1.
Atri, Abruzzo
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Atri is a comune in the Province of Teramo in the Abruzzo region of Italy. In 2001, it had a population of over 11,500, Atri is the setting of the poem, The Bell of Atri, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Its name is the origin of the name of the Emperor Hadrian, ancient Adria was a city of Picenum, situated about 10 kilometres from the Adriatic Sea, between the rivers Vomanus and Matrinus. According to the Antonine Itinerary, it was distant 15 Roman miles from Castrum Novum and 14 from Teate, the city was founded by Greeks from Aegina and reestablished by Dionysius I the tyrant of Syracuse in the 4th century BC. The first certain historical notice of Adria is the establishment of a Roman colony there about 282 BCE. At a later period, according to the Liber de Coloniis, it must have received a colony, probably under Augustus, hence it is termed a Colonia. Great part of the circuit of the ancient walls may be still traced, after the fall of Rome, the region was subjected, along with most of northern and central Italy, to a long period of violent conflict. Ultimately, in the 6th century, the Lombards succeeded in establishing hegemony over the area, the rule of the Acquaivivas marked the highpoint of Atris greatest power and splendor. It is now generally admitted that the coins of Adria belong to the city of Picenum, not that of the Veneto and they belong to the class commonly known as aes grave, and are even among the heaviest specimens known, exceeding in weight the most ancient Roman aeses. On this account they have assigned to a very remote antiquity, some referring them to the Etruscan, others to the Greek. But there seems much reason to believe that they are not really so ancient, and belong, in fact, to the Roman colony, some historians say that the city was founded by the Illyrians in the eleventh century BCE. They think that the city Atri was named after the Illyrian god Hatranus, the ancient name has been also described as the source from which the Adriatic Sea derived its name. Others maintain that the sea was named for Adria, an Etruscan city in Veneto region, duomo or Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta, This 13th century church was built on the remains of an earlier Romanesque structure. The cathedral incorporates a 56-metre high campanile, or bell tower, and it houses a fresco cycle by the 15th-century Abruzzi painter Andrea de Litio. The Diocesian museum is located adjacent to cathedral, Palazzo Ducale of Atri, Palace of the Duke of Acquaviva, built on the highest point in the city. The Palazzo now houses offices of both the municipal and provincial governments, medieval Walls and Gates, The three remaining gates in the walls are the Porta Macelli, the Porta San Domenico, and the Capo dAtri. Museo Capitolare San Francesco, This church features a flight of stairs in the Baroque style, San Domenico, This church contains two 17th-century paintings by Giacomo Farelli. San Nicola Santa Chiara, 13th-century church, santo Spirito, 12th to 18th century church
2.
Rama
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Ram or Srī Rāmachandra is the seventh avatar of the god Vishnu. He is the figure of the Hindu epic Ramayana, which is the principal narration of the events connected to his incarnation on Earth, his ideals. Rama is one of the deities in Hinduism and especially of the various sects of Vaishnavism. Religious texts and scriptures based on his life have been a component in numerous cultures of South Asia. Along with Krishna, Rama is considered to be one of the most important avatars of Vishnu, in Rama-centric sects, he is considered the Supreme Being, rather than an avatar. His wife Sita is considered by Hindus to be an avatar of Lakshmi, Rama and his brothers Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna were the chaturvyuha expansions of Vishnu. Ramas life and journey is one of adherence to dharma despite harsh tests and obstacles and many pains of life, for the sake of his fathers honour, Rama abandons his claim to Ayodhyas throne to serve an exile of fourteen years in the forest. His wife Sita and brother Lakshmana decide to join him and all three spend the fourteen years in exile together, while in exile, Sita is kidnapped by Ravana, the king of Lanka. After a long and arduous search, Rama fights a colossal war against Ravanas armies, in a war of powerful and magical beings, greatly destructive weaponry, and huge battles, Rama slays Ravana in battle and liberates his wife. Having completed his exile, Rama returns to be crowned king in Ayodhya and eventually becomes emperor, He rules with happiness, peace, duty, prosperity, and justice, a period known as Rama Rajya. The legend of Rama is deeply influential and popular in the societies of the Indian subcontinent, Rama is revered for his unending compassion, courage, and devotion to religious values and duty. The deity Hanuman declared Rama to be a supreme being, and said that, by constant remembrance of Lord Rama, the name Rama appears repeatedly in Hindu scriptures. Besides the name of the protagonist of the Ramayana, the name is given to other heroes including Parashurama and Balarama. In the Vishnu sahasranama, Rama is the 394th name of Vishnu, in Sanskrit, the word Rama means charming. It is commonly given as a name to male children in India, additionally, the tales of Rama are reverently spoken of in the Mahabharata. The earliest documentation of Rama in Buddhism is in the Buddhist text of Dasharatha Jataka, the epic had many versions across Indias regions. However, other scriptures in Sanskrit also reflect the life of Ramayana, the followers of Madhvacharya believe that an older version of the Ramayana, the mula-Ramayana, previously existed. They consider it to have been more authoritative than the version by Valmiki, another important shortened version of the epic in Sanskrit is the Adhyatma Ramayana
3.
Lakshmana
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In the Hindu sacred text Ramayana, Lakshmana also known as Soumitri, Bharatanuja Laxman, Lakhan is the younger brother and close companion of God Rama, hero of the epic and avatar of God Vishnu. Lakshmana is twin brother of Shatrughna, Lakshmana and his brother Shatrughna, were born in Ayodhya to Sumitra and King Dasharatha. In the Puranas, Lakshmana is described as an incarnation of Sesha, when sage Vishwamitra takes Rama for killing the demons, Lakshmana accompanies them and goes to Mithila with them. Lakshmana is specially attached to Rama and when Rama marries Sita, later, when Rama goes on exile for fourteen years on the insistence of Kaikeyi, Lakshmana leaves his wife Urmila and joins Rama. He serves Rama and Sita reverently during the exile, Lakshmana also built hut for Rama and Sita to live in Panchvati. Lakshmana cuts off Ravanas sister Surpanakhas nose in anger when she tries to covet Rama and he plays an important role in the war with Ravana and slays Ravanas son Indrajit. When Sita asks Rama to fetch a magical golden deer for her, Rama asks Lakshmana to stand guard as he sensed danger, the golden deer is in fact the demon Maricha, who distracts Rama. When Rama kills Maricha, he cries out in Ramas own voice for help, although Lakshmana knows that Rama is invincible and beyond any danger, Sita panics and frantically orders Lakshmana to go to Ramas aid immediately. Unable to disobey Sita, Lakshmana draws a line, which Sita must not cross. Sita however, out of compulsion of religious duty and compassion for Ravana disguised as a poor brahmin crosses the line to give him alms following which she is abducted. Lakshmana Rekha has become a metaphor in situations where a certain limit must not be transgressed by human beings in any circumstance whatsoever, during the war between Rama and Ravana, he killed Indrajit and Atikaya, who were the sons of Ravana. Before he killed Indrajit, Lakhshmana and Rama were twice defeated by Indrajit, after the war, when Rama asked Sita to give test of her purity, Lakshmana for the first time got angry on Rama and opposed him. After the war in Lanka, Rama was crowned king of Ayodhya, Rama had offered Lakshmana become the crown prince he refused saying Bharata is greater than him and is more deserving of the title. Lakshmana is the one who leaves Sita in the forests near sage Valmikis ashram after Rama banishes her from the kingdom, Lakshmana remains loyal to his brother and fights against Ramas sons Lava and Kusha later. Sage Durvasa appears at Ramas doorstep and seeing Lakshmana guarding the door, at the time, Rama was having a private conversation with Yama. Before the conversation began, Yama gave Rama strict instructions that their dialogue was to remain confidential, Rama agreed and entrusted Lakshmana with the duty of guarding his door. When Durvasa made his demand, Lakshmana politely refused, the sage grew angry and threatened to curse all of Ayodhya if Lakshmana did not immediately inform Rama of his arrival. Lakshmana, in a dilemma, decided it would be better that he alone die to all of Ayodhya from falling under Durvasas curse
4.
