1.
Aston Martin
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Aston Martin Lagonda Limited is a British manufacturer of luxury sports cars and grand tourers. It was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford and their sports cars are regarded as a British cultural icon. Aston Martin has held a Royal Warrant as purveyor of motorcars to HRH the Prince of Wales since 1982, headquarters and the main production site are in Gaydon, Warwickshire, England, on the site of a former RAF V Bomber airbase. One of Aston Martins recent cars was named after the 1950s Vulcan Bomber, Aston Martin has diversified to speed boats, and real estate development. Aston Martin had a troubled history after the quarter of the 20th century but has also enjoyed long periods of success. “In the first century we went bankrupt seven times, ” incoming CEO Andy Palmer told Automotive News Europe, “The second century is about making sure that is not the case. ”Aston Martin was founded in 1913 by Lionel Martin and Robert Bamford. The two had joined forces as Bamford & Martin the previous year to sell cars made by Singer from premises in Callow Street, London where they also serviced GWK, Martin raced specials at Aston Hill near Aston Clinton, and the pair decided to make their own vehicles. The first car to be named Aston Martin was created by Martin by fitting a four-cylinder Coventry-Simplex engine to the chassis of a 1908 Isotta-Fraschini and they acquired premises at Henniker Mews in Kensington and produced their first car in March 1915. Production could not start because of the outbreak of World War I, all machinery was sold to the Sopwith Aviation Company. After the war found new premises at Abingdon Road, Kensington. Bamford left in 1920 and Aston Martin was revitalised with funding from Count Louis Zborowski, in 1922, Bamford & Martin produced cars to compete in the French Grand Prix, which went on to set world speed and endurance records at Brooklands. Approximately 55 cars were built for sale in two configurations, long chassis and short chassis, Aston Martin went bankrupt in 1924 and was bought by Dorothea, Lady Charnwood who put her son John Benson on the board. Aston Martin failed again in 1925 and the closed in 1926. Later that year, Bill Renwick, Augustus Bertelli and investors including Lady Charnwood took control of the business and they renamed it Aston Martin Motors and moved it to the former Whitehead Aircraft Limited Hanworth works in Feltham. The only Renwick and Bertelli motor car made, it was known as Buzzbox, between 1926 and 1937 Bertelli was both technical director and designer of all new Aston Martins, since known as Bertelli cars. They included the 1½-litre T-type, International, Le Mans, MKII and its derivative, the Ulster, and the 2-litre 15/98 and its racing derivative. Most were open two-seater sports cars bodied by Bert Bertellis brother Enrico, with a number of long-chassis four-seater tourers, dropheads. Bertelli was a competent driver keen to race his cars, one of few owner/manufacturer/drivers, the LM team cars were very successful in national and international motor racing including at Le Mans and the Mille Miglia
2.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
3.
Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera
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Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera is an automobile coachbuilder established on 25 March 1926 in Milan, Italy by Felice Bianchi Anderloni and Gaetano Ponzoni. Carrozzeria Touring became well known for both the beauty of its designs and patented superleggera construction methods, the trademark was purchased by the current owner, a family business, which resumed business activities in 2006 under the name Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera S. r. l. The firm is headquartered nearby Milan, its hometown, the new owners changed the name of the firm to Carrozzeria Touring. Carrozzeria Tourings location at Via Ludovico da Breme 65 placed the coachbuilder in close proximity to automobile manufacturers Alfa Romeo, Citroën, predictably, Tourings first bodywork assignments were for chassis produced by these companies. Bianchi Anderloni came to Touring more as an automobile designer than a car constructor, the company licensed Charles Weymanns system of fabric-covered lightweight frames, a predecessor of their own Superleggera construction system. Touring hired Giuseppe Seregni, who collaborated with Bianchi Anderloni on the 1927 Isotta-Fraschini Flying Star. This super lightweight system consists of a structure of small tubes to form the bodys shape with thin alloy panels attached to cover. Aside from light weight, the Superleggera construction system gave great flexibility, in 1937 at Mille Miglia, Alfa Romeo 6C 2300B was the first appearance of a Touring car built with the Superleggera system. Prior to World War II, Touring gained fame for their Superleggera bodies, particularly those made for the Alfa Romes 8C2900, the company quickly re-energized after the war, with the Superleggera system widely licensed and copied. Felice Bianchi Anderloni died in 1948 and his son, Carlo Felice Cici Bianchi Anderloni, the two would remain in charge of the firm until the company discontinued production in 1966. Cicis first major project was to create a body for the Ferrari 166 Mille Miglia Touring barchetta, automotive design critic Robert Cumberford has referred to the body design for the 166 as One of the most charismatic shapes ever. The egg-crate grill of the 166 became a signature Ferrari design element and is still in use by Ferrari today, the Aston Martin DB4, the DB5 and the DB6 were named after David Brown’s initials. He entrusted Touring Superleggera to design their next generation GT after the introduction of the successful DB2, Tourings fortunes began to decline as automobile manufacturers replaced body-on-frame construction with monocoque construction. The carmakers began to build their own bodies in their production lines, however, they were not able to produce less than a few thousand units yearly. Therefore, they decided to assign the body production to coachbuilders and this led coachbuilders to invest in additional manufacturing capacity. Once Touring Superleggera had the new plant in Nova Milanese completed, the company had to wind-up in 1966, although bankruptcy never occurred. During the winding up, roughly the 80% of Touring Superleggera’s archives caught fire, the documents included precious information Carlo Felice Bianchi Anderloni cherished the most. Therefore, he devoted energy to get in touch with every owner
4.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
5.
Grand tourer
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A grand tourer is a performance and luxury automobile capable of high speed and long-distance driving. The most common format is a two-door coupé with either a two-seat or a 2+2 arrangement, the grand touring concept is eurocentric, the definition implies material differences in performance at speed, comfort, and amenities between elite automobiles and those of ordinary motorists. In post-war United States, the Interstate Highway System and wide availability of powerful Straight-six, European GTs did find success penetrating the American personal luxury car market, notably the Mercedes-Benz SL-Class. Grand touring car design evolved from vintage and pre-World War II fast touring cars, italy developed the first gran turismo cars. The small, light-weight and aerodynamic coupé, named the Berlinetta, independent carrozzeria provided light and flexible fabric coachwork for powerful short-wheelbase fast-touring chassis by manufacturers such as Alfa Romeo. Later, Carrozzeria Touring of Milan would pioneer sophisticated Superleggera aluminium bodywork, the additional comfort of an enclosed cabin was beneficial for the Mille Miglia road-race held in Italys often wintry north. An improved and supercharged version, the 6C1750 GTC Gran Turismo Compressore, from the basic Fiat 508 Balilla touring chassis came the SIATA and Fiat aerodynamic gran turismo-style Berlinetta Mille Miglias of 1933 and 1935. The first recognised motor race for gran turismo cars was the 1949 Coppa Inter-Europa held at Monza, however, the Fiat based 1100 cc four-cylinder Cisitaila was no match on the race track for Ferraris new hand-built 2000 cc V12, and Ferrari dominated, taking the first three places. An 1100 cc class was created, but not in time to save Cisitalias business fortunes—the companys bankrupt owner Piero Dusio had already decamped to Argentina. The Maserati A61500 won the 1500 cc class at the 1949 Coppa-Europa and it was driven by Franco Bordoni, former fighter ace of the Regia Aeronautica who had debuted as a pilota da corsa at the 1949 Mille Miglia. The body of the A61500 was an elegant two-door fast-back coupe body, the first car constructed in Ferraris name, the V12125 S, also a racing sports car, debuted in 1947 at the Piacenza racing circuit. The Ferrari 166 Inter S coupé model won the 1949 Coppa Inter-Europa, regulations stipulated body form and dimensions but did not at this time specify a minimum production quantity. The car was driven by Bruno Sterzi, and is recognized as the first Ferrari gran turismo, Ferraris response for the new Gran Tursimo championship was the road/race Ferrari 212. All versions came with the standard Ferrari five-speed non-synchromesh gearbox and hydraulic drum brakes, all 1951 Ferraris shared a double tube frame chassis design evolved from the 166. Double-wishbone front suspension with leaf spring, and live rear axle with semi-elliptic leaf springs. Even more impressive than the new Ferrari in 1951 was the debut of Lancias Aurelia B20 GT. Lancia had begun production in 1950 of their technically advanced Aurelia sedan, at the 1951 Turin Motor Show, the Pinin Farina-bodied Gran Tursimo B20 Coupé version was unveiled to an enthusiastic motoring public. In the B20 are elements of the Cistalia of 1947, coupés which Pinin undertook on a 6C Alfa Romeo and Maserati in 1948, in addition the B20 had a shorter wheelbase and a higher rear axle ratio, making it a 100 mph car
6.
Convertible
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A convertible or cabriolet is an automobile body style that can convert between an open-air mode and an enclosed one, varying in degree and means by model. Convertibles evolved from the phaeton, an open vehicle without glass side windows that sometimes had removable panels of fabric or other material for protection from the elements. Historically, a retractable roof consisted of a frame covered with a folding. A lesser seen detachable hardtop provided a more weatherproof and secure alternative, as technology improved, a retractable hardtop which removes and stows its own rigid roof in its trunk appeared, increasingly becoming the most popular form. A semiconvertible also known as a coach has a retractable or removable top which retains fully framed windows on its doors. A landaulet is a convertible with a fully enclosed front cabin. Other common terms include cabriolet, cabrio, soft top, and drop top, and where the roof is more than emergency weather protection, open two-seater, rag top, spider. The erected top secures to the frame header with manual latches, semimanual latches. The folded convertible top is called the stack, a tonneau cover provides a solution. A range of materials is available for soft tops, automakers had problems in securing raw materials to fulfill orders after World War II, including canvas in various shades for convertible tops and limiting their manufacture. Polyvinyl chloride material was used for many convertible tops, the material consists of two layers, a top layer made of PVC, which has a specific structure depending on the vehicle model, and a lower layer made of fabric. Side windows were not existent in open cars, which may have detachable side screens, rear windows have evolved similarly, with plastic rear windows appearing as late as the first-generation Porsche Boxster. Plastic windows can degrade, fade, yellow, and crack over time, a windblocker or wind deflector minimizes noise and rushing air reaching the occupants. Mazda pioneered a version on the RX7 convertible which featured an integral rigid opaque panel that folded up from behind the front seats, current convertibles feature windblockers of various designs including detachable fold-up designs, vertically retractable glass, minimal flaps – or other integrated wind controlling systems. According to the responsible for the 2008 Chrysler Sebring, its windblocker reduces wind noise by roughly 11 to 12 dB. Mercedes and Audi currently offer a heating duct to the area of the seat on SLK, SL. Windblockers are also available on the aftermarket for use on convertibles that do not have them, the Volvo C70 retractable hardtop includes a door-mounted side-impact protection inflatable curtain which inflates upward from the interior belt-line – vs. downward like the typical curtain airbag. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are offset from each other
7.
