC actions were to, Realign Fort Belvoir, Virginia, by relocating Soldiers Magazine to Fort Meade, Maryland. Realign Anacostia Annex, District of Columbia, by relocating the Naval Media Center to Fort Meade, Realign 2320 Mill Road, a leased installation in Alexandria, Virginia, by relocating Army Broadcasting-Soldier Radio/TV to Fort Meade, Maryland. Realign 103 Norton Street, an installation in San Antonio, Texas by relocating Air Force News Agency. Consolidate American Forces Information Service with DMA Include the internal elements of the U. S.74. DMA was formally established on January 1,2008, and the people, the elements required to move to Fort Meade by the BRAC2005 decision remained in their facilities as their facility at Fort Meade was designed and constructed. The building design was completed in September 2008 and it is a 185,870 square-foot facility built to house approximately 660 personnel. The building was completed in May 2011 and organizations began moving into the facility in June 2011, the move was completed in August 2011. DMA elements located in the Pentagon, Washington, D. C, Tobyhanna Army Depot, Riverside, California, and all overseas locations remained in place. Organization and Functions DMA is composed of a headquarters and seven operating components, the American Forces Radio and Television Service component delivers, via the American Forces Network, U. S. Includes radio and television stations in communities in Europe, Pacific and the Middle East, and include its central broadcasting hub. The Defense Information School provides joint-service training to Defense military and civilian personnel in the fields of Public Affairs
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Under Secretary of Defense for Policy
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The Under Secretary of Defense for Policy is a high level civilian official in the United States Department of Defense. The Under Secretary is normally appointed from civilian life by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve at the request of the President. Currently Ms. Theresa Whelan is Performing the Duties of the Under Secretary of Defense for Policy until a new appointment is selected by the President, Ms. Whelan served in Special Operations & Low Intensity Conflict prior to assuming the duties as USDP. The Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Security Cooperation is responsible for the bilateral and multilateral security cooperation activities, the Secretary of Defense Representative in the United States Mission to NATO. The Secretary of Defense Representative to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the AD is also responsible for the Protected Critical Infrastructure Program, the Domestic Preparedness Support Initiative, and the Defense Critical Infrastructure Program. The annual budget for the USD is contained in the OSDs budget, under the Defense-Wide Operation, according to official projections, the budget for USD is expected to see substantial cutbacks in FY11 and FY12. Ensures the resiliency of networked infrastructure assets, whether owned or operated by the DoD or private industry, Activities include the identification, assessment, monitoring, and risk management of cyber and physical infrastructure assets critical to the execution of the National Military Strategy. Global Threat Management, Provides policy, guidance and oversight on existential threats, supranational threats, utilizes table top exercises to enable Members of Congress, Administration Officials, and DoD personnel to form strategies in addressing catastrophic security events. Active research and involvement in the cyber environment to protect security assets and prevent sophisticated threats in cyberspace from adversaries domestic. This funding appears to support the programs of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Global Strategic Affairs. Northern Command in homeland defense strategy, and enhances the U. S, southern Command mission through engagement with the ministries of defense of Western Hemisphere nations. It supervises intradepartmental and inter-agency coordination of the above issues, conducts oversight of DoD processes to exercise force readiness through the National Exercise Program. Manages defense continuity and conducts crisis management and this funding appears to primarily support the programs of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense and Americas Security Affairs. Policy Planning and Integration, OUSD coordinates activities to aid in formulating strategies for DoD programs at national and international levels, OUSD ensures decisions are not made in a vacuum by integrating policies and resources related to humanitarian efforts and their compliance with international laws. Funding allows interagency integration and coordination to determine requirements for potential application of Defense assets. Travel, This funding supports travel in support of the OUSD mission, warfighting Support Activities, OUSD provides resources to orchestrate the development of special technologies and capabilities. It sustains these efforts by conducting in-depth analyses of the assignment of additional military and civilian personnel to long-term, Provides funds to pay rewards for information to disrupt international terrorist activities and enhance US security capabilities.3. The PDUSD provides advice and assistance to the Secretary of Defense, Deputy Secretary of Defense, and USD on national security policy, military strategy, and defense policy
18.
Joint Staff
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After the 1986 reorganization of the military undertaken by the Goldwater-Nichols Act, the Joint Chiefs of Staff does not have operational command of U. S. military forces. Today, their responsibility is to ensure the personnel readiness, policy. The Joint Chiefs of Staff also act in an advisory capacity for the President of the United States. However, the Coast Guard is always a service and may operate under the Department of the Navy during wartime. The commandant of the Coast Guard is however, occasionally invited by the chairman to attend meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. As the military of the United States grew in size following the American Civil War, the Army and Navy were unsupportive of each other at either the planning or operational level and were constrained by disagreements during the Spanish–American War in the Caribbean campaigns. The Joint Board acting as a committee was created to plan joint operations. Yet, the Joint Board accomplished little as its charter gave it no authority to enforce its decisions, the Joint Board also lacked the ability to originate its own opinions and was thus limited to commenting only on the problems submitted to it by the Secretaries of War and Navy. As a result, the Joint Board had little to no impact on the manner the United States conducted World War I, after World War I, in 1919 the two Secretaries agreed to reestablish and revitalize the Joint Board. The mission of the General staff was to develop plans for mobilization for the next war, the US was always designated Blue and potential enemies were assigned various other colors. This time, the Joint Boards membership would include the Chiefs of Staff, their deputies, under the Joint Board would be a staff called the Joint Planning Committee to serve the Board. Along with new membership, the Joint Board could initiate recommendations on its own initiative, however, the Joint Board still did not possess the legal authority to enforce its decisions. President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill established the Combined Chiefs of Staff during the 1942 Arcadia Conference, the CCS would serve as the supreme military body for strategic direction of the combined US-British Empire war effort. The UK portion of the CCS would be composed of the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, the Joint Board had little influence during the war and was ultimately disbanded in 1947. Modeled on the British Chiefs of Staff Committee, the JCS first formal meeting was held on 9 February 1942, to coordinate U. S. military operations between War and Navy Departments. On 20 July 1942, Admiral Leahy became the Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, with the chiefs of staff of the services serving under his leadership. The first members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff were, As the table indicates, by the end of the war, however, each had been promoted, Leahy and King to Fleet Admiral, Marshall and Arnold to General of the Army. Arnold was later appointed to the grade of General of the Air Force, one of the Joint Chiefs of Staffs committees was the Joint Strategic Survey Committee