Anusuya
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Anasuya, also known as Anusuya, was wife of an ancient Indian rishi named Atri, in Hindu mythology. In Ramayana, she appears living with her husband in a hermitage in the southern periphery of the forest of Chitrakuta. She was very pious and always practiced austerities and devotion and this allowed her to attain miraculous powers. When Sita and Rama visited her during their exile, Anusuya was very attentive to them and she was mother of Dattatreya, the sage-avatar of Trimurti Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, the irascible sage Durvasa, avatar of Shiva and Chandraatri, avatar of Brahma. She is also mother of Chandra Dev Moon and she was daughter of Sage Kardama and his wife Devahuti. Sage Kapila was her brother and teacher and she is extolled as Sati Anusuya - Anusuya, the chaste wife. Anasuya is made up of two parts, An and Asuya, an is a negative prefix and Asuya means jealousy. Hence, Anasuya could be translated into English as one who is free from jealousy or envy, the story of Anusuyas family is mentioned in Bhagavata Purana Skanda III. Sage Kardama married Devahuti, daughter of Swayambhu Manu and had nine daughters, including Anusuya, each one of whom married various Saptarishis, Sage Narada praised Anusuya in his hymns and verses, making the wives of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva jealous. They requested their husbands go and tempt her away from her husband, the Divine Trinity went to Anusuya as guests when Atri was not at home and asked her to serve them lunch in the nude. She agreed, but first splashed them each with enchanted water, the three goddesses waited for their husbands to return and when they didnt, travelled to Anusuya’s cottage to find them transformed. The Goddesses repented and at request of Anusuya, the three Gods agreed to be born as her sons, according to one version, the gods merged turning into Anasuyas three headed son Dattatreya. A Brahmin named Kaushik from Pratishthan used to visit a prostitute, in spite of being a Brahmin, when he later became infected with leprosy, the prostitute stopped seeing him, forcing him to return to his wife who still cared for him. He still longed for the affections of the prostitute and one day asked his wife to him to her. In that town, sage Mandavya had been impaled in lieu of a criminal and was lying on a spike in the forest. While being led by his wife through the deep forest at night, Kaushik happened to trip on the sage, to stop the curse, Kaushiks wife stopped the sunrise with the power of her love, creating havoc in the heavens. The gods went to Brahma for help, who in turn went to Anasuya, Anasuya not only convinced Kaushiks wife to allow the sun to rise, but also brought Kaushik back to life after the curse had run its course. Brahma was very happy with Anusuya and was born to her as Chandraatri
5.
Sita
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Sita, also known as Siya, Vaidehi, Janaki, Maithili, or Bhoomija, is the central female character of the Hindu epic Ramayana and daughter of King Janaka of Videha and his wife queen Sunaina. She was the sister of Urmila and cousins Mandavi and Shrutakirti. She is consort of Hindu god Rama and is an avatar of Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and she is esteemed as a paragon of spousal and feminine virtues for all Hindu women. Sita is known for her dedication, self-sacrifice, courage and purity, Sita is described as the daughter of the earth goddess Bhūmi and the adopted daughter of King Janaka of Mithila and Queen Sunaina. In her youth, she marries Rama, the prince of Ayodhya, after marriage, she goes to exile with her husband and brother-in-law Lakshmana. While in exile, the settle in the Dandaka forest, from where she is abducted by Ravana. She is imprisoned in the Ashoka Vatika of Lanka by Ravana, until she is rescued by Rama, who slays her captor. After the war, Rama asks Sita to undergo Agni Pariksha by which she proves her purity before she is accepted by Rama, which for the first time made his brother Lakshmana get angry at him. In some versions of the epic, the fire-god Agni creates Maya Sita, at Agni Pariksha, Maya Sita and the real Sita exchange places again. While some texts mention that Maya Sita is destroyed in the flames of Agni Pariksha, others narrate how she is blessed, Some scriptures also mention her previous birth being Vedavati, a woman Ravana tries to molest. After proving her purity, Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya, after few months, Sita becomes pregnant which brought doubt to the Kingdom. Rama then sends Sita away on exile, Lakshmana is the one who leaves Sita in the forests near sage Valmikis ashrama after Rama banishes her from the kingdom. Years later, Sita returns to her mother, the Earths womb, the goddess is best known by the name Sita, derived from the Sanskrit word sīta, furrow. According to Ramayana, Janaka found her while ploughing as a part of a yagna, the word Sīta was a poetic term, its imagery redolent of fecundity and the many blessings coming from settled agriculture. The Sita of the Ramayana may have named after a more ancient Vedic goddess Sita. In the Vedic period, she was one of the associated with fertility. A Vedic hymn recites, In Harivamsa, Sita has been invoked as one of the names of goddess Arya, The Kausik-sutra, Sita is known by many epithets. She is called Jānaki as the daughter of Janaka and Maithili as the princess of Mithila, as the wife of Rama, she is called Ramā
6.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
7.
Anasuya
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Anasuya, also known as Anusuya, was wife of an ancient Indian rishi named Atri, in Hindu mythology. In Ramayana, she appears living with her husband in a hermitage in the southern periphery of the forest of Chitrakuta. She was very pious and always practiced austerities and devotion and this allowed her to attain miraculous powers. When Sita and Rama visited her during their exile, Anusuya was very attentive to them and she was mother of Dattatreya, the sage-avatar of Trimurti Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, the irascible sage Durvasa, avatar of Shiva and Chandraatri, avatar of Brahma. She is also mother of Chandra Dev Moon and she was daughter of Sage Kardama and his wife Devahuti. Sage Kapila was her brother and teacher and she is extolled as Sati Anusuya - Anusuya, the chaste wife. Anasuya is made up of two parts, An and Asuya, an is a negative prefix and Asuya means jealousy. Hence, Anasuya could be translated into English as one who is free from jealousy or envy, the story of Anusuyas family is mentioned in Bhagavata Purana Skanda III. Sage Kardama married Devahuti, daughter of Swayambhu Manu and had nine daughters, including Anusuya, each one of whom married various Saptarishis, Sage Narada praised Anusuya in his hymns and verses, making the wives of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva jealous. They requested their husbands go and tempt her away from her husband, the Divine Trinity went to Anusuya as guests when Atri was not at home and asked her to serve them lunch in the nude. She agreed, but first splashed them each with enchanted water, the three goddesses waited for their husbands to return and when they didnt, travelled to Anusuya’s cottage to find them transformed. The Goddesses repented and at request of Anusuya, the three Gods agreed to be born as her sons, according to one version, the gods merged turning into Anasuyas three headed son Dattatreya. A Brahmin named Kaushik from Pratishthan used to visit a prostitute, in spite of being a Brahmin, when he later became infected with leprosy, the prostitute stopped seeing him, forcing him to return to his wife who still cared for him. He still longed for the affections of the prostitute and one day asked his wife to him to her. In that town, sage Mandavya had been impaled in lieu of a criminal and was lying on a spike in the forest. While being led by his wife through the deep forest at night, Kaushik happened to trip on the sage, to stop the curse, Kaushiks wife stopped the sunrise with the power of her love, creating havoc in the heavens. The gods went to Brahma for help, who in turn went to Anasuya, Anasuya not only convinced Kaushiks wife to allow the sun to rise, but also brought Kaushik back to life after the curse had run its course. Brahma was very happy with Anusuya and was born to her as Chandraatri
8.