Shooting-brake
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A shooting-brake is a car body style that has evolved through several distinct meanings over its history. Shooting-brake originated as an early 19th century British term for a used to carry shooting parties with their equipment. The etymology of the brake is uncertain, initially a chassis used to break in horses. It is also possible, that the brake has its origins in the Dutch word brik which means cart or carriage. The term was applied to custom-built wagons by high-end coachbuilders. In contemporary usage, the term shooting-brake has broadened to include a range of vehicles from five-door station wagons — to three-door models combining features of a wagon and a coupé. In 2006, The New York Times said the shooting-brake was conceived to take gentlemen on the hunt with their firearms, in 2014, Lawrence Ulrich of the New York Times said the shooting-brake is essentially a two-door station wagon. A brake was originally a robust carriage chassis hooked to spirited horses to break them, a shooting-brake became a variation of a wagonette—a vehicle with longitudinal seats in rows with either a rear door or side doors—provided with game and gun racks and accommodation for ammunition. Early motorized safari vehicles were described as shooting-brakes with no windows or doors, instead roll-down canvas curtains were buttoned to the roof in the case of bad weather. These cars were heavy and comfortable in good weather and allowed quick, the term shooting-brake was subsequently applied to custom-built luxury estate cars altered for use by hunters and other sportsmen. The New York Times said the most famous shooting brakes had custom two-door bodies fitted to the chassis of pedigreed cars, citing Bentley, the 2006 editions of The Chambers Dictionary define the term shooting-brake as an archaic term for estate, or station wagon. In France, a wagon is marketed as a break, once having been called a break de chasse, literally translated. It makes use of the space it covers a little better than a normal coupé. Especially in America, every member of the family has their own car, the occasional use of the rear seat means you can do one of these cars, even if such a wagon lacks the everyday practicality of four doors. Between 1965 and 1967 a limited number of variants, marketed as shooting-brakes, were manufactured by coachbuilder Harold Radford, based on the Aston Martin DB5, DB6. Aston Martin itself later manufactured in-house a limited production variant of its Virage/Vantage. Torque magazine said the Mini Clubman is essentially a shooting-brake design, the 2006 Renault Altica concept was described as a shooting brake. In 2011, The New York Times described the newly introduced Ferrari FF as a shooting-brake, in 1999, Popular Mechanics presented a 2001 Jaguar five-door wagon variant of its S-Type, saying the term shooting-brake was interchangeable with station wagon
8.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
9.
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FR, or front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one where the engine is located at the front of the vehicle and driven wheels are located at the rear. This was the automobile layout for most of the 20th century. Modern designs commonly use the front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, the first FR car was an 1895 Panhard model, so this layout was known as the Système Panhard in the early years. The layout has the advantage of minimizing mechanical complexity, as it allows the transmission to be placed in-line with the output shaft. In comparison, a vehicle with the engine over the driven wheels eliminates the need for the drive shaft, in order to reduce the relative weight of the drive shaft, the transmission was normally split into two parts, the gearbox and the final drive. The gearbox was produced with its highest gear being 1,1. The final drive, in the axle, would then reduce this to the most appropriate speed for the wheels. As power is the product of torque and angular velocity, spinning the shaft faster for any given power reduces the torque, in an era when gasoline was cheap and cars were heavy, the mechanical advantages of the FR drivetrain layout made up for any disadvantage in weight terms. It remained almost universal among car designs until the 1970s, after the Arab oil embargo of 1973 and the 1979 fuel crises, a majority of American FR vehicles were phased out for the FF layout – this trend would spawn the SUV-van conversion market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a priority the eventual removal of rear-wheel drive from their mainstream, chrysler went 100% FF by 1990 and GMs American production went entirely FF by 1997 except the Corvette, Firebird and Camaro. This configuration is referred to as a transaxle since the transmission. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf, upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars. Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota were almost exclusively FR until the late 1970s, toyotas first FF vehicle was the Toyota Tercel, with the Corolla and Celica later becoming FF while the Camry was designed as an FF from the beginning. The Supra, Cressida, Crown, and Century remained FR, luxury division Lexus has a mostly FR lineup. Subarus BRZ is an FR car, currently most cars are FF, including all front-engined economy cars, though FR cars are making a return as an alternative to large sport-utility vehicles. In North America, GM returned to production of FR-based luxury vehicles with the 2003 Cadillac CTS, as of 2012, all but the SRX and XTS are FR-based vehicles. Chevrolet reintroduced the FR-based Camaro in 2009, and the Caprice PPV in 2011, Pontiac also had a short run with the FR-based G8 and Pontiac Solstice. A Chevrolet replacement for the G8 called the Chevrolet SS was released in 2013, chrysler and Dodge reintroduced the 300 and Charger on a FR platform
10.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
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Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
12.
ZF Friedrichshafen
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ZF Friedrichshafen AG, also known as ZF Group, and commonly abbreviated to ZF, is a German car parts maker headquartered in Friedrichshafen, in the south-west German region of Baden-Württemberg. Specialising in engineering, it is known for its design, research and development. It is a supplier of driveline and chassis technology for cars and commercial vehicles. It is also involved in rail, marine, defence and aviation industries, ZF has 230 production locations in 40 countries with approximately 138,000 employees. The company was founded in 1915 in Friedrichshafen, Germany by Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH, to produce gears for Zeppelins, Zeppelin was unable to otherwise obtain gears for his airships. The German Zahnradfabrik translates to gear factory in English, by 1919, ZF had moved into the automobile market, a move consolidated by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Some of the most important milestones that followed,1920, Patent application submitted for the Soden pre-selector transmission,1929, A thriving auto industry warrants the series production of the innovative helical ZF Aphon transmission for cars and commercial vehicles. 1932, Launch of steering systems production under license,1944, On 3 August, the Zahnradfabrik was bombed by the Fifteenth Air Force as a secondary target. As early as 20 September 1942, Albert Speer had warned Hitler of how important the Friedrichshafen tank engine production,1953, Market launch of the first fully synchronised transmission for commercial vehicles worldwide. 1961, Development of an automatic transmission for passenger cars. With series production beginning in 1969, and later proving highly popular, the 1960s sees ZF supplying transmissions to major German automakers as well as Peugeot and Alfa Romeo. 1977, Start of volume production for automatic transmissions for commercial vehicles, worldwide subsidiaries and factories were opened in the 1970s, and the company moved into India and South Korea. 1980s, ZF started operating in Asia in the mid 80s 1984, Majority shareholding gained in Lemförder Metallwaren AG,1986, Start of USA transmission production in Gainesville, Georgia, for pickup trucks. ZF became a supplier to Ford in the 1980s. 1991, The 5HP18 was the first 5-speed automatic transmission for passenger cars, introduced in 1991 on the BMW E36 320i/325i and E345 Series 1994, Development of an automatic transmission system for heavy commercial vehicles. The company expanded into China in the 1990s,1999, World premiere for the first automatic 6-speed transmission. Series production begins in 2001, with the BMW7 Series as the first client, today, ZF produces around one million six-speed automatic transmissions annually. 2001, Acquisition of Mannesmann Sachs AG,2001, Active Roll Stabilization premiere on BMW7 Series 2002, Presentation of the worlds first 4-point link – a newly developed chassis module for trucks and buses
13.
Aston Martin DB4
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The DB4 is a sports car sold by Aston Martin from 1958 until 1963. Technically it was a development of the DB Mark III it replaced, the DB4s design formed the basis for later Aston Martin classics, such as the DB4 GT Zagato, the Lagonda Rapide 4-door saloon, it was eventually replaced by the Aston Martin DB5. The lightweight superleggera body was designed by Carrozzeria Touring in Milan, although the design and construction techniques were Italian, the DB4 was the first Aston to be built at the companys Newport Pagnell works in Buckinghamshire, England. The 3.7 L engine, designed by Tadek Marek, was an overhead cam straight-6, with cylinder head and block of cast R. R.50 aluminium alloy. The engine was prone to overheating initially, but the 240 hp produced by the carburettor version made buyers forgive this unfortunate trait. Servo-assisted disc brakes were fitted all round, early 11.5 in Dunlops were replaced by Girlings, the independent front suspension used ball-jointed wishbones, coil springs and rack-and-pinion steering. The live rear axle also used coil springs and was located by a Watts linkage, the normal final-drive ratio for British and European use was 3.54,1, in the United States the ratio was usually 3.77. Customers wanting a car with a high top speed could choose a 3.31,1 ratio. A car with the British standard 3.54 final drive ratio tested by The Motor magazine in 1960 had a top speed of 139.3 mph, a fuel consumption of 17.7 miles per imperial gallon was recorded. The test car cost £3967 including taxes, there were five series of DB4. The most visible changes were the addition of window frames in Series II, the Series III cars differed from the earlier ones in having taillights consisting of three small lamps mounted on a chrome backing plate. Earlier cars have single-piece units and the last Series V cars of September 1962 have similar taillights, the Series V also has a taller and longer body to provide more interior space, though the diameter of the wheels was reduced to keep the overall height the same. The front of the Series V usually was of the aerodynamic style as already used on the Vantage and GT models. A convertible was introduced in October 1961 and it featured in-house styling similar to the Touring saloon, and an extremely rare factory hardtop was also available. In total,70 DB4 convertibles were made from a total DB4 production run of 1,110 cars,30 of these were Series IV, with the remaining 40 belonging to the Series V.32 of the total convertibles built were equipped with the more powerful Vantage engine. Top speed for the version is about 136 mph. The DB4 GT was a lightweight, high-performance version of the DB4. Introduced in September 1959, it featured enclosed headlights and an aluminium skin for lighter weight
14.