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Unified combatant command
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A unified combatant command is a United States Department of Defense command that is composed of forces from at least two Military Departments and has a broad and continuing mission. These commands are established to provide command and control of U. S. military forces, regardless of branch of service, in peace. They are organized either on a basis or on a functional basis, such as special operations, power projection. UCCs are joint commands with specific badges denoting their affiliation, the creation and organization of the unified combatant commands is legally mandated in Title 10, U. S. Code Sections 161–168. The Unified Command Plan is updated annually in conjunction with the DoD fiscal year, as of September 2011, there are nine unified combatant commands as specified in Title 10 and the latest annual UCP. Six have regional responsibilities, and three have functional responsibilities, each time the Unified Command Plan is updated, the organization of the combatant commands is reviewed for military efficiency and effectiveness, as well as alignment with national policy. Each unified command is led by a combatant commander, who is a general or admiral. The chain of command for operational purposes goes from the President through the Secretary of Defense to the combatant commanders, in the European Theater, Allied military forces fell under the command of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. After SHAEF was dissolved at the end of the war, the American forces were unified under a single command, the Joint Chiefs of Staff continued to advocate in favor of establishing permanent unified commands, and President Harry S. Truman approved the first plan on 14 December 1946. Known as the Outline Command Plan, it would become the first in a series of Unified Command Plans, the original Outline Command Plan of 1946 established seven unified commands, Far East Command, Pacific Command, Alaskan Command, Northeast Command, the U. S. Atlantic Fleet, Caribbean Command, and European Command, however, on 5 August 1947, the CNO recommended instead that CINCLANTFLT be established as a fully unified commander under the broader title of Commander in Chief, Atlantic. The Army and Air Force objected, and CINCLANTFLT was activated as a command on 1 November 1947. A few days later, the CNO renewed his suggestion for the establishment of a unified Atlantic Command and this time his colleagues withdrew their objections, and on 1 December 1947, the U. S. Atlantic Command was created under the Commander in Chief, Atlantic, under the original plan, each of the unified commands operated with one of the service chiefs serving as an executive agent representing the Joint Chiefs of Staff. This arrangement was formalized on 21 April 1948 as part of a paper titled the Function of the Armed Forces. Northeast Command were disestablished under the Unified Command Plan of 1956–57, CONAD itself was disestablished in 1975. Although not part of the plan, the Joint Chiefs of Staff also created specified commands that had broad. Examples include the U. S. Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, like the unified commands, the specified commands reported directly to the JCS instead of their respective service chiefs
20.
American Forces Network
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The American Forces Network is the brand name used by the United States Armed Forces Radio and Television Service for its entertainment and command internal information networks worldwide. AFN broadcasts popular American radio and television programs from the major U. S. networks and it is sometimes referred to as the Armed Forces Network. AFRTS, American Forces Network and AFN are registered trademarks of the U. S. Department of Defense and it is based at Fort George G. Meade in Maryland. The American Forces Network is the arm of the American Forces Radio and Television Service. AFN falls under the control of the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs. Editorial control is by the Department of Defense, whereas the British Forces Broadcasting Service, for example, is independent of the Ministry of Defence, AFN employs military broadcasters as well as Department of Defense civilians and contractors. Service personnel hold broadcasting occupational specialties for their military branch, since 1997, all of AFNs military personnel receive primary training at the Defense Information School at Fort George G. Meade in Maryland. Before 1997, DINFOS was located at Fort Benjamin Harrison in Indianapolis, in 1997, Fort Benjamin Harrison was largely closed as a function of the 1991 Base Closure and Realignment Commission. Additional/Advanced training is available at Fort George G. Meade. In the 1960s, DINFOS was located at Fort Slocum, NY on an island just off the harbor at New Rochelle. At its peak in 1965, the Army Chaplain school was located here. In 1963 this campus operated in a university setting with a military environment. The Army ran the Information School although training was offered to members of all military branches, Radio types took a rather severe audition written by CBS for their network announcers. Those who survived the audition became Broadcast Specialists with a 703 MOS, some of AFNs broadcasters have previous commercial broadcasting experience before enlisting in the military, but it is not a prerequisite for enlistment in the military as a broadcaster. During their training, the broadcasters are taught to use state-of-the-art audio, AFN management is located at DMA headquarters at Fort Meade. Day-to-day AFN broadcast operations are conducted at the AFN Broadcast Center/Defense Media Center in Riverside, California, from all global radio. The American Forces Network can trace its origins to May 26,1942, a television service was first introduced in 1954 with a pilot station at Limestone Air Force Base, Maine. In 1954, the mission of AFRS was officially recognized
21.
DoD News Channel
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DoD News Channel was a television channel broadcasting military news and information for the 2.6 million members of the U. S. It was widely available in the United States as a television channel. It could be viewed FTA in most Central and Western European countries, Africa, the Americas and most of Asia via satellite, DoD News Channel was free, in the public domain, and accessible 24/7 to all U. S. cable and satellite providers. The channel was founded in 2004 as The Pentagon Channel, on July 8,2014, The Pentagon Channel was rebranded as the DoD News Channel. The channel ceased operations on April 17,2015, however, content will still be produced for the American Forces Network and the website Defense. gov. S. military men and women. Around the Services, Daily half-hour program featuring news from top Defense officials. Fit for Duty, Takes viewers through a high-energy 30-minute workout led by members with expertise in fitness training. The show makes it simple to follow along and complete exercises demonstrated by the instructors, a military sports medicine physician also offers tips for preventing injuries and avoiding career-ending accidents during each episode of the show. Downrange, The latest news from Iraq and Afghanistan affecting U. S. military members, battleground, Every weekend, this series features historic films from World War II, Korean War, and the Vietnam War. The Grill Sergeants, The Grill Sergeants teach audience members how to prepare food while the in-house Army jazz quartet “The Taste Buds, ” play the shows score. This Week in the Pentagon, A weekly half hour update on the coming out of the Pentagon, taking one topic each week. FNG, FNG is a lifestyle show featuring useful advice aimed at young troops new to the military. Viewers will learn about great low cost travel, cooking, assignments, electronics, command Performance, Features military journalists talking with todays top entertainers for conversations with a uniquely military perspective. An updated revival of a 1940s radio program of the same name, hood, as well as live Department of Defense briefings and roundtables. With the change to DoD News Channel, most of the programming was either dropped or de-emphasized. In April 2006, the Pentagon Channel launched its podcasting initiative, currently the Pentagon Channel offers 27 podcasts via the iTunes Store and its website. The American Forces Press Service is the service provided by the Defense Media Activity. It supplies news stories pertaining to the activities of the U. S. military around the world, the New York Times has described it as the Pentagon’s media branch or internal news service
22.