Durvasa
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In Hindu Puranas, Durvasa also known as Durvasas, was an ancient Rishi, the son of Atri and Anasuya. He is known for his short temper, hence, wherever he went, he was received with great reverence from humans and devas alike. His one famous temple called Rishi Durvasa Temple is located in village-Aali Brahman, tehsil-Hodal, dist. -Palwal, according to Chapter 44 of the Brahmananda Purana, Brahma and Shiva once got into a heated quarrel. So violent was Shivas rage as a result of this quarrel and his consort, Parvati, complained that Shiva was now impossible to live with. Realising the disharmony his anger had caused, he decided to deposit this anger into Anasuya, from this portion of Shiva deposited into Anasuya, a child was born, who was named Durvasa. Because he was born of Shivas anger, he had an irascible nature, the Bhagavata Purana gives a somewhat different account of Durvasas birth. In this version, Atri performed severe penance to propitiate the Supreme Being in order to obtain a son by Anasuya who would be just like Him, pleased with him, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva blessed the sage that portions of themselves would be born as his sons. In due course, Anasuya bore Soma, Dattatreya and Durvasa, in Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana and Padma Purana, a curse that Durvasa laid upon Indra is described as the indirect reason for the famous churning of the ocean. The Srimad Bhagavata and Agni Purana also mention Durvasas involvement in the episode in passing, the nymph respectfully gave the garland to the sage, whereupon he wore it on his brow. Resuming his wanderings, the sage came across Indra riding his elephant, Airavata, Durvasa, still in his state of frenzy, threw the garland at Indra, who caught it and placed it on Airavatas head. The elephant was irritated by the fragrance of the nectar in the flowers, Durvasa was enraged to see his gift treated so callously and cursed Indra that he would be cast down from his position of dominion over the three worlds, just as the garland was cast down. Indra immediately begged Durvasas forgiveness, but the refused to retract or even soften his curse. Because of the curse, Indra and the devas were diminished in strength, seizing this opportunity, the asuras led by Bali waged war against the gods. The gods were routed and turned to Brahma for help, Brahma directed them to seek refuge with Vishnu. Vishnu in turn, advised them to call a truce with the asuras and work together with them to churn the ocean of milk and obtain the Amrita, on the pretext of sharing it with them. Vishnu promised that he would ensure only the devas drank the Nectar, the devas took Vishnus advice and called their truce with the asuras and thus did the gods and demons begin planning their great enterprise. In the Bhagavata Purana, Ambarisha was a devotee of Vishnu who adhered firmly to the truth. He performed a yajna with such great devotional fervour that Narayana was pleased to bless him with his Sudarshana Chakra, once, Ambarisha performed a religious rite known as the Ekadashi and Dvadashi vrata, for 1 year
9.
Chandra
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In Hinduism, Chandra is a lunar god and a Graha. The Chandra is the lord of plants and vegetation, Chandra is described as young, beautiful, two-armed and having in his hands a club and a lotus. He rides his chariot across the sky night, pulled by ten white horses or an antelope. In Hindu mythology, Chandra is the father of Budha and he is married to 27 daughters of Daksha, after whom the Nakshatras in Hindu astrology are named. In Hindu mythology, there are versions of legends around Chandras family. In one, he meets Tara, the wife of Brihaspati, from their union, Tara became pregnant giving birth to Budha. Brihaspati becomes upset and declares a war, the Devas intervene, and Tara returns to Brihaspati. In another, Chandra marries the twenty-seven daughters of Daksha, the Moon favors Rohini – one of his wives, the others become upset and complain to Daksha. One popular story to account for the spot on the Moon is that Ganesha, once filled with food, fell from his mouse. Chandra laughed at this, for which Ganesha injured him by breaking off and throwing one of his tusks. Chandra is also the word in Sanskrit, Hindi and other Indian languages for the Moon and it is also a common Indian name, both male and female and exists as a name in many South East Asian languages that originate from Sanskrit. Indu, one of the names for Chandra, is also the name of the first chakra of Melakarta ragas in Carnatic music. The names of chakras are based on the associated with each name. In this case, there is one, the Moon and hence the first chakra is Indu, Chandra plays an important role in one of the first novel-length mystery stories in English, The Moonstone. The Sanskrit word Chandrayāna is used to refer to Indias lunar orbiters, navagraha Soma Media related to Chandra at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Dattatreya
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Dattatreya or Dattā is a paradigmatic Sannyasi and one of the lords of Yoga in Hinduism. In many regions of India and Nepal, he is considered a deity, in Maharashtra, he is a syncretistic deity, considered to be an avatar of the three Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, collectively known as Trimurti. In other regions, and some versions of such as the Garuda Purana, Brahma Purana and Sattvata Samhita. He is typically dressed as a monk or almost naked, situated in a forest or wilderness suggestive of his renunciation of worldly goods. In paintings and some carvings, he is surrounded by four dogs and a cow. In the temples of southern Maharashtra, Varanasi and in the Himalayas, his iconography shows him with one head and two hands with four dogs and a cow. According to Rigopoulos, in the Nath tradition of Shaivism, Dattatreya is revered as the Adi-Guru of the Adinath Sampradaya of the Nathas, the first Lord of Yoga with mastery of Tantra. According to Mallinson, Dattatreya is not the traditional guru of the Nath sampradaya, he was coopted by the Nath tradition in about the 18th century as a guru, several Upanishads are dedicated to him, as are texts of the Advaita Vedanta-Yoga tradition in Hinduism. One of the most important texts of Advaita Vedanta, namely Avadhuta Gita is attributed to Dattatreya, in Maharashtra, an annual festival in the Hindu calendar month of Mārgaśīrṣa reveres Dattatreya and this is called Datta Jayanti. The mythologies of Dattatreya are diverse and vary by region, in the Puranas, he was born in north Indian hermitage to Anusuya and her husband the Vedic sage Atri traditionally credited with making the largest contribution to the Rigveda. Another states his father lived in southern India, in the western Deccan region, a third claims he was born in Kashmir jungles near the sacred Amarnath. In a fifth myth, sage Atri was very old when young Anusuya married him, the trinity were pleased with them for having brought light and knowledge to the world, simultaneously granted the boon, which led Dattatreya to be born with characteristics of all three. While his origins are unclear and trace to inconsistent mythologies, stories about his life are more consistent and he is described in the Mahabharata as an exceptional Rishi with extraordinary insights and knowledge, who is adored and raised to a Guru and an Avatar of Vishnu in the Puranas. Dattatreya is stated in these texts to having renounced the world, one myth claims he meditated immersed in water for a long time, another has him wandering from childhood and the young Dattatreya footprints have been preserved on a lonely peak at Girnar. The Tripura-rahasya refers to the disciple Parasurama finding Dattatreya meditating on Gandhamadana mountain and this legend has been emblematic in the Hindu belief, particularly among artists and Yogis, that ideas, teachings and practices come from all sources, that self effort is a means to learning. The 24 teachers of Dattatreya are, The appearance of Shri Dattatreya in pictures varies according to traditional beliefs, many older medieval temples of Dattatreya show him with just one head, such as the one in Mahur and another in Pandharpur, both in southern Maharashtra. Texts such as Agni Purana describe the features for building murti. In Varanasi, Nepal, north Himalayan foothill states of India, in western parts of Maharashtra, the syncretic six armed and three faced iconography is more common
11.
Brahma
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Brahma is the creator god in the Trimurti of Hinduism. Brahma is also known as Svayambhu, Vāgīśa, and the creator of the four Vedas, Brahma is identified with the Vedic god Prajapati, as well as linked to Kama and Hiranyagarbha, he is more prominently mentioned in the post-Vedic Hindu epics and the mythologies in the Puranas. In the epics, he is conflated with Purusha, Brahma, along with Vishnu and Shiva, is part of a Hindu Trinity, however, ancient Hindu texts mention other trinities of gods or goddesses which do not include Brahma. While Brahma is often credited as the creator of the universe and various beings in it, other Puranas suggest that he is born from Shiva or his aspects, or he is a supreme god in diverse versions of Hindu mythology. Brahma, along with all deities, is viewed as a form of the otherwise formless Brahman. Brahma does not enjoy popular worship in present-age Hinduism and has lesser importance than the members of the Trimurti, Vishnu. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshipped as a deity in India. Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the Brahma Temple, Brahma temples are found outside India, such as in Thailand at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok. The origins of Brahma are uncertain, in part because related words such as one for Ultimate Reality. The existence of a deity named Brahma is evidenced in late Vedic text. The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle called Brahman. In Sanskrit grammar, the noun stem brahman forms two distinct nouns, one is a neuter noun bráhman, whose singular form is brahma. Contrasted to the noun is the masculine noun brahmán, whose nominative singular form is Brahma. This noun is used to refer to a person, and as the name of a deity Brahma it is the subject matter of the present article. One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, Brahma is discussed in verse 5,1 also called the Kutsayana Hymn first, and expounded in verse 5,2. In the pantheistic Kutsayana Hymn, the Upanishad asserts that ones Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. In verse 5,2 Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are mapped into the theory of Guṇa, the post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of cosmogony, many involving Brahma. Brahma is a creator as described in the Mahabharata and Puranas
12.