Aston Martin DB6
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The Aston Martin DB6 is a grand tourer made by British car manufacturer Aston Martin. Produced from September 1965 to January 1971, the DB6 had the longest production run up to date of any Aston Martin model. The DB6 succeeded the Aston Martin DB5 and featured improved aerodynamics, after Aston Martin rejected proposals for a replacement for its DB5 from Touring of Milan, the decision was made to focus on their own development car, registered 4 YMC. Wind tunnel testing, begun in February 1965, showed development was necessary to counteract a tendency toward aerodynamic lift causing reduced rear-wheel traction at high speed. Introduced at the 1965 London Motor Show, the DB6 was already a dated design notable as the first model engineered following a relocation from Feltham to Newport Pagnell. The tail, combined with the relocated rear-axle and the 3. 75-inch lengthened wheelbase, though fashionable — the rear-end Kamm-styled design was similar to the Ferrari 250 — it did not prove popular with conservative, tradition oriented Aston clientele when the DB6 was introduced. The DB6 continued with then high-tech Armstrong Selectaride cockpit-adjustable rear shock absorbers as available on the DB5, surprisingly the modifications combined to add only seventeen pounds weight compared to the DB5. The DB6 is powered by the 3,995 cc twin-overhead camshaft, the engine, continued with its triple SU carb setup producing 282 bhp at 5,500 rpm, the Vantage engine option is quoted at 325 bhp against the 314 bhp of the DB5. The rear suspension used coil springs with ride control that was adjustable from inside the car. Available as an extra for the Mark II was AE Brico electronic fuel-injection combined with the higher compression ratio cylinder head. The Mark II edition shared many parts with the then-new DBS, as with previous Aston Martin models, a high-power DB6 Vantage was offered. It was equipped with three Weber carburetors and higher compression cylinder head. A convertible body style was offered, named the Volante. This was introduced at the 1966 London Motor Show, the DB6-based Volante succeeded the earlier Volantes which were built on the last of the DB5 chassis and were known as short chassis Volantes. Of the later DB6-based Volantes just 140 were built, including 29 high-output Vantage Volante versions, charles, Prince of Wales, owns a DB6-based Volante MkII that has been converted to run on bioethanol. The car was given to him by his mother on his 21st birthday, a total of six or seven DB6 Shooting-brakes were produced by British coachbuilder Harold Radford. With a three more by FLM Panelcraft The engine options were the same as for the DB6 Saloon, Panelcraft – information from AMGE Aston Martin German Enthusiasts on www. auto-welt. info
15.
James Bond in film
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The James Bond film series is a British series of spy films based on the fictional character of MI6 agent James Bond,007, who originally appeared in a series of books by Ian Fleming. It is one of the longest continually-running film series in history, in that time Eon Productions has produced 24 films, most of them at Pinewood Studios. With a combined gross of over $7 billion to date, the produced by Eon constitute the fourth-highest-grossing film series. Six actors have portrayed 007 in the Eon series, the latest being Daniel Craig, Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman co-produced most of the Eon films until 1975, when Broccoli became the sole producer. The single exception during this period was Thunderball, on which Broccoli, from 1984 Broccoli was joined by his stepson Michael G. Wilson as producer and in 1995 Broccoli stepped aside from Eon and was replaced by his daughter Barbara, who has co-produced with Wilson since. Broccolis family company, Danjaq, has ownership of the series through Eon. The Eon series has seen continuity both in the actors and in the production crews, with directors, writers, composers, production designers. No to For Your Eyes Only, the films were distributed solely by United Artists, when Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer absorbed United Artists in 1981, MGM/UA Entertainment Co. was formed and distributed the films until 1995. MGM solely distributed three films from 1997 to 2002 after United Artists was retired as a mainstream studio, Feldman, and a 1983 remake of Thunderball entitled Never Say Never Again, produced by Jack Schwartzman, who had obtained the rights to the film from McClory. It was adapted for the screen by Anthony Ellis and Charles Bennett, Bennett was well known for his collaborations with Alfred Hitchcock, including The 39 Steps and Sabotage. Due to the restriction of a play, the adapted version lost many of the details found in the book, although it retained its violence. The hour-long Casino Royale episode, which starred American actor Barry Nelson as Bond and Peter Lorre as the villain Le Chiffre, in 1959 producer Albert R. Cubby Broccoli at Warwick Films expressed interest in adapting the Bond novels, but his colleague Irving Allen was unenthusiastic. Towards the end of Saltzmans option period, screenwriter Wolf Mankowitz introduced him to Broccoli, a number of Hollywood studios did not want to fund the films, finding them too British or too blatantly sexual. Eventually the two signed a deal with United Artists for 100 per cent financial backing and distribution of seven films, Saltzman and Broccoli also created the company Danjaq, which was to hold the rights to the films which Eon Productions was to produce. Eon had originally intended to film Flemings novel Thunderball first, but Kevin McClory took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright over the book, and so Eon decided to film Dr. Eon asked several directors—Bryan Forbes, Guy Green, Val Guest and Guy Hamilton—to helm the film, Eon had originally hired Wolf Mankowitz and Richard Maibaum to write Dr. Nos screenplay, partly because of Mankowitzs help in brokering the deal between Broccoli and Saltzman. An initial draft of the screenplay was rejected because the scriptwriters had made the villain, Dr. No, a monkey, and Mankowitz left the film. To play the role of Bond, Sean Connery was not Broccoli or Flemings first choice, but he was selected after Patrick McGoohan had turned down the role
16.
Goldfinger (film)
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Goldfinger is a British spy film, the third in the James Bond series and the third to star Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. It is based on the novel of the name by Ian Fleming. The film also stars Honor Blackman as Bond girl Pussy Galore and Gert Fröbe as the title character Auric Goldfinger, Goldfinger was produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman and was the first of four Bond films directed by Guy Hamilton. The films plot has Bond investigating gold smuggling by gold magnate Auric Goldfinger, Goldfinger was the first Bond blockbuster, with a budget equal to that of the two preceding films combined. Principal photography took place from January to July 1964 in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, the release of the film led to a number of promotional licensed tie-in items, including a toy Aston Martin DB5 car from Corgi Toys which became the biggest selling toy of 1964. The promotion also included an image of gold-painted Shirley Eaton as Jill Masterson on the cover of Life, Goldfinger was the first Bond film to win an Academy Award and opened to largely favourable critical reception. The film was a success, recouping its budget in two weeks, and is hailed as the Bond canons quintessential episode. After destroying a drug laboratory in Latin America, James Bond—Agent 007—travels to Miami Beach to receive instructions from his superior, M and he is to observe bullion dealer Auric Goldfinger at the hotel there. Bond sees Goldfinger cheating at gin rummy and stops him by distracting his employee, Jill Masterson, after Bond and Jill consummate their new relationship, Bond is knocked out by Goldfingers Korean manservant, the hulking giant Oddjob. When Bond awakens, he finds Jill dead, covered in gold paint, in London, Bond learns his objective is determining how Goldfinger smuggles gold internationally. The chancellor of the exchequer and M explain that prices vary across the world. Bond arranges to meet Goldfinger socially at his club in Kent. Bond follows him to Switzerland, where Tilly, Jills sister, Bond sneaks into Goldfingers plant and discovers Goldfinger smuggles gold by melting it down and incorporating it into the bodywork of his car, which he takes with him whenever he travels. Bond also overhears Goldfinger talking to Chinese agent Mr. Ling about Operation Grand Slam, leaving, Bond encounters Tilly as she tries to kill Goldfinger again, but trips an alarm in the process, Oddjob kills Tilly with his hat. Captured, Bond is tied to a cutting table underneath an industrial laser, Bond lies to Goldfinger that MI6 knows about Grand Slam, causing Goldfinger to spare Bonds life to mislead MI6 into believing Bond has things in hand. Bond is transported by Goldfingers private jet, piloted by Pussy Galore, to his farm near Fort Knox. Bond escapes and witnesses Goldfingers meeting with US mafiosi, who have brought the materials he needs for Operation Grand Slam. Although they are each promised $1 million, Goldfinger tempts them that they could have the million today, or $10 million tomorrow and he then kills them using some of the neurotoxin he plans to release over Fort Knox
17.