Stars and Stripes (newspaper)
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Stars and Stripes is an American military newspaper that focuses and reports on matters concerning the members of the United States Armed Forces. The newspaper has its headquarters in Washington, D. C, on November 9,1861, during the Civil War, soldiers of the 11th, 18th, and 29th Illinois Regiments set up camp in the Missouri city of Bloomfield. Finding the local newspapers office empty, they decided to print a newspaper about their activities and they called it the Stars and Stripes. Today, the Stars and Stripes Museum/Library Association is located in Bloomfield, there is, however, no continuity between this and the later newspaper bearing the same name. During World War I, the staff, roving reporters, and illustrators of the Stars, harold Ross, editor of the Stars and Stripes, returned home to found The New Yorker magazine. Cyrus Baldridge, its art director and principal illustrator, became an illustrator of books and magazines, as well as a writer, print maker. Sports page editor Grantland Rice had a career in journalism. Drama critic Alexander Woollcotts essays for Stars and Stripes were collected in his 1919 book, during World War II, the newspaper was printed in dozens of editions in several operating theaters. Some of the editions were assembled and printed very close to the front in order to get the latest information to the most troops, also, during the war, the newspaper published the 53-book series G. I. The newspaper has published continuously in Europe since 1942 and in the Pacific since 1945. A photograph in Stars and Stripes loosely inspired the exploits of PFC Jack Agnew in the 1965 novel and its 1967 film adaptation, American comic strips have been presented in a 15-page section, Stripes Sunday Comics. A weekly derivative product is distributed within the United States by its commercial publishing partners, Stars and Stripes newspaper averages 32 pages each day and is published in tabloid format and online at www. stripes. com/epaper. Stars and Stripes also serves independent military news and information to an audience of about 2.0 million unique visitors per month,60 to 70 percent of whom are located in the United States. Stars and Stripes is a non-appropriated fund organization, only partially subsidized by the Department of Defense, a large portion of its operating costs is earned through the sale of advertising and subscriptions. Unique among the many publications, Stars and Stripes operates as a First Amendment newspaper and is part of the newly formed Defense Media Activity. The other entities encompassed by the Defense Media Activity, are command publications of the Department of Defense, only Stars, Stars and Stripes is in the process of digitizing its World War II editions. Newspaper microfilm from 1949 to 1999 is now in searchable format through a partnership with Heritage Microfilm and has integrated into an archives website. Newspaper Archive has also recently made the England, Ireland
23.
James Forrestal
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James Vincent Forrestal was the last Cabinet-level United States Secretary of the Navy and the first United States Secretary of Defense. Forrestal was a supporter of naval battle groups centered on aircraft carriers, in 1954, the worlds first supercarrier was named USS Forrestal in his honor, as is the James V. Forrestal Building, which houses the headquarters of the United States Department of Energy. Forrestal was born in Matteawan, New York, the youngest son of James Forrestal and his mother, the former Mary Anne Toohey raised him as a devout Roman Catholic. Forrestal entered Dartmouth College in 1911, but transferred to Princeton University sophomore year and he served as an editor for The Daily Princetonian. The senior class voted him Most Likely to Succeed, but he left just prior to completing work on a degree, Forrestal married the former Josephine Stovall, a Vogue writer, in 1926. She eventually developed alcohol and mental problems, Forrestal went to work as a bond salesman for William A. When the USA entered World War I, he enlisted in the Navy and ultimately became a Naval Aviator, training with the Royal Flying Corps in Canada. During the final year of the war, Forrestal spent much of his time in Washington, D. C. at the office of Naval Operations and he eventually reached the rank of Lieutenant. After the war, Forrestal returned to working in finance and made his fortune on Wall Street and he became a partner, vice-president, and president of the company. He also acted as a publicist for the Democratic Party committee in Dutchess County, one of those individuals aided by his work was a neighbor, Franklin D. Roosevelt. By some accounts, Forrestal was a workaholic, skilled administrator, pugnacious, introspective, shy, philosophic, solitary. President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Forrestal a special assistant on June 22,1940. Six weeks later, he nominated him for the established position. In his nearly four years as undersecretary, Forrestal proved highly effective at mobilizing domestic industrial production for the war effort, chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Ernest J. King, wanted to control logistics and procurement, but Forrestal prevailed. In September 1942, to get a grasp on the reports for material his office was receiving, he made a tour of operations in the Southwest Pacific. Returning to Washington, D. C. he made his report to President Roosevelt, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, and the cabinet. In response to Forrestals elevated request that material be sent immediately to the Southwest Pacific area, Stimson, told Forrestal, Jim, youve got a bad case of localitis. Forrestal shot back in a manner, Mr. Secretary, if the Marines on Guadalcanal were wiped out
24.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
25.