Sanskrit language
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
13.
Saptarishi
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The Saptarishi are the seven rishis who are extolled at many places in the Vedas and Hindu literature. The Vedic Samhitas never enumerate these rishis by name, though later Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas and they are regarded in the Vedas as the patriarchs of the Vedic religion. The late Gopatha Brahmana 1.2.8 has Vashista, Visvamitra, Jamadagni, Gautama, Bharadvaja, Gungu, Agastya, Bhrigu and Kaśyapa. In post-Vedic texts, different lists appear, some of these rishis were recognized as the mind born sons of Brahma, other representations are Mahesha or Shiva as the Destroyer and Vishnu as the Preserver. Since these seven rishis were also among the eight rishis, who were considered to be the ancestors of the Gotras of Brahmins. In some parts of India, people believe these are seven stars of the Big Dipper named Vashista, Marichi, Pulastya, Pulaha, Atri, Angiras, there is another star slightly visible within it, known as Arundhati. Arundhati is the wife of Vashista, the seven Rishis in the next Manvantara will be Diptimat, Galava, Parasurama, Kripa, Drauni or Ashwatthama, Vyasa and Rishyasringa. Sapta Rishis are the Hierarchy working under the guidance of the Highest Creative Intelligence, the present batch of the Sapta Rishis is Bhrigu, Atri, Angirasa Vashista, Pulastya, Pulalaha and Kratu. They bring down to the earth the required Knowledge and Energies to strengthen the processes of Transition and they are naturally the most evolved Light Beings in the Creation and the guardians of the Divine Laws. In post-Vedic religion, Manvantara is the time within an Kalpa, a day of Brahma, like the present Śveta Vārāha Kalpa. The names of the current Saptarshis are, Kashyapa, Atri, Vashista, Vishvamitra, Gautama Maharishi, Jamadagni, the Saptarishis keep changing for every Yuga. As per Hindu Shastras, there are four yugas, Krita Yuga / Sat Yuga, Treta Yuga, Dvapara Yuga and Kali Yuga. We are at present in the Kali Yuga, which will last for 432,000 years, Dvapara Yuga is twice Kali Yuga, Treta Yuga is thrice Kali Yuga, over all,4,320,000 years termed as 1 Chaturyuga. 1000 Chaturyugas make the day of 12 hours for Brahma and during another 12 hours, Brahma takes rest, thus 1 day for Brahma constitutes 1000 Chaturyugas. The valid avatars clan will be named after Ashvamedh, at the end of every four ages there is a disappearance of the Vedas and it is the province of the seven Rishis to come down upon earth from heaven to give them currency again. The Shatapatha Brahmana and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad acknowledge the names of seven rishis as, krishna Yajurveda in the Sandhya-Vandana Mantras has it as, Angiras Atri Bhrigu Gautama Maharishi Kashyapa Kutsa Vashista 3. Mahabharata gives the Seven Rishis names, Marichi Atri Pulaha Pulastya Kratu Vashista Kashyapa etc.4. )They all were sons of King Shri Nandan of Prabhapurnagar, Shri Nandan king took diksha becoming shishya of Omniscient Pritinkar Muniraaj and attained salvation. Because of great tapcharan of these seven digamber munis the Mahamaari disease stopped its evil effect, many idols of these seven munis were made after that event by King Shatrughna in all four directions of city
14.
Rigveda
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The Rigveda is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is one of the four sacred texts of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The text is a collection of 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses, a good deal of the language is still obscure and many hymns as a consequence seem unintelligible. The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities, for each deity series the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, and the number of hymns per book increases. In the eight books that were composed the earliest, the hymns predominantly discuss cosmology, Rigveda is one of the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language. 1700–1100 BC has also been given, some of its verses continue to be recited during Hindu rites of passage celebrations such as weddings and religious prayers, making it probably the worlds oldest religious text in continued use. This redaction also included some additions and orthoepic changes to the Vedic Sanskrit such as the regularization of sandhi, the Padapatha and the Pratisakhya anchor the texts fidelity and meaning, and the fixed text was preserved with unparalleled fidelity for more than a millennium by oral tradition alone. In order to achieve this the oral tradition prescribed very structured enunciation, involving breaking down the Sanskrit compounds into stems and inflections and this interplay with sounds gave rise to a scholarly tradition of morphology and phonetics. The Rigveda was probably not written down until the Gupta period, the oral tradition still continued into recent times. The text is organized in 10 books, known as Mandalas, of varying age, the family books, mandalas 2–7, are the oldest part of the Rigveda and the shortest books, they are arranged by length and account for 38% of the text. Within each book, the hymns are arranged in collections each dealing with a deity, Agni comes first, Indra comes second. They are attributed and dedicated to a rishi and his family of students, within each collection, the hymns are arranged in descending order of the number of stanzas per hymn. If two hymns in the collection have equal numbers of stanzas then they are arranged so that the number of syllables in the metre are in descending order. The second to seventh mandalas have a uniform format, the eighth and ninth mandalas, comprising hymns of mixed age, account for 15% and 9%, respectively. The first and the tenth mandalas are the youngest, they are also the longest books, of 191 suktas each, however, adds Witzel, some hymns in Mandala 8,1 and 10 may be as old as the earlier Mandalas. The first mandala has an arrangement not found in the other nine mandalas. The ninth mandala is arranged by both its structure and hymn length, while the first eighty four hymns of the tenth mandala have a structure different than the remaining hymns in it. Each mandala consists of hymns called sūkta intended for various rituals, the sūktas in turn consist of individual stanzas called ṛc, which are further analysed into units of verse called pada
15.
Puranas
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The word Puranas literally means ancient, old, and it is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in languages, several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva. The Puranas genre of literature is found in both Hinduism and Jainism, the content is highly inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves inconsistent. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of authors over the centuries, in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated. There are 18 Maha Puranas and 18 Upa Puranas, with over 400,000 verses, the first versions of the various Puranas were likely composed between the 3rd- and 10th-century CE. The Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in Hinduism and they have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism. The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika, because they do not preach initiation into Tantra, the Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas and they existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century. An early occurrence of the term purana is found in the Chandogya Upanishad, translated by Patrick Olivelle as the corpus of histories, importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda 11.7.24, the extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas. In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the original Purana may date to the time of the redaction of the Vedas. Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas and she dates Markandeya Purana to c.250 CE, Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c.350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c.450 CE, 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c, 550–850 CE, and Linga Purana to c. Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas and these are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always counted in the same way. The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, a Mahapurana is well known, the Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha, the Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga, has become a basic text for Devi worshipers
16.
Ramayana
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The Ramayana is an ancient Indian epic poem which narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. Along with the Mahabharata, it forms the Sanskrit Itihasa, the Ramayana is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24,000 verses, divided into seven Kandas, in Hindu tradition, it is considered to be the adi-kavya. It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life, like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is not just a story, it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. The name Ramayana is a compound of the name Rāma and ayana. According to Hindu tradition—and according to the Ramayana itself—the epic belongs to the genre of itihasa like Mahabharata, the definition of itihāsa is a narrative of past events which includes teachings on the goals of human life. According to Hindu tradition, Ramayana takes place during a period of known as Treta Yuga. In its extant form, Valmikis Ramayana is a poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a manuscript found in Nepal. A Times of India report dated 18 December 2015 informs about discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the Ramayana at the Asiatic Society library, the Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions and subrecensions. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions, the northern and the southern, scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind. There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmikis Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are parts of the book, in spite of some style differences. Some cultural evidence, such as the presence of sati in Mahabharata but not in the body of Ramayana. By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons of Hindu chronology, Rama is said to have been born in the Treta yuga to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty. The names of the characters are all known in late Vedic literature, however, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana and this version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishthira
17.