SU Carburettor
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SU carburettors are a brand of carburettor of the constant depression type. The design remained in quantity production for much of the twentieth century, carburetter Company Limited also manufactured dual-choke updraught carburettors for aero-engines such as the Rolls-Royce Merlin and Rolls-Royce Griffon. Herbert Skinner, pioneer motorist and a participant in the development of the petrol engine. His much younger brother Carl Skinner also a motoring enthusiast had joined the Farman Automobile Co in London in 1899 and he helped Herbert to develop the carburettor. Herberts son could remember his mother sewing the first leather bellows and it would be given on loan to The Science Museum, South Kensington in 1934. In 1905 Herbert applied for a patent which was granted in early 1906, later Carl sold his interest in footwear business Lilley & Skinner and became a partner in G Wailes & Co of Euston Road, London, manufacturers of their carburettor. Following the outbreak of war in 1914 carburettor production nearly stopped with the factory making machine gun parts and some aircraft carburettors. With peace in 1918 production resumed but sales remained slow and the company was not profitable so Carl Skinner approached his customer, W. R. Morris, and managed to sell him the business. Carl Skinner became a director of Morriss privately held empire and remained managing director of S. U. until he retired in 1948 aged 65, production was moved to the W R Morris owned Wolseley factory at Adderley Park, Birmingham. In 1936 W R Morris sold many of his privately held businesses including S. U. to his listed company, manufacture continued, now by The S. U. Carburetter Company Limited which was incorporated 15 September 1936 part of the Morris Organization, carburetter Company Limited of 1936 was voluntarily liquidated in December 1994. In 1996 the name and rights were acquired by Burlen Fuel Systems Limited of Salisbury which incorporated a new company with the name The S. U. Carburetter Company Limited which continues to manufacture carburettors, pumps and components mainly for the car market. They remained on production cars through to 1993 in the Mini, hitachi also built carburettors based on the SU design which were used on the Datsun 240Z, Datsun 260Z and other Datsun Cars. While these appear the same, only their needles are interchangeable, SU carburettors featured a variable venturi controlled by a piston. This piston has a tapered, conical metering rod that fits inside an orifice which admits fuel into the passing through the carburettor. The flow of air through the venturi creates a static pressure in the venturi. This pressure drop is communicated to the side of the piston via an air passage
18.
Superleggera
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Superleggera is an automobile coachwork construction technology developed by Felice Bianchi Anderloni of Italian coachbuilder Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera. The company was located just north of Milan, near Alfa Romeo, Italian Citroën, the first superleggera bodyworks were made for these companies. Touring licensed Charles Weymanns system of fabric-covered lightweight frames, which led to Touring’s own superleggera construction, aside from light weight, the superleggera construction system allows great design and manufacturing flexibility, enabling coachbuilders to quickly construct innovative body shapes. The superleggera tubes were brazed to shape on a jig and the panels were fitted over this. The panels are attached at their edges, mostly by swaging the panel edges over angle-section strips on the steel framework. Most of the panel has no rigid or metal-to-metal contact with the framework, it rests on it. The superleggera system was based on the use of Duralumin. In England after World War II, the alloy Birmabright was used, as it was stiffer in thin sheets, the superleggera system is no longer used in high-volume automobile production for a number of reasons. Car makers such as Bristol, which had aircraft industry experience, were successful in countering galvanic corrosion than other manufacturers. Bristol introduced Superleggera construction on the Bristol 401 of 1948, Superleggera is a trademark owned by Carrozzeria Touring Superleggera s. r. l. The modern incarnation of the firm that patented the system in 1936, Carrozzeria Touring licensed the superleggera construction system to Aston Martin, who designed and manufactured superleggera bodywork for the DB4 and DB5. Several other manufacturers created automobiles using Carozzeria Tourings superleggera construction technology
19.
Beam axle
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A beam axle, rigid axle or solid axle is a dependent suspension design, in which a set of wheels is connected laterally by a single beam or shaft. Beam axles were commonly used at the rear wheels of a vehicle. In most automobiles, beam axles have been replaced by front, with a beam axle the camber angle between the wheels is the same no matter where it is in the travel of the suspension. A beam axles fore and aft location is constrained by either, trailing arms, semi-trailing arms, radius rods, the lateral location is constrained by either, a Panhard rod, a Scott Russell linkage or a Watts linkage. While shock absorbers and either leaf springs, coil springs, or air bags are used to control vertical movement. A live axle is a type of beam axle in which the shaft also transmits power to the wheels, while typically used in vehicles with Hotchkiss drive, this suspension system can also be used with other types of power transmission. The principal advantage of the axle is its simplicity. This simplicity makes it very space-efficient and relatively cheap to manufacture and they are nearly universally used in buses and heavy-duty trucks. Most light and medium duty trucks, SUVs, and vans also use a beam axle. Beam axles have an important advantage for off-road applications, as they provide better vehicle articulation and this simplicity also makes it relatively easy to lift a vehicle. Also the cornering ability is typically worse than other designs because the wheels have zero camber angle gain during body roll. Front beam axle suspension is also sensitive to any lack of concentricity in the hub. This is addressed on some vehicles with steering dampers although removal and careful refitting of the front wheels often cures the problem
20.
Straight-six engine
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The straight-six engine or inline-six engine is an internal combustion engine with the cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. The bank of cylinders may be oriented at any angle, and where the bank is inclined to the vertical, the straight-six layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders. In automobiles, the design is used for engine displacements ranging from approximately 2 to 5 litres. It is also used for smaller engines but these, although very smooth running. Since the length of an engine is proportional to the number of cylinders in one bank. Pre-World War II engines could be large by modern standards — such as the Rolls Royce Silver Ghosts 7.4 L engine and the 824 cu in of the 1910s Peerless, Pierce. They were used in a variety of including the de Havilland Dragon Rapide. The largest are used to ships, and use fuel oil. The straight-six can also be viewed as a modular component of larger motors which stack several straight-sixes together, e. g. flat- or V-12s, W-18s. Straight-six engines were introduced earlier than V6 engines. While the first straight-six was manufactured in 1903 by Spyker, it was not until 1950 that a production V6 was introduced, V6s had intrinsic vibration problems not present in the straight-six. The poor secondary harmonic balance of four-cylinder engines is largely addressed with the use of balance shafts although it can never match the in-line six, TVR used a straight-six configuration exclusively in their final cars before their demise. In a reversal of trends, Mercedes-Benz announced a return to inline-6 engines in October 2016. This was a part of a trend toward higher efficiency engines with fewer cylinders, manufacturers began to replace V8 engines with straight-6 engines and V6 engines with straight-4 engines, while V8 engines became smaller. Straight-sixes continue to be used in medium to large trucks, Ford is one notable exception using a V8 in medium duty trucks. GM pickup trucks abandoned the straight-six in 1984 for the 4.3 V6, in 2002, General Motors introduced the Vortec 4200 as part of the modular straight-four, straight-five and straight-six GM Atlas engine line. It was used in their sport utility vehicles. Jeep abandoned the straight-six in 2006 with the 2006 Jeep Wrangler being the last vehicle, Ram Trucks continues to offer straight-six engines in its heavy duty pickup truck and chassis cab models, although only V6 and V8 engines are available in the smaller versions
21.
Weber carburetor
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Weber is an Italian company which produced carburetors, it is owned by Magneti Marelli Powertrain S. p. A. which is in turn part of the Fiat Group. Carburetor production in Italy ended in 1992, although Weber carburetor production was shifted to Madrid, Spain, edoardo Weber began his automotive career working for Fiat, first at their Turin plant and later at a dealership in Bologna. After the war, with prices high, he reached a certain success in selling conversion kits for running trucks on kerosene instead. The company was established as Fabbrica Italiana Carburatori Weber in 1923 when Weber produced carburetors as part of a kit for Fiats. Weber pioneered the use of two-stage twin barrel carburetors, with two venturis of different sizes, the one for low speed running and the larger one optimised for high speed use. In the 1930s Weber began producing twin-barrel carburetors for motor racing where two barrels of the size were used. These were arranged so that each cylinder of the engine has its own carburetor barrel and these carburetors found use in Maserati and Alfa Romeo racing cars. Twin updraught Webers fed superchargers on the 1938 Alfa Romeo 8C competition vehicles, after Webers death in 1945, Fiat finally assumed control of the company in 1952. In 1986, Fiat also took control of Webers competitor Solex and this was then reorganized as Magneti Marelli Powertrain S. p. A. in 2001. Genuine Weber carburetors were produced in Bologna, Italy up until 1992, when production was transferred to Madrid, Spain, Weber Carburetors are sold for both street and off-road use, with the twin choke sidedraught DCOE being the most common one. They are sold in what is referred to as a Weber Conversion kit, in modern times, fuel injection has replaced carburetors in both production cars and most modern motor racing, although Weber carburetors are still used extensively in classic and historic racing. They are also supplied as high quality replacements for problematic OEM carburetors, Weber fuel system components are distributed by Magneti Marelli, Webcon UK Ltd. and, in North America, by several organizations, including Worldpac, marketing under the Redline name. Other suppliers include Overseas Distributing and Pierce Manifolds, Weber carburetors are marked with a model code on the mounting flange, the body, or on the cover of the float-chamber. This begins with a number which originally indicated the diameter of the throttle bore, after the letters there will be a further number, which may be followed by a letter, e. g. 4B, 13A, these indicate the series. The full designation might be 40 DCOE29,45 DCOE9, etc
22.
Torque
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Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force. Just as a force is a push or a pull. Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the force on an object such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt, the symbol for torque is typically τ, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is denoted by M. The SI unit for torque is the newton metre, for more on the units of torque, see Units. This article follows US physics terminology in its use of the word torque, in the UK and in US mechanical engineering, this is called moment of force, usually shortened to moment. In US physics and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis. For example, a force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest. By contrast, a force on a beam produces a moment, but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum and this article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change. The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers, the term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884. A force applied at an angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the levers fulcrum is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. More generally, the torque on a particle can be defined as the product, τ = r × F, where r is the particles position vector relative to the fulcrum. Alternatively, τ = r F ⊥, where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle, any force directed parallel to the particles position vector does not produce a torque
23.
Camshaft
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A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an integral part. An early cam was built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd century BC, the camshaft was later described in Turkey by Al-Jazari in 1206. He employed it as part of his automata, water-raising machines, the cam and camshaft later appeared in European mechanisms from at least the 14th century, or possibly earlier. In internal combustion engines with pistons, the camshaft is used to operate poppet valves and it consists of a cylindrical rod running the length of the cylinder bank with a number of oblong lobes protruding from it, one for each valve. The cam lobes force the valves open by pressing on the valve, or on some intermediate mechanism, Camshafts can be made out of several types of material. These include, Chilled iron castings, Commonly used in volume production. Other elements are added to the iron casting to make the material more suitable for its application. Billet Steel, When a high quality camshaft or low volume production is required, engine builders and this is a much more time consuming process, and is generally more expensive than other methods. However, the product is far superior. CNC lathes, CNC milling machines, and CNC camshaft grinders will be used during production, different types of steel bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated via gas nitriding and it gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These types of camshafts can be used in high-performance engines, the relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical importance. Since the valves control the flow of the air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, for this reason, the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because of the cost, the frequently reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to cause gear rattle which for an all-metal gear train requires further expense of a cam damper. Rolls-Royce V8 used gear drive as, unlike chain, it could be made silent, where gears are used in cheaper cars, they tend to be made from resilient fibre rather than metal, except in racing engines that have a high maintenance routine. Fibre gears have a life span and must be replaced regularly. In some designs the camshaft also drives the distributor and the oil, some vehicles may have the power steering pump driven by the camshaft. With some early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the fuel injectors, honda redesigned the VF750 motorcycle from chain drive to the gear drive VFR750 due to insurmountable problems with the VF750 Hi-Vo inverted chain drive
24.