Louis A. Johnson
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Louis A. Johnson was an American politician who served as the second United States Secretary of Defense from 1949 to 1950. He was the Assistant Secretary of War from 1937 to 1940, Johnson was born on January 10,1891, in Roanoke, Virginia, to Marcellus and Katherine Johnson. He earned a law degree from the University of Virginia, after graduation he practiced law in Clarksburg, West Virginia, his firm, Steptoe & Johnson eventually opened offices in Charleston, West Virginia, and Washington, D. C. Elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1916, he served as majority floor leader, during World War I, Johnson saw action as an Army Captain in France, where he compiled a long report to the War Department on Army management and materiel requisition practices. After the war he resumed his law practice and was active in veterans affairs, as Assistant Secretary of War from 1937 to 1940, Johnson advocated Universal Military education and training, rearmament, and expansion of military aviation. He feuded with isolationist Secretary of War Harry Hines Woodring over military aid to Great Britain, having aspired to the position of Secretary, which he felt he had earned, Johnson felt betrayed by Roosevelt. Later, he served as Alien Property custodian for the American operations of the German chemical giant I. G. Farben. In 1942, Johnson briefly served as the personal representative in India, until an intestinal illness caused him to resign his post. As a regular visitor to the White House, Johnson not only continued to express an interest in defense matters and he was also a staunch supporter of Trumans desire to hold the line on defense spending. After a series of conflicts with Defense Secretary James V. Forrestal over defense budget cutbacks, President Truman asked for Forrestals resignation, replacing him with Johnson early in 1949. Truman would begin by subtracting from total receipts the amount needed for domestic needs and recurrent operating costs, from the beginning, Johnson and Truman assumed that the United States monopoly on the atomic bomb was adequate protection against any and all external threats. Johnsons unwillingness to budget conventional readiness needs for the Army, Navy, Johnson was also an advocate of defense unification, which he saw as a means to further reduce defense spending requirements. Later, in one of his frequent speeches on unification, Johnson stated that this nation can no longer tolerate the autonomous conduct of any single service, a waste of the resources of America in spendthrift defense is an invitation to disaster for America. In 1948, JCS Chief of Staff General Omar N. Bradley stated that the Army of 1948 could not fight its way out of a paper bag. General J. Lawton Collins went even further when testifying before a House Appropriations committee, Johnson promptly began proposing mothballing or scrapping much of the Navys conventional surface fleet and amphibious forces. There’s no reason for having a Navy and a Marine Corps, General Bradley tells me amphibious operations are a thing of the past. We’ll never have any more amphibious operations and that does away with the Marine Corps. And the Air Force can do anything the Navy can do, both Truman and Johnson extended their opposition to the Navy in their treatment of the U. S. Marine Corps
26.
George Marshall
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George Catlett Marshall, Jr. was an American statesman and soldier. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army under presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman and he was hailed as the organizer of victory by Winston Churchill for his leadership of the Allied victory in World War II. Born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Marshall was a 1901 graduate of the Virginia Military Institute, after serving briefly as commandant of students at the Danville Military Academy in Danville, Virginia, Marshall received his commission as a second lieutenant of Infantry in February,1902. He was the Honor Graduate of his Infantry-Cavalry School Course in 1907, in 1916 Marshall was assigned as aide-de-camp to J. Franklin Bell, the commander of the Western Department. After the United States entered World War I, Marshall served with Bell while Bell commanded the Department of the East. He was assigned to the staff of the 1st Division, and assisted with the mobilization and training in the United States. Subsequently assigned to the staff of the American Expeditionary Forces headquarters, after the war, Marshall was assigned as an aide-de-camp to John J. Pershing, who was then serving as the Armys Chief of Staff. He later served on the Army staff, commanded the 15th Infantry Regiment in China, in 1927, he became assistant commandant of the Armys Infantry School, where he modernized command and staff processes, which proved to be of major benefit during World War II. In 1932 and 1933 he commanded the 8th Infantry Regiment and Fort Screven, Marshall commanded 5th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division and Vancouver Barracks from 1936 to 1938, and received promotion to brigadier general. During this command, Marshall was also responsible for 35 Civilian Conservation Corps camps in Oregon, in July 1938, Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division on the War Department staff, and he was subsequently appointed as the Armys Deputy Chief of Staff. When Chief of Staff Malin Craig retired in 1939, Marshall became acting Chief of Staff and he served as Chief of Staff until the end of the war in 1945. As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U. S. history, Marshall retired from active service in 1945, but remained on active duty, a requirement for holders of five-star rank. As Secretary of State from 1947 to 1949, Marshall received credit for the Marshall Plan for Europes post-war rebuilding, after resigning as Secretary of State, Marshall served as chairman of American Battle Monuments Commission and president of the American National Red Cross. After resigning as Defense Secretary, Marshall retired to his home in Virginia and he died in 1959 and was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. George Catlett Marshall, Jr. was born into a family in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. Marshall was a scion of an old Virginia family, as well as a distant relative of former Chief Justice John Marshall, Marshall graduated from the Virginia Military Institute, where he was initiated into the Kappa Alpha Order in 1901. He was an All-Southern tackle for the VMI Keydets varsity football team in 1900, following graduation from VMI in 1901, Marshall sat for a competitive examination for a commission in the U. S. Army. While awaiting the results he took the position of Commandant of Students at the Danville Military Institute in Danville, Marshall passed the exam and was commissioned a second lieutenant in February,1902
27.
Robert A. Lovett
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Robert Abercrombie Lovett was the fourth United States Secretary of Defense, having been promoted to this position from Deputy Secretary of Defense. He served in the cabinet of President Harry S. Truman from 1951 to 1953 and in this capacity, Lovett was a core member of the group of foreign policy elders known as The Wise Men. Author G. William Domhoff described him as a Cold War architect, Lovett was born on September 14,1895 in Huntsville, Texas, to Robert S. Lovett, president and chairman of the board of the Union Pacific Railroad. Lovett graduated from The Hill School in Pottstown, PA in 1914 and he married, the debutante former Adele Quartley Brown on April 19,1919, and they had two children. He remained interested in aeronautics, especially in European commercial and military aviation, in December 1940, Lovett was appointed special assistant for air affairs to Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson. At the same time, John J. McCloy became general assistant secretary, in April 1941, Lovett was named assistant secretary of war for air, a position that had been vacant since Roosevelts 1933 inauguration. Lovett served with distinction, overseeing the expansion of the Army Air Forces. President Truman refused to accept the resignation of Lovett and McCloy when they, in December 1945, Lovett returned to Brown Brothers Harriman, only to be called back to Washington a little more than a year later to serve with General George Marshall as undersecretary of state. Through dialogue with Senator Arthur Vandenberg, he helped draft the Vandenberg resolution, in January 1949, Lovett went back to his investment business. Marshall, however, insisted for Lovett to join him again when he took over at the Pentagon as Secretary of Defense in September 1950, as deputy secretary of defense, Lovett played a critical role in the departments management. When Lovett became Secretary of Defense, the end of the Korean War was not yet in sight and his main concern continued to be the long-range rearmament program. Like Marshall, Lovett believed that the United States erred seriously at the end of World War II by disintegrating the military. He had also joined Marshall in opposing the recognition of the new state of Israel in 1948 because he thought it was contrary to long-term US strategic interests in the region. When the Korean War happened, he designed the rearmament program intended both to meet the demands of the war and to serve as a deterrent and mobilization base in future military emergencies. As Lovett put it, Heretofore this country has only had two throttle settings one, wide-open for war, and the other, tight-shut for peace, what we are really trying to do is to find a cruising speed. He argued toward working toward a goal of 143 Air Force wings, Lovett did not get all that he wanted. The actual amount his department received for 1953 came to about $44.2 billion and he had asked for initially $71 billion, later reducing his requests to $49 billion. Lovetts efforts to meet rearmament and preparedness goals suffered in 1952 from a dispute between the federal government and the steel industry
28.