Mahabharata
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The Mahābhārata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. The Mahābhārata is a narrative of the Kurukṣetra War and the fates of the Kaurava. It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four goals of life or puruṣārtha, traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, the text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period. The title may be translated as the tale of the Bhārata dynasty. According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata. The Mahābhārata is the longest known epic poem and has described as the longest poem ever written. Its longest version consists of over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines, and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa. W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of civilization to that of the Bible, the works of Shakespeare. The epic is traditionally ascribed to the sage Vyāsa, who is also a character in the epic. Vyāsa described it as being itihāsa and he also describes the Guru-shishya parampara, which traces all great teachers and their students of the Vedic times. The first section of the Mahābhārata states that it was Gaṇeśa who wrote down the text to Vyasas dictation, the epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise known as frametales, popular in many Indian religious and non-religious works. It is recited by the sage Vaiśampāyana, a disciple of Vyāsa, the text has been described by some early 20th-century western Indologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposed that the poem must once have carried an immense tragic force. Moritz Winternitz considered that only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes could have lumped the parts of disparate origin into an unordered whole, Research on the Mahābhārata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating layers within the text. Some elements of the present Mahābhārata can be traced back to Vedic times, the background to the Mahābhārata suggests the origin of the epic occurs after the very early Vedic period and before the first Indian empire was to rise in the third century B. C
18.
Marichi
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In another classification, Marichi is one of the ten Prajapatis, the ruler of people created by Brahma. In Jain scriptures, he is referred to as one of the reincarnations of the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira as son of the Bharata Chakravartin. Saptarishi, a Sanskrit dvigu meaning seven sages) are the seven rishis who are extolled at many places in the Vedas, the Vedic Samhitas never enumerate these rishis by name, though later Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas and Upanisads do so. While earlier texts do not mention Marichi as one of the seven, in some parts of India, people believe these are seven stars of the Big Dipper named Vashista, Marichi, Pulastya, Pulaha, Atri, Angiras and Kratu. There is another star slightly visible within it, known as Arundhati and he is considered one among the seven great sages, the saptharishis. Marichi, like some of the sages, followed the path of wordly duties denouncing total renounciation. He had lot of children, the notable being sage Kashyapa, dharmavrata was one of the many consorts of the sage. Once he was cursed by the sage to become a stone for no fault of her and she pleaded innoncence and proved it by immolating herself. Vishnu was pleased by her devotion, before the creation started, Brahma, the Hindu god of creation, needed a few people who can be held responsible for the creation of the remaining Universe. Therefore, he is believed to have created ten Prajapatis from his Manas, Marichi is one of the manasputras of Brahma. Marichi is then married to Kala and gave birth to Kashyap and he is believed to be formed out of the sustained enery of Hindu god Vishnu. He is believed to have officiated the penance of Brahma at Pushkar and he is also believed to have visited Bhishma during Mahabharatha, when he was lying on the arrow bed. Marichi is also quoted as the adviser of young Dhuruva to pursue austeririts and his name is featured in multiple Hindu scriptures like Brahmanda Purana and the Vedas. Krishna in the Bhagavad-Gita says, Of the Ādityas I am Vishnu, of lights I am the radiant sun, of the Maruts I am Marici, and among the stars I am the moon. In Jain scriptures, Marichi was the son of Bharata Chakravartin who after many births was born as 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, in his life as Marichi, he became a Jain monk following Rishabhanatha, first tirthankara, but was unable to follow the hard rules of Digambara penance. So he took a robe, pedals and an umberalla and founded his own religion taking Kapila as his first disciple, Mahavira Dundas, Paul, The Jains, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-26605-X
19.
Angiras (sage)
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Angiras is a Vedic rishi of Hinduism. He is described in the Rigveda as a teacher of divine knowledge, in some texts, he is considered to be one of the seven great sages or saptarishis, but in others he is mentioned but not counted in the list of seven great sages. In some manuscripts of Atharvaveda, the text is attributed to Atharvangirasah, the student family of Angiras are called Angirasa, and they are credited to be the authors of some hymns in the first, second, fifth, eighth, ninth and tenth book of the Rigveda. Angiras is common name, and the mentions in ancient. In the Hindu Epics and Puranas, his legends and mythologies are highly inconsistent, many hymns of the Rigveda credit Angiras and his students as their authors. For example, Hymns 1.101 through 1.115 dedicated to Agni, Indra, Ribhus, Asvins, Dawn, Rudra, hymn 2.1 dedicated to Agni was originally authored by Angirasa Saunahotra. Hymns 5.35 and 5.36 dedicated to Indra were authored by Prabhuvasu Angirasa, Hymns 8.2 to Indra were authored by Priyamedha Angirasa. Hymns 9.97,9.108,9.112 to Soma were authored by Kutsa Angirasa, Uru Angirasa, Urdhvasadman Angirasa, Krtayasas Angirasa and Sisu Angirasa. Hymns in mandala 10, on Indra, Agni, Brihaspati, Wisdom, Surya, Vaisvanara, Horses, Dawn, ritual of Royal consecration, other than crediting authorship, the Vedic texts mention sage Angiras in various roles such as a fire priest or a singer. For example, the allegorical hymn 3.31 of the Rigveda calls him a singer, In the Vedic tradition linked to the Atharvaveda, sage Atharvan was more revered while sage Angiras was controversial. The auspicious practices, virtues and the pursuit of good for others were attributed to Atharvan, while the hostile sorcery, in Buddhist Pali canonical texts such as Digha Nikaya, Tevijja Sutta describes a discussion between the Buddha and Vedic scholars of his time. The Buddha names ten rishis, calls them early sages and makers of ancient verses that have collected and chanted in his era. The name Angirasas is applied generically to several Puranic individuals, further, the Vedic sage Angiras appears in medieval Hindu texts with contradictory roles as well as many different versions of his birth, marriage and biography. In some, he is described to be the son of Brahma, depending on the legend, he has one, two or four wives. In one myth, his wife is stated to be Surūpa and his sons are Utathya, Samvartana, other accounts say that he married Smriti, the daughter of Daksha and later married Svadha. Yet other Puranic accounts state, he married Shubha and they had seven daughters named after aspects of fire, in some legends, sage Brihaspati is his son. According to one legend, Angirasa turned his senses inwards and meditated on Para-Brahman, the great Tejas he got by birth had multiplied infinitely by his penance. He attained many divine qualities, powers, and riches, but he was oblivious of all the worldly attainments and did not stop his penance
20.
Pulaha
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Rishi Pulaha or Pulaha is the son of Brahma, the cosmic creator, and also one of the Saptarshi, in the First Manvantara, with others being Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Kratu, Pulastya, and Vashishtha. In another classification, Pulaha one of the ten Prajapatis, the ruler of people created by Brahma, during his birth in the first Manvantara, Pulaha was married to Dakshas daughters, Kshama. Together they had three sons, Kardama, Kanakapeetha and Urvarivat, and a daughter named Peevari, according to Bhagavata Purana Pulaha Rishi was also married to Gati, a daughter of Kardama and Devahuthi. The two had three sons – Karmasreshtta, Vareeyaamsu and Sahishnu, Pulaha is believed to be the fifth son who sprang from Brahmas head. Brahma created saptharishis and ten prajapathi, from all human beings are believed to have been born. Pulaha learned the power of knowledge from sage Sanandana and in turn transmitted all knowledge to sage Gautama and he performed intense penance on the banks of river Alaknandha and was rewarded to be present in the court of Indra. King Bharata renounced all his kingdom and sought refuge in the hermitate of Pulaha, the sage is believed to be an ardent worshipper of Shiva. Pleased by the devotion of the sage, Shiva manifested in the form of Pulaheswar in Varanasi
21.