Left- and right-hand traffic
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This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road. About two-thirds of the population use RHT, with the remaining 76 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the worlds area, in the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, in 1919,104 of the worlds territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986,34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT, many of the countries with LHT are former British colonies in the Caribbean, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Mozambique, Suriname, East Timor, in Europe, only four countries still drive on the left, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, and Cyprus, all of which are islands. Nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory, most exceptions are due to historical considerations and involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong, the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar, according to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations provide for passing on the right, light rail vehicles generally operate on the same side as other road traffic in the country. Many countries use RHT for automobiles but LHT for trains, often because of the influence of the British on early railway systems, in some countries rail traffic remained LHT after automobile traffic switched to RHT, for example in China, Brazil, and Argentina. However, France, Belgium, and Switzerland have used RHT for automobiles since their introduction, there is no technical reason to prefer one side over the other. Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching, in 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon. The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left, in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left. In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no seat, so a postilion sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons, in France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left
25.
Triumph TR4
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The Triumph TR4 is a British sports car which was produced by the Triumph Motor Company from 1961 to 1965. Code named Zest during development, the car was based on the chassis and drivetrain of the previous TR sports cars,40,253 cars were built during production years. The TR4 proved very successful and continued the rugged, hairy-chested image that the previous TRs had enjoyed. This was the first such system on a production car and preceded by five years the Porsche 911/912 Targa. On the TR4 the rigid roof panel was replaceable with a folded and stowed vinyl insert. The entire hard top assembly is often referred to as a Surrey top. In original factory parts catalogues the rigid top and backlight assembly is listed as the Hard Top kit, the vinyl insert and frame are offered separately as a Surrey top. Features such as windows were seen as a necessary step forward to meet competition and achieve good sales in the important US market. Dealers had concerns that buyers might not fully appreciate the new amenities, as of Q12011 there were approximately 739 licensed and 138 SORN TR4s registered with the DVLA. The pushrod Standard inline-four engine, was designed for use by Standard-Triumph in Triumph cars, the notion that Triumph used a tractor engine, rather than the other way around, is false. The TR4 engine was continued from the earlier TR2/3 models, gradual improvements in the manifolds and cylinder head allowed for some improvements culminating in the TR4A model. The 1991 cc engine became a no-cost option for those destined to race in the under-two-litre classes of the day. The standard engine produced 105 bhp SAE but, supercharged and otherwise performance-tuned, other key improvements over the TR3 included a wider track front and rear, slightly larger standard engine displacement, full synchromesh on all forward gears, and rack and pinion steering. The TR4 was originally fitted with 15x4.5 disc wheels, optional 48-lace wire wheels could be ordered painted the same colour as the cars bodywork, stove-enamelled or in matte or polished chrome finishes. The most typical tyres originally fitted were 590-15 bias ply or optional radial tyres, in the US at one point, American Racing alloy wheels were offered as an option, in 15x5.5 or 15x6 size. Some original TR4 sales literature says the original size was 165-15. The much more common 185-15 radials were too wide to be fitted safely, as a result, many owners had new and wider rims fitted and their wheels re-laced. The TR4 had a number of racing successes in America, primarily through the efforts of the Californian engineer Kas Kastner and his top driver, in 1961 The TR4 won first in class and thirtieth overall at Sebring
26.
Coachbuilder
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A coachbuilder is a manufacturer of bodies for automobiles or a manufacturer of complete horse-drawn vehicles. Coachwork is the body of a vehicle, a horse-drawn coach or carriage, or, by extension. The term is reserved for bodies built on a separate chassis. With reference to motor vehicles, auto body is the term in North American English. Coachbuilders are, carrossiers in French, carrozzeria in Italian, karosseriebauer in German, a British trade association the Worshipful Company of Coachmakers and Coach Harness Makers, was incorporated in 1630. Some British coachmaking firms operating in the 20th century were established even earlier, rippon was active in the time of Queen Elizabeth I, Barker founded in 1710 by an officer in Queen Annes Guards, Brewster a relative newcomer, formed in 1810. This chassis would be delivered by the manufacturer to the coachbuilder of the buyers choice, the chassis would be a rolling chassis which included the chassis frame, drivetrain, brakes, suspension, complete steering system including the wheel, radiator, scuttle and dashboard. The manufacturer delivered the chassis with lighting system, spare wheel, front and rear mudguards, the very easily damaged honeycomb radiator, later enclosed and protected by a shell, became the main visual element identifying the chassis brand. The manufacturer retained an element of control over bodies, bodies not approved by the chassis manufacturer would lose the chassis manufacturers chassis warranties. Until the second World War it would not have been unusual to order the most popular cars as only a chassis and have a local coachbuilder put a body on it for you, the Austin 7s of the 1920s and 1930s were favourite subjects. For example, Fisher Body built all of Cadillacs closed bodies in the 1910s, though automobile manufacturers brought body building skills in-house, the practice of bespoke or custom coachbuilding remained in favour among the wealthy, who continued the habit of centuries past. All ultra-luxury vehicles sold as chassis only, for instance, when Duesenberg introduced their Model J, it was offered as chassis only, for $8,500. Other examples include the Bugatti Type 57, Cadillac V-16, Ferrari 250, Isotta Fraschini Tipo 8, delahaye had no in-house coachworks, so all its chassis were bodied by independents, who created some of their most attractive designs on the Type 135. Most of the Delahayes were bodied by Chapron, Labourdette, Franay, Saoutchik, Figoni & Falaschi, Pennock, the advent of unibody construction, where the car body is unified with, and structurally integral to the chassis, made custom coachbuilding practically impossible. Hermann Graber Ramsauer & Cie, also known as Worblaufen after the place they were built, mulliner Park Ward Mulliners Nu-Track Park Ward Harold Radford Salmons Swallow Tickford Tilbury, originators of the Tilbury carriage. Thrupp & Maberly Vanden Plas Vincent of Reading Windover Wingham Martin Walter Walter Alexander & Sons, now Alexander Dennis Ltd Wrightbus James Young Brewster & Co. Brunn Budd Company Derham Earl Automobile Works Fisher Fleetwood KEM Motorworks LeBaron Locke N2A motors Inc. a Langmesser Co. Murphy Rollston Willoughby
27.
Harold Radford
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The coachbuilding business began by making bodies for new Bentleys with amendments to suit the rural lifestyle of the landed gentry. In the Swinging Sixties Radfords became best known for luxury versions of the cult-car, a luxurious town car, shooting brake, and Continental tourer in one vehicle. The Countryman car was available from Harold Radford with a full Radford body incorporating what was otherwise a conversion, conversions featured the following, Upper rear panel, including rear light, hinges upward to give exceptionally easy entry to boot. Front and rear seats fold together to form a full six foot double bed. Sprung upholstery, with Latex foam, gives comfort of normal bed, tables with mirrors fold down from front seats. Rear armrests slide forward to reveal fitted cocktail cabinets and to form a table for glasses, luggage compartment gives 40 cubic feet of storage space —4 times capacity of normal coach built saloon. Every conceivable item of equipment that can add to the comfort, body colours, trimmings and the finish of interior fillets and facias made to customers choice. Equipment includes, electric razor, washbasin with hot and cold water supply, an ice box, a strong mesh dog pen protecting upholstery now brings the number of modifications to fifty. The car tested by The Times also had leather upholstery and deep lambswool carpets, tachometer, ammeter, oil gauge, clock. After the 1967 Earls Court Motor Show The Times tried to display in print why a Mini de Ville should be preferred to, say and they recorded that Captains of Industry ordered them, painted them to match their Rolls and gave them to their wives. Pop Stars and West End playboys presumably invested in them as a status symbol, the reporter tested a typical Mini de Ville, a 1275 Mini-Cooper S with an engine performance pack providing up to about 110 m. p. h. Outwardly the only distinction was the alloy wheels, sunroof. Inside absolutely everything seemed like a refugee from a Rolls-Royce, there were, in total,63 extras advised Radford. The tester noted noise levels were typically Mini-Cooper in spite of the sound-deadening materials, align=center Radfords converted a number of Aston Martins to estate cars under contract to Aston Martin. Harold Radford were to build the Cortina-Ogle GT which was presented at the 1963 Earls Court Motor Show by Stirling Moss, in late 1963 Harold Radford, with Swain and H R Owen, was acquired by a City syndicate. Though it continued to trade Harold Radford Limited was placed in liquidation in September 1966 because it was unable to meet its liabilities. A new company, Harold Radford Coachbuilders Limited, was formed in October 1967 to acquire and continue and improve the car conversion business and it took control of the business on 10 October 1967
28.