Charles Erwin Wilson
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Charles Erwin Wilson was an American engineer and businessman who served as United States Secretary of Defense from 1953 to 1957 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Known as Engine Charlie, he worked as CEO for General Motors. In the wake of the Korean War, he cut the budget significantly. Wilson was born in Minerva, Ohio, the son of Thomas E. Wilson married Jessie Ann Curtis on September 11,1912. In 1919, Wilson moved to Remy Electric, a General Motors subsidiary, as chief engineer, by January 1941 he was the president of General Motors. During World War II, Wilson directed the huge defense production effort. He was still head of General Motors when President Eisenhower selected him as Secretary of Defense in January 1953, Wilsons nomination sparked a controversy that erupted during his confirmation hearings before the Senate Armed Services Committee, based on his large stockholdings in General Motors. Reluctant to sell the stock, valued at the time at more than $2.5 million, Wilson agreed to do so under committee pressure. During the hearings, when asked if he could make a decision as Secretary of Defense that would be adverse to the interests of General Motors, Wilson answered affirmatively. But he added that he could not conceive of such a situation because for years I thought what was good for our country was good for General Motors and this statement has frequently been misquoted as Whats good for General Motors is good for the country. Although Wilson tried for years to correct the misquote, he was reported at the time of his retirement in 1957 to have accepted the popular impression. Wilson was finally confirmed as Secretary of Defense by a Senate vote of 77 to 6, both Wilson and Eisenhower entered office committed to reorganizing the Department of Defense. They succeeded in securing from Congress approval in June 1953 of Reorganization Plan No,6, which made changes in OSD, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the chain of command. Wilson welcomed the plan, which became effective on June 30,1953. He looked on the assistant secretaries as his vice presidents and tried to run the Pentagon like an industrial corporation, Wilson took advantage of the reorganization to decentralize administration, giving the service secretaries more responsibility and importance. Internal reorganization was only one of major changes during Wilsons tenure. The president inaugurated planning for the New Look in July 1953 by asking the members of the JCS to prepare a paper on overall defense policy. Eisenhower formally presented the New Look in his State of the Union message in January 1954, more defense for less money was possible, he said
29.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
30.
Fred Andrew Seaton
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Frederick Andrew Fred Seaton was an American newspaperman and politician. He represented Nebraska in the U. S. Senate and served as United States Secretary of the Interior during Dwight D. Eisenhowers administration, Seaton was born in Washington, D. C. on December 11,1909, the son of Dorothea Elizabeth and Fay Noble Seaton. He attended the Manhattan High School in Manhattan, Kansas and he graduated from Kansas State University in 1931, and married Gladys Hope Dowd in the same year. They had four children, Donald Richard, Alfred Noble, Johanna Christine, in 1937, Seaton moved to Hastings, Nebraska, where he was for many years the publisher of the Hastings Tribune. Seaton was active in Republican politics and he served in the unicameral Nebraska Legislature from 1945 to 1949. He was appointed to the U. S. Senate on December 10,1951, a Rockefeller Republican, Seaton was senator for less than a year, he had to vacate the post on November 4,1952, with the election of Dwight Griswold. Seaton served in various White House and subcabinet posts in Eisenhowers administration before he was appointed the Secretary of the Interior and he served that in office from June 8,1956 until January 20,1961. During his tenure, Alaska and Hawaii became the 49th and 50th states admitted to the Union and he ran for governor of Nebraska in 1962 but was defeated by the incumbent Democrat Frank B. Following his defeat, Seaton became an advocate for campaign finance reform in Nebraska. Seaton died in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on January 16,1974, Seaton, Fred A in Current Biography 1956. Olson, History of Nebraska, Second Edition, Fred A. Seaton at Find a Grave
31.
Robert Tripp Ross
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Robert Tripp Ross was a United States Representative from New York. Born in Washington, Beaufort County, North Carolina, he attended the schools, moved to New York City in 1929. For seventeen years he was associated with a drug firm in managerial. Ross was elected as a Republican to the Eightieth Congress, holding office from January 3,1947 to January 3,1949 and he was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1948 to the Eighty-first Congress, and engaged in the manufacture of clothing and athletic equipment. Vincent Quinn, Ross then held office from February 19,1952 to January 3,1953 and he was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1952 to the Eighty-third Congress, and was Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Legislative Affairs from March 1954 to March 1956. He was vice president, Merchandising Apparel Company, from 1959 to 1968, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Robert Tripp Ross at Find a Grave
32.
Neil H. McElroy
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Neil Hosler McElroy was United States Secretary of Defense from 1957 to 1959 under President Eisenhower. He had been president of Procter & Gamble, born in Berea, Ohio, to school-teacher parents, McElroy grew up in the Cincinnati area. After receiving a degree in economics from Harvard in 1925. In 1931, as a junior executive managing the campaign for P&Gs Camay brand of soap. In the memo, McElroy argued that companies should assign a separate marketing team to each individual product brand and this innovative system of brand management would eventually be adopted by consumer product companies all throughout the U. S. He advanced rapidly up the ladder and became company president in 1948. Although a well known businessman, McElroys only experience in the government prior to 1957 had been as chairman of the White House Conference on Education in 1955-56. Given his background in industry, and given President Eisenhowers predominance in defense matters and he spelled out his mandate the day he assumed office, I conceive the role of the Secretary of Defense to be that of captain of President Eisenhowers defense team. This event, which raised important questions about the U. S. defense program, served as a backdrop to the swearing in, on October 9,1957, of Neil H. McElroy as Secretary of Defense. The launching of Sputnik I and a second Soviet satellite a month later prevented McElroy from easing into his duties at a deliberate pace, McElroy also ordered accelerated development of the Navy solid-fuel Polaris IRBM and the Air Force liquid-fuel Atlas and Titan ICBMs. McElroy did not believe that the Sputnik success represented a change in the worlds military balance. McElroy had to spend much time explaining the missile programs and trying to allay congressional anxiety about a missile gap between the United States and the Soviet Union. McElroy shared some responsibility for the missile gap controversy, when asked whether the United States was behind the Russians in the satellite and missile fields, he responded affirmatively. But charges of a missile gap persisted, the missile gap debate lasted throughout the rest of Eisenhowers term and became a prominent issue in the presidential campaign of 1960. In some measure the Soviet sputniks may have hastened the landmark Defense Reorganization Act of 1958, although President Eisenhower provided strong leadership in achieving the necessary legislation, McElroy was instrumental in seeing it through. The Defense Reorganization Act of 1958 significantly influenced the evolution of DoD organization, as always, the budget greatly influenced the shaping of Department of Defense plans and programs. Although the Eisenhower administration maintained a determined interest in controlling expenditures and balancing the budget, a strong supporter of military assistance, he argued effectively for continued congressional and public support for the program. Military Assistance, he said, is to the defense of our Country as fire prevention is to fire fighting
33.