Vasistha
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Vashistha is a revered Vedic sage in Hinduism. He is one of the Saptarishis of India, Vashistha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of Rigveda. Vashistha and his family are mentioned in Rigvedic verse 10.167.4, other Rigvedic mandalas and his ideas have been influential and he was called as the first sage of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy by Adi Shankara. Yoga Vasistha, Vashistha Samhita, as well as versions of the Agni Purana. He is the subject of many mythologies, such as him being in possession of the divine cow Kamadhenu and Nandini her child and he is famous in Hindu mythologies for his legendary conflicts with sage Visvamitra. Vashistha is also spelled as Vasiṣṭha Thai, Vasit, Tamil, வசிட்டர், Telugu, वसिष्ठ literally means most excellent, best or richest. In Rigvedic hymn 7.33.9, Vasistha is described as a scholar who moved across the Indus river to establish his school and he was married to Arundhati, and therefore he was also called Arundhati Nath, meaning the husband of Arundhati. Vashistha is believed to have lived on the banks of Ganga in modern-day Uttarakhand, later, this region is believed in the Indian tradition to be the abode of sage Vyasa along with Pandavas, the five brothers of Mahabharata. In Buddhist Pali canonical texts such as Digha Nikaya, Tevijja Sutta describes a discussion between the Buddha and Vedic scholars of his time. The Buddha names ten rishis, calls them early sages and makers of ancient verses that have collected and chanted in his era. Vashistha is the author of the book of the Rigveda, one of its family books. These hymns declare two gods, Indra and Varuna, as equally great, in another hymn, particularly the Rigvedic verse 8.83. The seventh mandala of the Rigveda by Vashistha is a metaphorical treatise, Vashistha reappears as a character in Hindu texts, through its history, that explore conciliation between conflicting or opposing ideologies. According to Ellison Findly – a professor of Religion, Vashista hymns in the Rigveda are among the most intriguing in many ways and influential. Vashistha is a sage in the Hindu traditions, and like other revered sages, numerous treatises composed in ancient. Some treatises named after him or attributed to him include, Vasistha samhita is a medieval era Yoga text, there is an Agama as well with the same title. Vasistha dharmasutra, an ancient text, and one of the few Dharma-related treatises which has survived into the modern era and this Dharmasūtra forms an independent text and other parts of the Kalpasūtra, that is Shrauta- and Grihya-sutras are missing. Yoga Vasistha is a medieval era text that presents Vedanta
22.
Vishnu
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Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
23.
Shiva
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Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
24.
Shiva Purana
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The Shiva Purana is one of eighteen Purana genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Shiva and goddess Parvati, the Shiva Purana asserts that it once consisted of 100,000 verses set out in twelve samhitas, however the Purana adds that it was abridged by sage Vyasa before being taught to Romaharshana. The two versions that include books, title some of the same and others differently. The Shiva Purana, like other Puranas in Hindu literature, was likely a living text, the oldest manuscript of surviving texts was likely composed, estimates Klaus Klostermaier, around 10th- to 11th-century CE. Some chapters of currently surviving Shiva Purana manuscripts were composed after the 14th-century. The Shiva Purana contains chapters with Shiva-centered cosmology, mythology, relationship between gods, ethics, Yoga, Tirtha sites, bhakti, rivers and geography, the text is an important source of historic information on different types and theology behind Shaivism in early 2nd-millennium CE. The oldest surviving chapters of the Shiva Purana have significant Advaita Vedanta philosophy, in the 19th- and 20th-century, the Vayu Purana was sometimes titled as Shiva Purana, and sometimes proposed as a part of the complete Shiva Purana. With the discovery of more manuscripts, modern scholarship considers the two text as different, with Vayu Purana as the older text composed sometime before 2nd-century CE. Some scholars list it as a Mahapurana, while some state it is an Upapurana, the date and authors of Shiva Purana are unknown. Certain books and chapters in currently surviving Shiva Purana manuscripts were composed later. The Shiva Purana, like other Puranas in Hindu literature, were edited, recast. Hazra states that the Bombay manuscript published in the 19th-century is rarer, several recensions of this text exist. These are the Īśāna Saṁhitā, the Īśvara Saṁhitā, the Sūrya Saṁhitā, the Tirthakṣetramāhātmya Saṁhitā, the Pūrvakhaṇḍa consists 3270 ślokas in 51 chapters written in Nagari script and the Uttarakhaṇḍa has 45 chapters written in Oriya script. It was preserved in Mahimprakash Brahmachari Matha in Puri, the Pūrvakhaṇḍa of this manuscript is same as the Sanatkumara Saṁhitā of the Vangavasi Press edition. The Jnanasamhita in one manuscript shares content with Rudrasamhita of the manuscript, presents cosmology and mythology. The text discusses goddesses and gods, dedicates parts of chapters praising Vishnu and Brahma, the text emphasizes bhakti and yoga, rather than bookish learning of the Vedas. The Shiva Purana dedicates chapters to Shaiva-Advaita philosophy, like Linga Purana and other Shaivism-related Puranas, the text also presents the Brahman as satcitananda theme, with masculine and feminine Shiva-Shakti as a unity, and perception of plurality-discrimination as a form of nescience. These ideas, states Klaus Klostermaier, similar to found in Devi-related Puranas
25.
Agni
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Agni means fire, and connotes the Vedic fire god of Hinduism. Agni also refers to one of the deities of direction. In the Vedic literature, Agni is a major and oft invoked god along with Indra, Agni is considered as the mouth of the gods and goddesses, and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a homa. He is conceptualized in ancient Hindu texts to exist at three levels, on earth as fire, in atmosphere as lightning, and in the sky as sun and this triple presence connects him as the messenger between gods and human beings in the Vedic thought. Agni is a term that appears extensively in Buddhist texts, the Sanskrit word Agni means fire. In the early Vedic literature, Agni primarily connotes the fire as a god, one reflecting the primordial powers to consume, transform and convey. In the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, such as in section 5.2.3 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Agni represents all the gods, the etymology of Agni is uncertain and contested. According to the 5th-century BCE Sanskrit text Nirukta-Nighantu in section 7, from root aj, which in Sanskrit means to drive and mirrors in Indo-European languages in the sense of nimble, agile. There are many theories about the origins of the god Agni, some tracing it to Indo-European mythologies, the origin myth found in many Indo-European cultures is one of a bird, or bird like being, that carries or brings fire from the gods to mankind. Alternatively, this brings a elixir of immortality from heaven to earth. In either case, the bird returns everyday with sacrificial offerings for the gods, Agni is molded in similar mythical themes, in some hymns with the phrase the heavenly bird that flies. Agni originated from the forehead of Prajapati, assert these texts, with the creation of Agni came light, and with that were created day and night. Agni, state these Samhitas, is the same as the Brahman, the truth, Agni is originally conceptualized as the ultimate source of the creator-maintainer-destroyer triad, then one of the trinities, as the one who ruled the earth. His twin brother Indra ruled the atmosphere as the god of storm, rain and war, while Surya ruled the sky and his position and importance evolves over time, in the creator-maintainer-destroyer aspects of existence in Hindu thought. In the Vedic pantheon, Agni occupies, after Indra, the most important position, Agni is prominent in the hymns of the Vedas and particularly the Brahmanas. In the Rig Veda there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni and his name or synonyms appear in nearly a third of 1,028 hymns in the Rigveda. The Rigveda opens with a hymn inviting Agni, who is addressed later in the hymn as the guardian of Ṛta. The Vedas describe the parents of Agni as two kindling fire sticks, whose loving action creates him, just born, he is poetically presented as a tender baby, who needs loving attention lest he vanishes
26.