John Stears
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John Stears was a British two-time Academy Award-winning special effects expert. John Stears was born in Uxbridge, London, on 25 August 1934, Stears studied at Harrow College of Art and Southall Technical School before working as a draughtsman with the Air Ministry. For most of his life he lived on an estate in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, where he reared cattle and where his wife ran the Livny Borzoi Kennels, breeding Borzoi show dogs. In 1993, he sold his estate in Buckinghamshire to the rock legend Ozzy Osbourne and retired to California with his wife Brenda, whom he married in 1960 and he created some of the most famous scenes in the movies. He blew up the villains Jamaican hideout at the end of Dr and he also created an avalanche for On Her Majestys Secret Service and built flying cars for the musical film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang and the Bond film The Man with the Golden Gun. Stears grew disenchanted with the Bond franchise, and vowed never to do another one and he complained that the team spirit had gone. Stears expressed great regret that Kevin McClory couldnt get his rival Bond film, Warhead, into production, for Star Wars Episode IV, A New Hope, Stears created the robots R2-D2 and C-3PO, Luke Skywalkers Landspeeder, the Jedi Knights lightsabers, and the Death Star. Stears was also credited, along with John Dykstra, for the films climactic aerial dogfight. In 1978 producer Harry Saltzman hired Stears to direct the shrunken man epic film The Micronauts, the troubled project had been in pre-production for many years and saw many directors come and go, ultimately the film never made it into production. John Stears notably one of only a few people to win an Academy Award for a James Bond film. His wife, Brenda, and other members had wanted the death kept quiet until after services in Pacific Palisades in May. The family announced his death in June of that same year, Stears owned homes in Pacific Palisades and in Beaconsfield, England, where he and his wife raised cattle and show dogs
29.
James Bond
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The James Bond series focuses on a fictional British Secret Service agent created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short-story collections. The latest novel is Trigger Mortis by Anthony Horowitz, published in September 2015, additionally Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond, and Kate Westbrook wrote three novels based on the diaries of a recurring series character, Moneypenny. The character has also adapted for television, radio, comic strip, video games. As of 2017, there have been twenty-four films in the Eon Productions series, the most recent Bond film, Spectre, stars Daniel Craig in his fourth portrayal of Bond, he is the sixth actor to play Bond in the Eon series. There have also two independent productions of Bond films, Casino Royale and Never Say Never Again. In 2015, the franchise was estimated to be worth $19.9 billion, the Bond films are renowned for a number of features, including the musical accompaniment, with the theme songs having received Academy Award nominations on several occasions, and two wins. Other important elements which run through most of the films include Bonds cars, his guns, the films are also noted for Bonds relationships with various women, who are sometimes referred to as Bond girls. Ian Fleming created the character of James Bond as the central figure for his works. Bond is an officer in the Secret Intelligence Service, commonly known as MI6. Bond is known by his number,007, and was a Royal Naval Reserve Commander. Among those types were his brother, Peter, who had involved in behind-the-lines operations in Norway. Aside from Flemings brother, a number of others also provided some aspects of Bonds make up, including Conrad OBrien-ffrench, Patrick Dalzel-Job and Bill Biffy Dunderdale. The name James Bond came from that of the American ornithologist James Bond, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies. He further explained that, When I wrote the first one in 1953, I wanted Bond to be a dull, uninteresting man to whom things happened. When I was casting around for a name for my protagonist I thought by God, is the dullest name I ever heard. On another occasion, Fleming said, I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, James Bond was much better than something more interesting, like Peregrine Carruthers. Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure—an anonymous, likewise, in Moonraker, Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is certainly good-looking. Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way and that black hair falling down over the right eyebrow
30.
Ian Fleming
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Ian Lancaster Fleming was an English author, journalist and naval intelligence officer who is best known for his James Bond series of spy novels. Fleming came from a family connected to the merchant bank Robert Fleming & Co. Educated at Eton, Sandhurst and, briefly, the universities of Munich and Geneva and his wartime service and his career as a journalist provided much of the background, detail and depth of the James Bond novels. Fleming wrote his first Bond novel, Casino Royale, in 1952 and it was a success, with three print runs being commissioned to cope with the demand. Eleven Bond novels and two short-story collections followed between 1953 and 1966, the novels revolved around James Bond, an officer in the Secret Intelligence Service, commonly known as MI6. Bond was also known by his number,007, and was a commander in the Royal Naval Reserve. The Bond stories rank among the series of fictional books of all time. Fleming also wrote the childrens story Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang and two works of non-fiction, in 2008, The Times ranked Fleming 14th on its list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945. Fleming was married to Ann Charteris, who was divorced from the second Viscount Rothermere owing to her affair with the author, Fleming and Charteris had a son, Caspar. Fleming was a smoker and drinker for most of his life. Two of his James Bond books were published posthumously, other writers have since produced Bond novels, Flemings creation has appeared in film twenty-six times, portrayed by seven actors. Ian Fleming was born on 28 May 1908, at 27 Green Street in the wealthy London district of Mayfair and his mother was Evelyn St Croix Rose, and his father was Valentine Fleming, the Member of Parliament for Henley from 1910. As an infant he lived, with his family, at Braziers Park in Oxfordshire. Fleming was the grandson of the Scottish financier Robert Fleming, who founded the Scottish American Investment Trust, in 1914, with the start of the First World War, Valentine joined C Squadron, Queens Own Oxfordshire Hussars, and rose to the rank of major. He was killed by German shelling on the Western Front on 20 May 1917, because the family owned an estate at Arnisdale, Valentines death was commemorated on the Glenelg War Memorial. Flemings elder brother Peter became a writer and married actress Celia Johnson. Fleming also had two brothers, Michael and Richard, and a younger maternal half-sister born out of wedlock, cellist Amaryllis Fleming. Amaryllis was conceived during an affair between John and Evelyn that started in 1923, some six years after the death of Valentine
31.
Aston Martin DB Mark III
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The DB 2/4 Mark III is a sports car sold by Aston Martin from 1957 until 1959. It was an evolution of the DB2/4 Mark II model it replaced, bentley-designed Lagonda 2.9 L straight-6 engine, redesigned by Tadek Marek. Changes included the front grille, that would become the shape of all future Aston Martin models, a new instrument panel, worm-and-sector steering and a live axle rear end were carry overs. At the rear, the DB2/4 Mark IIs tailfins were altered to use the lights from the Humber Hawk. The standard DBA engine model with twin SU carburettors produced 162 hp, thus equipped, the car could reach 60 mph in 9.3 seconds and hit 120 mph. Girling disc brakes were fitted as standard to the front wheels of all MkIII Astons after the first 100 had been made, only five automatic cars were made from a total of 551. A1959 review by Road & Track magazine praised the car for everything, a car for connoisseurs, they called it. The Aston has many virtues and few faults, among the faults was too-heavy steering effort, high door sills, and a stiff ride. Interestingly, R&T failed to comment at all on the cars innovative hatchback body style, complete with fold-down rear seats, along with the hatchback, two two-seater coupé variants of the Mark III were also produced. A Drophead Coupé convertible, while not common, still considerably outnumbers the Fixed Head Coupé –84 of the former were produced, all five Fixed Head Coupés were built close to the end of Mark III production and feature the mid-spec DBD engine. Both of these bodystyles feature conventional hinged boot lids rather than the innovative hatch back and it is the only Bond car in the Ian Fleming novels to have gadgets installed. For the film five years later, the car was updated to the Aston Martin DB5 model. It was to one of the most iconic of classic cars as a result. DB Mark III,551 Hatchback,462 Drophead Coupé,84 DBA,68 DBB,2 DBD,14 Fixed Head Coupé,5 LHD,83 The DB Mk III was included in the Spot-on range in the early 1960s
32.
Goldfinger (novel)
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Goldfinger is the seventh novel in Ian Flemings James Bond series, first published in the UK by Jonathan Cape on 23 March 1959. Goldfinger originally bore the title The Richest Man in the World and was written in January and February 1958. As well as establishing the background to the operation, Bond uncovers a much larger plot. Fleming developed the James Bond character more in Goldfinger than in the six novels, presenting him as a more complex individual. The Saint George theme is echoed by the fact that it is a British agent sorting out an American problem, upon learning of the use of his name, Goldfinger threatened to sue over the use of the name, before the matter was settled out of court. Fleming had based the character on American gold tycoon Charles W. Engelhard. Most recently, Goldfinger was adapted for BBC Radio with Toby Stephens as Bond, Fleming structured the novel in three sections—Happenstance, Coincidence and Enemy action—which was how Goldfinger described Bonds three seemingly coincidental meetings with him. Bond quickly realises that Goldfinger is indeed cheating with the aid of his assistant, Jill Masterton. Bond blackmails Goldfinger into admitting it and paying back DuPonts lost money, Bond visits the Bank of England for a briefing with Colonel Smithers on the methods of gold smuggling. Coincidence Bond contrives to meet and have a round of golf with Goldfinger, Goldfinger attempts to win the match by cheating. He is subsequently invited back to Goldfingers mansion near Reculver where he narrowly escapes being caught on camera looking over the house, Goldfinger introduces Bond to his factotum, a Korean named Oddjob. Issued by MI6 with an Aston Martin DB Mark III, Bond trails Goldfinger as he takes his vintage Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost via air ferry to Switzerland, driven by Oddjob. Bond manages to trace Goldfinger to a warehouse in Geneva where he finds that the armour of Goldfingers car is actually white-gold, cast into panels at his Kent refinery. When the car reaches Goldfingers factory in Switzerland, he recasts the gold from the panels into aircraft seats and fits them to the Mecca Charter Airline. The gold is sold in India at a vast profit. Bond foils an attempt on Goldfinger by Jill Mastertons sister, Tilly, to avenge Jills death at Goldfingers hands, he had painted her body with gold paint. Bond and Tilly attempt to escape when the alarm is raised, Enemy action Bond is tortured by Oddjob when he refuses to confess his role in trailing Goldfinger. In a desperate attempt to survive being cut in two by a saw, Bond offers to work for Goldfinger, a ruse that Goldfinger initially refuses
33.