Thomas S. Gates Jr.
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Thomas Sovereign Gates Jr. was United States Secretary of Defense from 1959 to 1961 under President Eisenhower. He was promoted from deputy secretary of defense, during his tenure, he established a task force to set nuclear target priorities. He also authorized U-2 reconnaissance flights, including the flight of Francis Gary Powers, Gates graduated from Chestnut Hill Academy, an all-male private preparatory school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1924. He was then accepted into the University of Pennsylvania, where his father was serving on the board of trustees. A member of Zeta Psi fraternity, and the Phi Beta Kappa Society, Gates married the former Millicent Anne Brengle on September 29,1928. They had one son and three daughters, after graduating, he joined his fathers Philadelphia-based investment banking firm, Drexel and Company. In the early to mid-1930s he worked as a salesman at Drexel. Gates became a partner at Drexel and Company in 1940. During World War II he served in the Navy, rose to the rank of lieutenant commander and he was released from active duty in October 1945. President Eisenhower appointed Gates Under Secretary of the Navy in October 1953 and Secretary on 1 April 1957 and it was a foregone conclusion when Gates became Defense Secretary Neil McElroys deputy on 8 June 1959 that he would succeed him. He entered office with a background of active military experience. As a top-level DoD official since 1953, Gates was familiar with the 1953 and 1958 Defense Department reorganizations, Gates cultivated a good working relationship with the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Soon Gates and the JCS met on a basis, not just in instances when the Chiefs disagreed. Congressional and other sources applauded Gates for taking the initiative in improving both the JCS organization and the relations with it. Another important Gates initiative was the creation in August 1960 of the Joint Strategic Target Planning Staff, previously, inadequate coordination of targeting plans between the Strategic Air Command and the Navy led to redundancy and disputed priorities. These differences became especially significant with the advent of the Navys sea-based Polaris ballistic missiles, acting on a proposal by SAC Commander in Chief General Thomas S. Power that SAC control strategic weapons targeting, Gates set up the JSTPS. When Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh A. Burke objected to the new arrangement, Gates encouraged him to argue his case with President Eisenhower, thereafter Burke supported the JSTPS and assigned to it highly qualified naval officers. Gates devoted more time than his predecessors Charles E. Wilson and Neil H. McElroy to the development of defense policy
34.
Robert McNamara
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Robert Strange McNamara was an American business executive and the eighth Secretary of Defense, serving from 1961 to 1968 under Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, during which time he played a role in escalating the United States involvement in the Vietnam War. Following that, he served as President of the World Bank from 1968 to 1981, McNamara was responsible for the institution of systems analysis in public policy, which developed into the discipline known today as policy analysis. McNamara consolidated intelligence and logistics functions of the Pentagon into two centralized agencies, the Defense Intelligence Agency and the Defense Supply Agency. Prior to his service, McNamara was one of the Whiz Kids who helped rebuild Ford Motor Company after World War II. A group of advisors he brought to the Pentagon inherited the Whiz Kids moniker, McNamara remains the longest serving Secretary of Defense, having remained in office over seven years. Robert McNamara was born in San Francisco, California and his father was Robert James McNamara, sales manager of a wholesale shoe company, and his mother was Clara Nell McNamara. His fathers family was Irish and in about 1850, following the Great Irish Famine, had emigrated to the U. S. first to Massachusetts and later to California. He graduated from Piedmont High School in Piedmont in 1933, where he was president of the Rigma Lions boys club, McNamara attended the University of California, Berkeley and graduated in 1937 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics with minors in mathematics and philosophy. He was a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa his sophomore year, and earned a varsity letter in crew. McNamara was also a member of the UC Berkeleys Order of the Golden Bear which was a fellowship of students and he then attended Harvard Business School and earned an MBA in 1939. One major responsibility was the analysis of U. S. bombers efficiency and effectiveness, especially the B-29 forces commanded by Major General Curtis LeMay in India, China, and the Mariana Islands. McNamara established a control unit for XX Bomber Command and devised schedules for B-29s doubling as transports for carrying fuel. He left active duty in 1946 with the rank of lieutenant colonel, in 1946, Charles Tex Thornton, a colonel under whom McNamara had served, put together a group of officers from his AAF Statistical Control operation to go into business together. Thornton had seen an article in Life magazine portraying Ford as being in dire need of reform, henry Ford II, himself a World War II veteran from the Navy, hired the entire group of 10, including McNamara. The Whiz Kids, as came to be known, helped the money-losing company reform its chaotic administration through modern planning, organization. Whiz Kids origins, Because of their youth, combined with asking lots of questions, Ford employees initially and disparagingly, the Quiz Kids rebranded themselves as the Whiz Kids. Starting as manager of planning and financial analysis, he advanced rapidly through a series of management positions
35.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
36.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
37.