Indra
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Indra is a Vedic deity in Hinduism, a guardian deity in Buddhism, and the king of first heaven called Saudharmakalpa in Jainism. His mythologies and powers are similar, though not identical to those of the Indo-European deities such as Zeus, Jupiter, Perun, Thor, in the Vedas, Indra is the king of Svarga and the Devas. He is the god of lightning, thunder, storms, rains, Indra is the most referred to deity in the Rigveda. He is celebrated for his powers, and the one who kills the great symbolic evil named Vritra who obstructs human prosperity, Indra destroys Vritra and his deceiving forces, and thereby brings rains and the sunshine as the friend of mankind. In Buddhism, Indra has been a popular deity, referred by many names and he is featured in Buddhism somewhat differently than Hinduism, such as being shown as less war oriented and one paying homage to the Buddha. Indra rules over the much sought Devas realm of rebirth within the Samsara doctrine of Buddhist traditions, however, like the Hindu texts, Indra also is a subject of ridicule and reduced to a figurehead status in Buddhist texts, shown as a god that suffers rebirth and redeath. In the Jainism traditions, like Buddhism and Hinduism, Indra is the king of gods, Indras iconography shows him wielding a lightning thunderbolt known as Vajra, riding on a white elephant known as Airavata. In Buddhist iconography the elephant sometimes features three heads, while Jaina icons sometimes show the elephant with five heads, sometimes a single elephant is shown with four symbolic tusks. Indras heavenly home is on or near Mount Meru, the etymological roots of Indra are unclear, has been a contested topic among scholars since the 19th-century, one with many proposals. The significant proposals have been, root ind-u, or rain drop, based on the Vedic mythology that he conquered rain, root ind, or equipped with great power. Root idh or kindle, and ina or strong, root indha, or igniter, for his ability to bring light and power that ignites the vital forces of life. This is based on Shatapatha Brahmana, root idam-dra, or It seeing which is a reference to the one who first perceived the self-sufficient metaphysical Brahman. This is based on Aitareya Upanishad, roots in ancient Indo-European, Indo-Aryan deities. Later scholarship has linked Vedic Indra to the European Aynar, Abaza, Ubykh, colarusso suggests a Pontic origin and that both the phonology and the context of Indra in Indian religions is best explained from Indo-Aryan roots and a Circassian etymology. Indra is also called Śakra frequently in the Vedas and in Buddhism, Indra has many epithets in the Indian religions, notably Śakra, Vṛṣan, Vṛtrahan, Meghavāhana, Devarāja, Devendra, Surendra, Svargapati, Vajrapāṇī and Vāsava. Indra is of ancient but unclear origin, the similarities between Indra of Hindu mythologies and of Thor of Nordic and Germanic mythologies are significant states Max Muller. Michael Janda suggests that Indra has origins in the Indo-European *trigw-welumos smasher of the enclosure, brave and heroic Innara or Inra, which sounds like Indra, is mentioned among the gods of the Mitanni, a Hurrian-speaking people of Hittite region. Indra as a deity had a presence in northeastern Asia minor and this tablet mentions a treaty, but its significance is in four names it includes reverentially as Mi-it-ra, U-ru-w-na, In-da-ra and Na-sa-at-ti-ia
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Maruts
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In Hinduism, the Marutas, also known as the Marutagana and sometimes identified with Rudras, are storm deities and sons of Rudra and Prisni and attendants of Indra. The number of Marutas varies from 27 to sixty, hymn 66 of Mandala VI of the Rig Veda is an eloquent account of how a natural phenomenon of a rain-storm metamorphose into storm deities. In the Vedic mythology, the Marutas, a troop of young warriors, are Indras companions, according to French comparative mythologist Georges Dumézil, they are cognate to the Einherjar and the Wild hunt. According to the Rig Veda, the ancient collection of sacred hymns, they wore helmets and breastplates. They were widely regarded as clouds, capable to shaking mountains, the goddess had intended to remain pregnant for a century before giving birth to a son who would threaten Indra
28.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
29.
Rishi
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In the Vedas the term Rishi denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the Rishis as seers or sages, who after intense meditation realized truths and eternal knowledge, according to Indian tradition, the word may be derived from two different meanings of the root rsh. Sanskrit grammarians derive this word from the meaning, to go. V. S. Apte gives this particular meaning and derivation, another form of this root means to flow, to move near by flowing. Monier-Williams also quotes Tārānātha who compiled the great dictionary named ṛṣati jñānena saṃsāra-pāram, more than a century ago, Monier-Williams tentatively suggested a derivation from drś to see. Monier-Wiliams also quotes the Hibernian form arsan and arrach as related to rishi, Monier-Williams also conjectures that the root drish might have given rise to an obsolete root rish meaning to see. However, the root has a close Avestan cognate ərəšiš an ecstatic, yet the Indo-European dictionary of Julius Pokorny connects the word to a PIE root *h3er-s meaning rise, protrude, in the sense of excellent and thus cognate with Ṛta and right and Asha. Some of the earliest lists of Rishi are found in Jaiminiya Brahmana verse 2.218, in the Vedas, the word denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. In particular, Ṛṣi refers to the authors of the hymns of the Rigveda, post-Vedic tradition regards the Rishis as sages or saints, constituting a peculiar class of divine human beings in the early mythical system, as distinct from Asuras, Devas and mortal men. Swami Vivekananda described Rishis as Mantra-drashtas or the seers of thought, the Sama Veda adds Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and Gaupayana. In Mahabharata 12, on the hand, there is the post-Vedic list of Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya. The Mahābhārata list explicitly refers to the saptarshis of the first manvantara, each manvantara had a unique set of saptarshi. In Harivamsha 417ff, the names of the Rishis of each manvantara are enumerated, in addition to the Saptarṣi, there are other classifications of sages. In descending order of precedence, they are Brahmarshi, Maharshi, Rajarshi, devarṣi, Paramrṣi, Shrutarṣi and Kāndarṣi are added in Manusmriti iv-94 and xi-236 and in two dramas of Kālidasa. The Chaturvarga-Chintāmani of Hemādri puts riṣi at the place in the eightfold division of Brāhmanas. Amarakosha mentions seven types of riṣis, Shrutarshi, Kāndarshi, Paramarshi, Maharshi, Rājarshi, Brahmarshi and Devarshi, amarakosha strictly distinguishes Rishi from other types of sages, such as sanyāsi, bhikṣu, parivrājaka, tapasvi, muni, brahmachāri, yati, etc. Most medieval era Hindu temples of Java, Indonesia show Rishi Agastya statues or reliefs, some examples include Candi Sambisari and the Prambanan temple near Yogyakarta. Rishi Agastya is known as Phra Reusi Akkhot in Thailand, Ruesi is a hermit sage, the equivalent of Rishi in India
30.