1964 New York World's Fair
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The 1964/1965 New York Worlds Fair was the third major worlds fair to be held in New York City. However, the fair did not receive official sanctioning from the Bureau of International Expositions, hailing itself as a universal and international exposition, the fairs theme was Peace Through Understanding, dedicated to Mans Achievement on a Shrinking Globe in an Expanding Universe. American companies dominated the exposition as exhibitors, the theme was symbolized by a 12-story high, stainless-steel model of the earth called the Unisphere. The fair ran for two seasons, April 22 – October 18,1964, and April 21 – October 17,1965. Admission price for adults was $2 in 1964 but $2.50 in 1965, the fair is noted as a showcase of mid-20th-century American culture and technology. The nascent Space Age, with its vista of promise, was well represented, more than 51 million people attended the fair, though fewer than the hoped-for 70 million. Most major American manufacturing companies from pen manufacturers to auto companies had a major presence and this fair gave many attendees their first interaction with computer equipment. The site, Flushing Meadows Corona Park in the borough of Queens, was previously Manhattans Corona Ash Dumps featured prominently in F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby as the Valley of Ashes. Prior to that, the site had been a natural wetland — literally wetland meadows that would flush the nearby runoff entering the adjacent bay, Flushing Meadows had been a Dutch settlement, named after the village of Vlissingen. Subsequently, the site was reclaimed for the 1939/1940 New York Worlds Fair, one of the largest worlds fairs to be held in the United States, the 1939 fair also occupied space that was filled in for the 1964/1965 exposition. The 1964/1965 Fair was conceived by a group of New York businessmen who remembered their experiences at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. Thoughts of a boom to the city as the result of increased tourism was a major reason for holding another fair 25 years after the 1939/1940 extravaganza. Then-New York City mayor, Robert F. Wagner, Jr and he was joined by Austrian architect Victor Gruen in studies that eventually led the Eisenhower Commission to award the worlds fair to New York City in competition with a number of American cities. Organizers turned to financing and the sale of bonds to pay the huge costs to stage them. The organizers hired New Yorks Master Builder Robert Moses, to head the corporation established to run the fair because he was experienced in raising money for vast public projects, Moses had been a formidable figure in the city since coming to power in the 1930s. He was responsible for the construction of much of the highway infrastructure and, as parks commissioner for decades. In the mid-1930s, Moses oversaw the conversion of a vast Queens tidal marsh/garbage dump into the fairgrounds that hosted the 1939/1940 Worlds Fair, called Flushing Meadows Park, it was Moses grandest park scheme. He envisioned this vast park, comprising some 1,300 acres of land, easily accessible from Manhattan, when the 1939/1940 Worlds Fair ended in financial failure, Moses did not have the available funds to complete work on his project
34.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona
35.
Louwman Museum
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The Louwman Museum is a museum for historic cars, coaches, and motorcycles in The Hague, Netherlands. It is situated on the Leidsestraatweg near the A44 highway, the museums former names are Nationaal Automobiel Museum and Louwman Collection. The collection of two hundred cars has been assembled since 1934 by two generations of the Louwman family. It is the oldest private collection of automobiles in the open to the public. The collection was founded in 1934 with the purchase of a 20-year-old Dodge by Dodge importer Pieter Louwman, in 1969, the collection of Mr. Geerlig Riemer was added. Riemer was also founder of the Institute for Automotive and Management in Driebergen, the building which used to house Riemers collection has since been used as a practical center for the IVA. The current owner of the collection is Evert Louwman, the Dutch importer of Lexus, Toyota, in 1969 the collection was moved to Leidschendam to the newly opened National Automobile Museum. In 1981 the museum was moved to a new location on the property of importer Louwman & Parqui in Raamsdonksveer, on 18 April 2003 the name Louwman Collection was adopted. On 3 July 2010 the current museum in The Hague, named Louwman Museum, was opened by Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands, the Louwman Museum is housed in a building with three floors and over 10,000 m² of exhibition space, on The Hagues Leidsestraatweg. It was specifically designed as a museum by Michael Graves, an American architect, landscape architect Louis Baljon designed the layout of the park surrounding the building. The hall when entering the museum is modern, focusing more on architecture than on the cars, Evert Louwman is the brother of Jan Louwman, owner of the former Wassenaar Zoo, which closed in 1985. The Zoo used to have a gate with two pillars on which two lions stood. This old gate became the entrance to the new museum, the collection is internationally oriented and consists of over 230 automobiles. The museum has the largest collection of cars in the world from 1910 or older, the museum displays a large collection of the current remaining 15 classic cars of the Dutch brand Spyker and the only remaining Eysink. In the former museum of Raamsdonksveer these Dutch cars used to be displayed at the so-called Trompenburg Square with original fence of the original Spyker-factory, dismantled in 1993. From post-World War II the museum features a car of Winston Churchill, the Aston Martin DB5 used in the James Bond movie Goldfinger, and a Cadillac of Elvis Presley. The former collection of old cars of the Dutch Autotron in Rosmalen had been on display since 2005 in Raamsdonksveer, the Autotron has not had an automotive museum since its reorganisation in 2007. The museum also displays a collection of paintings and drawings by Frederick Gordon Crosby
36.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
37.
The Cannonball Run
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The Cannonball Run is a 1981 American-Hong Kong comedy film starring Burt Reynolds, Jackie Chan, Roger Moore, Dom DeLuise, Farrah Fawcett, and an all-star supporting cast filmed in Panavision. It was directed by Hal Needham, produced by Hong Kongs Golden Harvest films, one of 1981s most successful films at the box office, it was followed by Cannonball Run II, and Speed Zone. This and the 1984 sequel were the film appearances of actor Dean Martin. Race teams have gathered in Connecticut to start a car race. One at a time, teams drive up to the stand, punch a time card to indicate their time of departure. Among the teams, JJ McClure and Victor Prinzi, drive a souped-up, former open-wheel icon Jamie Blake and his teammate Morris Fenderbaum, dressed as Catholic priests, drive a red Ferrari 308 GTS1979. Jill Rivers and Marcie Thatcher, two women who use their looks to their advantage, start the race in a black Lamborghini Countach. Jackie Chan and Michael Hui race in a high-tech, computer-laden Subaru GL 4WD hatchback with a booster engine. Roger Moore plays heir to the Goldfarb Girdles fortune, Seymour Goldfarb, Jr. who perpetually identifies himself as actor Roger Moore and his character behaves similarly to James Bond and only once is called by his real name. He drives a silver Aston Martin DB5, Jamie Farr portrays an oil-rich Middle-Eastern sheikh, driving a white Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow. In the car with Foyt is a photographer and tree lover, beyond the starting line, JJ and Victor come across Foyt and Glover, who have been involved in a minor fender-bender. Glover implores JJ and Victor to help, but when they tell Foyt to enter the ambulance through the door, they kidnap Glover. As the race progresses, Victor occasionally turns into his alter ego, the very spooky Dr. Van Helsing and his huge hypodermic needle are also in the ambulance to help keep Glover quiet during the race. Various teams are shown either evading law enforcement, most of which deal with talking their way out of a possible ticket, Jill and Marcie use sex appeal as their weapon, unzipping their race suits to display copious amounts of cleavage during traffic stops. The Subaru team is able to turn off their cars headlights, Seymour Goldfarb is frequently shown evading police by using various James Bond-type gadgets, such as oil slicks, smoke screens, switchable number plates installed in his Aston Martin DB5. Mr. Compton and Super Chief Finch disguise themselves as a couple on a motorcycle. The primary rivalry is between the ambulance and the Ferrari, in Ohio, Fenderbaum and Blake are able to convince Victor to pull over the ambulance in order to bless the patient on board. While Blake carries out the blessing, Fenderbaum flattens one of the rear tires
38.
Roger Moore
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Sir Roger George Moore KBE is an English actor. He is best known for playing the British secret agent James Bond in seven films between 1973 and 1985 and Simon Templar in The Saint between 1962 and 1969. Roger Moore was born on 14 October 1927 in Stockwell, London and he is the only child of Lillian Lily, a housewife, and George Alfred Moore, a policeman. His mother was born in Calcutta, India, of English origin and he attended Battersea Grammar School, but was evacuated to Holsworthy, Devon, during World War II. He was then educated at Dr Challoners Grammar School in Amersham and he then attended the College of the Venerable Bede at the University of Durham, but did not graduate. At 18, shortly after the end of World War II, on 21 September 1946, he was commissioned into the Royal Army Service Corps as a second lieutenant. He was given the service number 372394 and he eventually became a captain, commanding a small depot in West Germany. He later looked after entertainers for the forces passing through Hamburg. At RADA, Moore was a classmate of his future Bond costar Lois Maxwell, Moore chose to leave RADA after six months in order to seek paid employment as an actor. His film idol was Stewart Granger, at the age of 17, Moore appeared as an extra in the film Caesar and Cleopatra, meeting his idol on the set. Later Moore and Granger were both in The Wild Geese, though they had no scenes together, other actors in that show included Clive Morton and Betty Ann Davies. Although Moore signed a contract with MGM in 1954, the films that followed were not successes and, in his own words. He appeared in Interrupted Melody—billed third under Glenn Ford and Eleanor Parker—a biographical movie about an opera singers recovery from polio and that same year, he played a supporting role in The Kings Thief starring Ann Blyth, Edmund Purdom, David Niven and George Sanders. In the 1956 film Diane, Moore was billed again, this time under Lana Turner and Pedro Armendariz in a 16th-century period piece set in France with Moore playing Prince Henri. Moore was released from his MGM contract after two years following the critical and commercial failure of Diane. After that, he spent a few years mainly doing one-shot parts in television series and he signed another long-term contract to a studio, this time to Warner Bros. His starring role in The Miracle, a version of the play Das Mirakel for Warner Bros. showcasing Carroll Baker as a nun, had turned down by Dirk Bogarde. Eventually, Moore made his name in television, shot mainly in England at Elstree Studios and Buckinghamshire, some of the show was also filmed in California due to a partnership with Columbia Studios Screen Gems
39.