Clark Clifford
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Clark McAdams Clifford was an American lawyer who served as an important political adviser to Democratic Presidents Harry S. Truman, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson and Jimmy Carter. A successful Washington lawyer, he was known for his clientele, charming manners. All 4 Democratic Presidents of the Cold War era employed Cliffords services and relied on his counsel, in his later years, Clifford became involved in several controversies. He was a key figure in the Bank of Credit and Commerce International scandal, Clifford was born in Fort Scott, Kansas, the son of Frank Clifford and Georgia Clifford. He attended college and law school at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, Clifford went to Washington, D. C. first to serve as assistant to the Presidents Naval Adviser, after the naming of a personal friend from Missouri as the Presidents Naval Adviser. Following his discharge from the Navy, he remained at Trumans side as White House Counsel from 1946 to 1950, as Truman came rapidly to trust and rely upon Clifford. Clifford was a key architect of Trumans campaign in 1948, when Truman pulled off an upset victory over Republican nominee Thomas Dewey. Clifford also believed that a strong pro-civil rights stance, while sure to alienate traditional Southern Democrats, kennan and Charles Bohlen, was his preparation, along with George Elsey, of the top secret Clifford-Elsey Report for President Truman in 1946. S. Relations toward the Soviet Union in the direction of a harder line, after leaving the government in 1950, Clifford practiced law in Washington, D. C. but continued to advise Democratic Party leaders. One of his law clients was John F. Kennedy, then a U. S. Senator, in 1960, Clifford was a member of President-elect Kennedys Committee on the Defense Establishment, headed by Stuart Symington. In May 1961, Kennedy appointed Clifford to the Presidents Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, on January 19,1968, Johnson announced his selection of Clifford to succeed Robert McNamara as the U. S. Secretary of Defense. Clifford estimated that, in the year just prior to his appointment, he had spent about half of his time advising the President, widely known and respected in Washington and knowledgeable on defense matters, Clifford was generally hailed as a worthy successor to McNamara. Many regarded the new secretary as more of a hawk on Vietnam than McNamara, and thought his selection might presage an escalation of the U. S. military effort there. Clifford attempted to allay such fears when, responding to a query about whether he was a hawk or a dove, he remarked, I am not conscious of falling under any of those ornithological divisions. The new Secretary did not change the management system McNamara had installed at The Pentagon, Clifford wanted to deploy the system, and supported congressional appropriations for it. Clifford continued McNamaras highly publicized Cost Reduction Program, announcing that over $1.2 billion had been saved in fiscal year 1968 as a result of the effort, by the time Clifford became secretary, Defense Department work on the fiscal year 1969 budget was complete. It amounted in total obligational authority to $77.7 billion, the final FY1970 budget, which Clifford and his staff worked on before they left office after the election of Richard Nixon to the presidency, amounted to $75.5 billion TOA. Clifford took office committed to rethinking Johnsons Vietnam policies, and Vietnam policy consumed most of his time and he had argued against escalation in 1965 in private counsel with the president, but then provided public support for the presidents position once the decision was made
38.
Melvin Laird
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Melvin Robert Bom Laird was an American politician, writer and statesman. He was a U. S. congressman from Wisconsin from 1953 to 1969 before serving as Secretary of Defense from 1969 to 1973 under President Richard Nixon, first elected in 1952, Laird was the last surviving Representative elected to the 83rd Congress at the time of his death. Laird was born in Omaha, Nebraska, the son of Melvin R. Laird, Sr. a politician, businessman and he grew up and attended high school in Marshfield, Wisconsin, although in his junior year he attended Lake Forest Academy in Lake Forest, Illinois. He was nicknamed Bambino by his mother, Laird was the grandson of William D. Connor, the Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin from 1907 to 1909, and the great-grandson of Robert Connor, a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly. His niece is Jessica Laird Doyle, wife of former Wisconsin Governor Jim Doyle and he graduated from Carleton College in Minnesota in May 1944, having enlisted in the United States Navy a year earlier. Following his commissioning as an ensign, he served on a destroyer, a recipient of the Purple Heart and several other decorations, Laird left the Navy in April 1946. Laird entered the Wisconsin State Senate at age 23, succeeding his deceased father and he represented a legislative district encompassing Stevens Point, Wisconsin. Laird was re-elected eight consecutive times and he was chairman of the House Republican Conference when Nixon selected him for the cabinet and he was known for his work on both domestic and defense issues, including his service on the Defense subcommittee of the House Appropriations Committee. He left Congress reluctantly, making it clear when he became secretary on January 22,1969 that he intended to no more than four years. As a congressman Laird had supported a strong defense posture and had sometimes been critical of Secretary McNamara, Laird also criticized McNamaras management and decision-making practices. Laird was reportedly the elder statesman chosen by the Republicans to convince Vice President Spiro Agnew to resign his position after Agnews personal corruption became a public scandal and he also had a prominent role in the selection of Gerald Ford as Agnews replacement as Vice President. The department implemented a number of the panels proposals while Laird served in the Pentagon, Laird did not depart abruptly from the McNamara-Clifford management system, but rather instituted gradual changes. While retaining decisionmaking functions for himself and the deputy secretary of defense, Laird somewhat decentralized policymaking and he accorded the service secretaries and the JCS a more influential role in the development of budgets and force levels. He revised the PPBS, including a return to the use of service budget ceilings, the previously powerful systems analysis office could no longer initiate planning, only evaluate and review service proposals. Laird noted this in his FY1971 report, Except for the policy decisions. The military leadership was enthusiastic about Lairds methods, as the Washington Post reported after his selection as secretary of defense, Around the military-industrial complex these days theyre singing Praise the Laird and pass the transformation. Laird did not shrink from centralized management where he found it useful or warranted and his tenure saw the establishment of the Defense Investigative Service, the Defense Mapping Agency, the Office of Net Assessment, and the Defense Security Assistance Agency. In October 1972 Congress passed legislation creating a second deputy secretary of defense position, Laird succeeded in improving DoDs standing with Congress
39.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
40.