Vaikhanasas
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Vaikhānasa is one of the principal traditions of Hinduism and primarily worships Vishnu as the Supreme God. The followers are mainly Brahmins of Krishna Yajurveda Taittiriya Shakha and Vaikhanasa Kalpasutra, the name Vaikhānasa stands for the followers and the fundamental philosophy itself with the name derived from founder, Sage Vaikhanasa. It is principally monotheistic in its philosophy, whilst also incorporating elements which could be described as being panentheistic, vaikhanansas principle focuses on rituals and worship of Lord Vishnu rather than the philosophy of Uttara Mimamsa, unlike Vaishnavism, the larger and more prevalent form on Vishnu worship. Vaikhanasa bhagavath Shastra is the principle for rituals in Tirumala Venkateswara temple. The Vaikhanasa Brahmins/Vaikhanasas originated as a group of ascetics, in the Manava Dharmasastra, Manu discusses vanaprastha, forest-dweller, the third of the four asramas, stages of life, and mentions a Vaikhanasa rule. Other ancient authorities support this reference, so it seems there was a Vaikhanasa ascetic community before the common era and they are mentioned in the Narayaniya, which is a late section of the Mahabharata of uncertain date but probably no earlier than the third century CE. Surviving Vaikhanasa sutras are no older than the fourth century CE, inscriptions from perhaps the eighth century CE identify Vaikhanasas as temple priests, and from the end of the tenth century they are prominently mentioned in South Indian inscriptions. Vaikhanasas were the priests of Vishnu temples and they were not merely ritual priests, but were trusted with administering the temples and their lands. During those time Vaikhanasa Priests saved the Srirangam Temple and worshipped the God with Sri Vaikanasa Agama Bagavath Shaastram, today Vaikhanasas are the chief priests in more than half of the Vaishnava temples in the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Karnataka. Their present-day temple activities are worthy of attention, as are their efforts to work for community integrity which is threatened by increasing social and technological changes. The Vaikhanasa-sutra belonging to the Trivandrum Sanskrit Series has been edited by Dr. W. Caland and this sutra - text forms part of the Krishna Yajurveda tradition and derives its name probably from Vaikhanas who was its author. The work contains three types of Sutras —the Shrauta, the Grhya and the Dharma which altogether may be designated as Smarta-sutra, there is no doubt that both the portions have definitely one author, since the style of the Grhya and Dharma-sutras is the same. Moreover, the author himself promises to continue a topic discussed in the Grhya- portion again in the books on Dharma, the work is on the whole a small one but it contains in the main the same materials as are treated by its predecessors. —Vaikhanasasmartasutram, The Domestic Rules and Sacred Laws of the Vaikhanasa School Belonging to the Krishna Yajurveda translated into English by W. Caland, some of the prominent Hindu temples following the Vaikanasa Agama are Sri Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala Sri Venkateswara Swamy Temple, Dwarakatirumala, West Godavari Dist. Sri Venkateswara Swamy Temple, Tirumala Giri, Jaggayyapet, Krishna Dist, Sri Lakshmi Varaha Venkataramana Swamy Temple, Anjaneya Nagar, 3rd Stage Banashankari, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India. Sri Ranganatha Swamy Temple Ballapur pet, Bangalore Karnataka, India Sri Venkateswara Swamy Temple, Ilupeju, Lagos, Sri Venkateswara Swamy Temple, Srigiri, Ongole, Andhra Pradesh, India Sri Rama and Sri Tuppadanjaneyaswamy Temple, Rangaswamy temple street, Avenue road cross, Bangalore. Sri Chennakeshava swamy temple, Ganigarapet, Bangalore, Karnataka, India, Sri Lakshmi Narasimha swamiTemple, Mangalagiri, Andhra Pradesh Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple, Vedadri, Jaggayyapet, Krishna Dist. Sri Kallazhagar Temple, Thirumaliruncholai, Alagarkoil, Madurai, Tamilnadu, Vaikhanasas claim to be a surviving school of Vedic ritual, the Taittiriya Shakha of the Krishna Yajurveda
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Vaishnavism
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Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas, the tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Vishnu is revered in one of many distinct incarnations. Of these, ten avatars of Vishnu are the most studied, Krishna, Rama, Narayana, Vāsudeva, Hari, Vithoba, Kesava, Madhava, Govinda and Jagannath are among the popular names used for the same supreme. The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st millennium BCE, as Bhagavatism, later developments led by Ramananda created a Rama-oriented movement, now the largest monastic group in Asia. The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya to Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja, new Vaishnavism movements have been founded in the modern era such as the ISKCON of Prabhupada. The tradition is known for the devotion to an avatar of Vishnu. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra texts, Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period. Although Vishnu was a Vedic solar deity, he is mentioned less often compared to Agni, Indra and other Vedic deities, other scholars state that there are other Vedic deities, such as water deity Nara, who together form the historical roots of Vaishnavism. The ancient emergence of Vaishnavism is unclear, the evidence inconsistent, according to Dalal, the origins may be in Vedic deity Bhaga, who gave rise to Bhagavatism. According to Preciado-Solís, the Vedic deities Nara and Narayana form one of the Vedic roots of Vaishnavism, according to Dandekar, Vaishnavism may have emerged from merger of several ancient theistic traditions, where the various deities were integrated as different avatars of the same god. In Dandekar theory, Vaishnavism emerged at the end of the Vedic period, closely before the urbanisation of northern India. This earliest phase was established the time of Pāṇini who, in his Astadhyayi and this was followed by a merger with the cult of Gopala-Krsna of the cowherd community of the Abhıras at the 4th century CE. The character of Gopala Krishna is often considered to be non-Vedic, according to Dandekar, such mergers consolidated the position of Krishnaism between the heterodox sramana movement and the orthodox Vedic religion. The Greater Krsnaism, states Dandekar, then merged with the Rigvedic Vishnu, syncretism of various traditions and Vedism resulted in Vaishnavism. At this stage that Vishnu of the Rig Veda was assimilated into non-Vedic Krishnaism, the appearance of Krishna as one of the Avatars of Vishnu dates to the period of the Sanskrit epics in the early centuries CE. The Bhagavad Gita was incorporated into the Mahabharata as a key text for Krishnaism, finally, the Narayana-cult was also included, which further brahmanized Vaishnavism. The Nara-Narayana cult may have originated in Badari, a ridge of the Hindu Kush. Purusa Narayana may have later turned into Arjuna and Krsna
32.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Manvantara
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Manvantara or Manuvantara or Manvanter, or age of a Manu, the Hindu progenitor of humanity, is an astronomical period of time measurement. Manvantara is a Sanskrit word, a compound of manu and antara, manu-antara or manvantara, literally meaning the duration of a Manu, each Manvantara is created and ruled by a specific Manu, who in turn is created by Brahma, the Creator himself. Fourteen Manus and their respective Manvantaras constitute one Kalpa, Aeon, or a ‘Day of Brahma’, according to the Hindu Time Cycles, fourteen times this period constitutes a Bráhma day, that is, a day of Brahmá, the term being the derivative form. The Brahma life span is 100 Brahma varshas, the following table will illustrate clearly the link to our years and Brahma years. Conversion of 1 day of Brahma into human years yields 8.58816 *109 years, according to Vedas, there are 504000 Manus manifested during the lifetime of one Brahmā,5040 Manus in one year of Brahma, and 420 Manus in one month of Brahma. Saptarshis, Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya, svayambhuve—in the Svayambhuva-manvantara, yajna—the avatara named Yajna, In the Svayambhuva-manvantara, the Avatar is named Yajna. The first Manu was Svayambhuva Manu and his two daughters, namely Akuti and Devahuti, gave birth to two sons, named Yajna and Kapila respectively. Svayambhuva Manu, along with his wife, Satarupa, went into the forest to practice austerities on the bank of the River Sunanda. At some point in time, Rakshasas and asuras attacked them, but Yajna, accompanied by his sons the Yamas, then Yajna personally took the post of Indra, the King of the heavenly planets. Urjastambha, Agni, Prańa, Danti, Rishabha, Nischara, in the Svarocisha-manvantara, avatara is named Vibhu. The second Manu, whose name was Svarocisha, was the son of Agni, in the age of this Manu, Rochana became Indra, the ruler of the heavenly planets, and there were many demigods, headed by Tushita. There were also many saintly persons, such as Urjastambha, among them was Vedasira, whose wife, Tushita, gave birth to Vibhu. Vibhu instructed eighty-eight thousand dridha-vratas, or saintly persons, on self-control, sons of Vashista, Kaukundihi, Kurundi, Dalaya, Śankha, Praváhita, Mita, and Sammita. In the Uttama-manvantara, He is named Satyasena, Uttama, the son of Priyavrata, was the third Manu. Among his sons were Pavana, Srinjaya and Yajnahotra, during the reign of this Manu, the sons of Vashista, headed by Pramada, became the seven saintly persons. The Satyas, Devasrutas and Bhadras became the demigods, and Sushanti became Indra, from the womb of Sunrita, the wife of Dharma, the Lord appeared as Satyasena, and He killed all the Yakshas and Rakshasas who were fighting with Satyajit. Jyotirdhama, Prithu, Kavya, Chaitra, Agni, Vanaka, in the Tapasa-manvantara, He is named Hari. He is named Tapasa because he was born during Tapassu Tapasa/Tamasa, the brother of the third Manu, was the fourth Manu, and he had ten sons, including Prithu, Khyati, Nara and Ketu