Thunderball (film)
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Thunderball is the fourth spy film in the James Bond series starring Sean Connery as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. It is an adaptation of the novel of the name by Ian Fleming. It was directed by Terence Young with its screenplay by Richard Maibaum, the search leads Bond to the Bahamas, where he encounters Emilio Largo, the card-playing, eye patch-wearing SPECTRE Number Two. Backed by CIA agent Felix Leiter and Largos mistress, Domino Derval, the film had a complex production, with four different units and about a quarter of the film consisting of underwater scenes. Thunderball was the first Bond film shot in widescreen Panavision and the first to have running time of two hours. The lawsuit was settled out of court and Bond film series producers Albert R, the film was a success, earning a total of $141.2 million worldwide, exceeding the earnings of the three previous Bond films. In 1966, John Stears won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, Thunderball is the second-most financially successful film of the series when adjusting for inflation, after Skyfall. Some critics and viewers showered praise on the film and branded it an addition to the series, while others complained of the repetitively monotonous aquatic action. In 1983, Warner Bros. released a film adaptation of the novel under the title Never Say Never Again. James Bond attends the funeral of Colonel Jacques Bouvar, a SPECTRE operative, Bouvar is alive and disguised as his own widow, but Bond identifies him. Following him to a château, Bond fights and kills him, escaping using a jetpack and his Aston Martin DB5, conveniently driven up by French agent, at a SPECTRE meeting in Paris, chaired by the enigmatic No. 1, Emilio Largo introduces the groups latest project, stealing two atomic bombs and holding NATO for ransom, the plot begins at the Shrublands sanatorium, located close to an air force base. Coincidentally, James Bond is at Shrublands to improve his health, there he notices Count Lippe, a suspicious man with a Tong tattoo. Bond searches Lippes room, but is leaving by Lippes clinic neighbour. Lippe tries to murder Bond with a traction machine, but Bond is saved by his physiotherapist. Lippe and Angelo, the man, are part of SPECTRES plot. Derval is murdered by Angelo, who takes his place on the flight, hijacks the plane, Angelo submerges the jet and the atomic bombs are retrieved by SCUBA-equipped SPECTRE operatives, commanded by Largo. Angelo is killed by Largo for trying to more money than had been agreed
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GoldenEye
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GoldenEye is the seventeenth spy film in the James Bond series, and the first to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 officer James Bond. The film was directed by Martin Campbell and is the first in the not to take story elements from the works of novelist Ian Fleming. The story was conceived and written by Michael France, with collaboration by other writers. In the film, Bond fights to prevent an ex-MI6 agent, gone rogue, GoldenEye was released in 1995 after a six-year hiatus in the series caused by legal disputes, during which Timothy Dalton resigned from the role of James Bond and was replaced by Pierce Brosnan. M was also recast, with actress Judi Dench becoming the first woman to portray the character, the role of Miss Moneypenny was also recast, with Caroline Bliss being replaced by Samantha Bond, Desmond Llewelyn was the only actor to reprise his role as Q. GoldenEye was the first Bond film made after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the film accumulated a worldwide gross of US$350.7 million, considerably better than Daltons films, without taking inflation into account. The film received positive reviews, with critics viewing Brosnan as an improvement over his predecessor. The film also received nominations for Best Achievement in Special Effects and Best Sound from the British Academy of Film. The name GoldenEye pays homage to James Bonds creator, Ian Fleming, Fleming used the name of his operation for his estate in Oracabessa, Jamaica. In 1986, at Arkhangelsk, MI6 agents James Bond and Alec Trevelyan infiltrate a Soviet chemical weapons facility, Trevelyan is captured and gunned down by Colonel Arkady Grigorovich Ourumov, but Bond flees as the facility explodes. Nine years later, in Monte Carlo, Bond follows Xenia Onatopp, a member of the Janus crime syndicate, who has formed a relationship with Charles Farrel. They program the GoldenEye to destroy the complex, and escape with programmer Boris Grishenko, Natalya Simonova, the lone survivor, contacts Boris and arranges to meet him in Saint Petersburg, where he betrays her to Janus. In London, M assigns Bond to investigate the attack and he flies to Saint Petersburg to meet CIA operative Jack Wade, who suggests that Bond meet with Valentin Zukovsky, a former KGB agent and business rival of Janus. Zukovsky arranges a meeting between Bond and Janus, Onatopp surprises Bond at the Grand Hotel Europe and attempts to kill him, but he overpowers her. She takes Bond to Janus, who himself as Trevelyan. Just as Bond is about to shoot Trevelyan, Bond is shot with a tranquilizer dart, Bond awakens, tied up with Natalya in the helicopter, which has been programmed to self-destruct. They escape but are captured and transported to the Russian military archives, just as Natalya reveals the existence of a second satellite and Ourumovs involvement in the Siberian massacre, Ourumov arrives and kills Mishkin. Intending to frame Bond for the murder, he calls the guards, in the ensuing firefight, Natalya is captured
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Tomorrow Never Dies
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Tomorrow Never Dies is the eighteenth spy film in the James Bond series, and the second to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. Filming locations included France, Thailand, Germany, Mexico and the United Kingdom, Tomorrow Never Dies performed well at the box office and earned a Golden Globe nomination despite mixed reviews. MI6 sends James Bond, agent 007, into the field to spy on a terrorist arms bazaar on the Russian border, despite Ms insistence to let 007 finish his reconnaissance, British Admiral Roebuck orders the frigate HMS Chester to launch a missile attack on the arms bazaar. Bond then discovers two nuclear torpedoes mounted on an L-39 Albatros, and as the missile is too far along to be aborted,007 hijacks the L-39 and flies away seconds before the bazaar is destroyed. The British Minister of Defence orders Roebuck to deploy the British Fleet to recover the frigate, M sends Bond to investigate Carver after he releases news articles about the crisis hours before MI6 had learned of it. Bond travels to Hamburg and seduces Carvers wife, Paris, who is also Bonds ex-girlfriend and he also knocks out three of Stampers men and cuts Carver off the air while he is giving a speech during the inaugural broadcast of his satellite network. After Bond steals back the GPS encoder, Carver orders Paris, Paris is murdered by Carvers personal assassin Dr. Kaufman, but Bond kills Kaufman and escapes, protecting the encoder. Bond learns that the encoder had been tampered with, and goes to the South China Sea to investigate the wreck. He and Wai Lin, a Chinese agent on the case, explore the sunken ship and discover one of its cruise missiles missing. They soon escape and decide to collaborate on the investigation and they find Carvers stealth ship, which had been built with stolen stealth material, in Ha Long Bay, and board it to prevent him from firing the stolen British cruise missile at Beijing. During the attempt, Wai Lin is captured, forcing Bond to devise a second plan, Bond captures Gupta to use as his own hostage, but Carver kills Gupta, claiming he has outlived his contract. While Wai Lin disables the engines, and is captured by Stamper, after killing Carver with his own sea drill, Bond attempts to destroy the warhead with detonators, but Stamper appears and attacks him after sending Wai Lin into the waters to drown. Bond traps Stamper in the firing mechanism and dives to save Wai Lin as the missile explodes, destroying the ship. Later, Bond and Wai Lin share a romantic moment amidst the wreckage as the Bedford searches for them, Pierce Brosnan as James Bond, MI6 agent 007. Michelle Yeoh as Colonel Wai Lin, a skilled Chinese spy, Jonathan Pryce as Elliot Carver, a psychopathic media mogul who plans to provoke global war to boost sales and ratings of his news divisions. Teri Hatcher as Paris Carver, a girlfriend of Bond who is now Carvers trophy wife. Götz Otto as Richard Stamper, Carvers henchman, who is skilled in the art of Chakra torture, ricky Jay as Henry Gupta, an American Techno-terrorist in the employ of Carver. Bruce Feirstein said he named this character after a Gupta Bakery, joe Don Baker as Jack Wade, CIA liaison, reprising his role from GoldenEye
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Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
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The World Is Not Enough
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The World Is Not Enough is the nineteenth film in the James Bond series, and the third to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. The film was directed by Michael Apted, with the story and screenplay written by Neal Purvis, Robert Wade. It was produced by Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli, the title is taken from a line in the 1963 novel On Her Majestys Secret Service. During his assignment, Bond unravels a scheme to increase prices by triggering a nuclear meltdown in the waters of Istanbul. Filming locations included Spain, France, Azerbaijan, Turkey and the UK, despite mixed critical reception, The World Is Not Enough earned $361,832,400 worldwide. It was also the first Eon-produced Bond film to be released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer instead of United Artists. The banker is killed by his assistant before he can reveal the assassins name, Bond escapes with the money, but it is revealed to be booby-trapped, Sir Robert is killed by an explosion inside MI6 headquarters back in London. Bond gives chase to the assistant/assassin on a boat on the Thames to the Millennium Dome, Bond offers her protection, but she refuses, then causes the balloon to explode, killing herself. After getting cleared by the doctor, Bond traces the recovered money to Viktor Renard Zokas, following an earlier attempt on his life by MI6, Renard was left with a bullet in his brain which is gradually destroying his senses, making him immune to pain. M assigns Bond to protect Kings daughter, Elektra, against Renard, Bond flies to Azerbaijan, where Elektra is overseeing the construction of an oil pipeline. During a tour of the proposed route in the mountains, Bond. Afterwards Bond visits Valentin Zukovsky at a casino to acquire information about Elektras attackers, he discovers that Elektras head of security, Bond kills Davidov and boards a plane bound for a Russian ICBM base in Kazakhstan. He poses as a Russian nuclear scientist, meets American nuclear physicist Christmas Jones, inside, Renard is removing the GPS locator card and weapons-grade plutonium from a nuclear bomb. Before Bond can kill him, Jones blows his cover, Renard drops a hint that he and Elektra are collaborating and flees with the plutonium, while Bond and Jones escape the exploding silo with the locator card. Back in Azerbaijan, Bond discloses to M that Elektra may not be as innocent as she seems. An alarm sounds while he is handing M the locator card as proof of the theft, Bond and Jones enter the pipeline to deactivate the bomb, and Jones discovers that half of the plutonium is missing. They both jump clear of the rig, a section of pipeline is destroyed, and they are presumed killed. Back at the centre, Elektra reveals she and Renard are conspirators
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