Elliot L. Richardson
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Elliot Lee Richardson was an American lawyer and politician who was a member of the cabinet of Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. As U. S. Attorney General, he was a prominent figure in the Watergate Scandal and that makes him one of only two individuals to have held four Cabinet positions within the United States government. Richardson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Clara Lee and Edward Peirson Richardson and he was a Boston Brahmin, descended from the earliest Puritan settlers in New England. In 1942, following Americas entry into World War II, Richardson became a medic in the U. S. 4th Infantry Division. He participated in the June 6,1944, Normandy Invasion as a platoon leader and he was among the first troops of the Big Ivy to come up Causeway No.2 from Utah Beach, which had been under fire from German artillery at Brécourt Manor. He was among the many who noticed the guns ceasing their firing after, after Stephen Ambroses book Band of Brothers was published, Richardson wrote to Winters and thanked him. He continued on in the war in Europe with the 4th Infantry Division and received the Bronze Star Medal and he was discharged in 1945 with the rank of first lieutenant. In 1947, he graduated from Harvard Law School, while at Harvard he became editor and president of the Harvard Law Review. Richardson then served as U. S. Attorney for Massachusetts from 1959 to 1961 and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958. Richardsons older son, Henry S. Richardson, is a professor of philosophy at Georgetown University and he served three relatively uneventful years as the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for a popular sitting President. In September 1970, Richardson was present at the funeral of Gamal Abdel Nasser and he secretly met with Anwar Sadat, Nassers successor to discuss a possible peace process with the United States. Richardson was appointed United States Secretary of Defense on January 30,1973, when President Nixon selected Richardson as Secretary, the press described him as an excellent manager and administrator, perhaps the best in the cabinet. In his confirmation hearing, Richardson expressed agreement with Nixons policies on issues as the adequacy of U. S. strategic forces, NATO and relationships with other allies. Although he promised to examine the budget carefully to identify areas for savings, similarly, he strongly supported continued military assistance at current levels. During his short tenure, Richardson spent much time testifying before congressional committees on the proposed FY1974 budget, Richardson would serve as Secretary of Defense for 4 months before becoming Nixons Attorney General, a move that would put him in the Watergate spotlight. In October 1973, after Richardson had served 5 months as Attorney General, Richardson had promised Congress he would not interfere with the Special Prosecutor, and, rather than disobey the President or break his promise, he resigned. President Nixon subsequently ordered Richardsons second-in-command, Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus and he too had promised not to interfere, and also tendered his resignation. Bork carried out the Presidents order, thus completing the events referred to as the Saturday Night Massacre
41.
James R. Schlesinger
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James Rodney Schlesinger was an American economist and public servant who was best known for serving as Secretary of Defense from 1973 to 1975 under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. He became Americas first Secretary of Energy under Jimmy Carter, while Secretary of Defense, he opposed amnesty for draft resisters, and pressed for development of more sophisticated nuclear weapon systems. Additionally, his support for the A-10 and the lightweight fighter program helped ensure that they were carried to completion, James Rodney Schlesinger was born in New York City, the son of Jewish parents, Rhea Lillian and Julius Schlesinger. His mother was a Lithuanian emigrant from what was part of the Russian Empire. He converted to Lutheranism in his early 20s, Schlesinger was educated at the Horace Mann School and Harvard University, where he earned a B. A. M. A. and Ph. D. in economics. Between 1955 and 1963 he taught economics at the University of Virginia, in 1963, he moved to the Rand Corporation, where he worked until 1969, in the later years as director of strategic studies. In 1969, Schlesinger joined the Nixon administration as assistant director of the Bureau of the Budget, in 1971, President Nixon appointed Schlesinger a member of the Atomic Energy Commission and designated him as chairman. Serving in this position for about a year and a half, Schlesinger instituted extensive organizational, on February 2,1973, he became Director of Central Intelligence. Schlesinger left the CIA to become Secretary of Defense on July 2, as a university professor, researcher at Rand, and government official in three agencies, he had acquired an impressive resume in national security affairs. Obligation to use our citizens resources wisely, and become competitive with potential adversaries. E must not be forced out of the market on land, at sea, eli Whitney belongs to us, not to our competitors. Schlesinger believed that deterrence is not a substitute for defense, defense capabilities and he had grave doubts about the assured destruction strategy, which relied on massive nuclear attacks against an enemys urban-industrial areas. S. To meet these needs, Schlesinger built on existing ideas in developing a flexible response nuclear strategy, the nations assured destruction force would be withheld in the hope that the enemy would not attack U. S. cities. He explicitly disavowed any intention to acquire a destabilizing first-strike capability against the USSR, but he wanted an offensive capability of such size and composition that all will perceive it as in overall balance with the strategic forces of any potential opponent. Schlesinger devoted much attention to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, citing the need to strengthen its conventional capabilities and he rejected the argument that NATO could not afford a conventional counterweight to Warsaw Pact forces. He urged qualitative improvements in NATO forces, including equipment standardization, Schlesinger had an abiding interest in strategic theory, but he also had to deal with a succession of immediate crises that tested his administrative and political skills. In October 1973, three months after he took office, Arab countries launched an attack on Israel and started the Yom Kippur War. As Schlesinger explained, the initial U. S. policy to direct involvement rested on the assumption that Israel would win quickly
42.
Gerald Ford
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Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. was an American politician who served as the 38th President of the United States from 1974 to 1977, following the resignation of Richard Nixon. Prior to this he served eight months as the 40th Vice President of the United States, before his appointment to the vice presidency, Ford served 25 years as U. S. Representative from Michigans 5th congressional district, the nine of them as the House Minority Leader. As President, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, marking a move toward détente in the Cold War, with the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U. S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended. Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation, one of his most controversial acts was to grant a presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. During Fords presidency, foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, in the Republican presidential primary campaign of 1976, Ford defeated former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination. Arthur not to be elected in his own right, following his years as President, Ford remained active in the Republican Party. After experiencing health problems, he died at home on December 26,2006, Ford lived longer than any other U. S. president –93 years and 165 days – while his 895-day presidency was the shortest of all presidents who did not die in office. Gerald Rudolph Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14,1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. His mother was Dorothy Ayer Gardner and his father was Leslie Lynch King Sr. a wool trader, Dorothy separated from King just sixteen days after her sons birth. She took her son with her to the Oak Park, Illinois, home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, from there, she moved to the home of her parents, Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Dorothy and King divorced in December 1913, she gained custody of her son. Fords paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930, Ford later said his biological father had a history of hitting his mother. James M. Ford later told confidantes that his father had first hit his mother on their honeymoon for smiling at another man. After two and a half years with her parents, on February 1,1916, Dorothy married Gerald Rudolff Ford and they then called her son Gerald Rudolff Ford, Jr. The future president was never adopted, and did not legally change his name until December 3,1935. He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mothers marriage, Thomas Gardner Tom Ford, Richard Addison Dick Ford. Ford also had three half-siblings from the marriage of Leslie King, Sr. his biological father, Marjorie King, Leslie Henry King
