1.
Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
2.
Carl Spitzweg
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Carl Spitzweg was a German romanticist painter, especially of genre subjects. He is considered to be one of the most important artists of the Biedermeier era and he was born in Unterpfaffenhofen, the second of three sons of Franziska and Simon Spitzweg. His father, a merchant, had Carl trained as a pharmacist. He attained his qualification from the University of Munich but, while recovering from an illness, Spitzweg was self-taught as an artist, starting out by copying the works of Flemish masters. He contributed his first work to satiric magazines, upon receiving an inheritance in 1833, he was able to dedicate himself to painting. Later, Spitzweg visited European art centers in Prague, Venice, Paris, London and his later paintings and drawings are often humorous genre works. Many of his paintings depict sharply characterized eccentrics, for example The Bookworm and his paintings inspired the musical comedy Das kleine Hofkonzert by Edmund Nick. Playing Piano, an etching by Spitzweg, was found as part of the 2012 Nazi loot discovery, Spitzweg is buried in the Alter Südfriedhof in Munich. In the late 1930s an art forgery case in Germany involved 54 paintings which had passed off as Spitzweg originals. They had been painted by a Traunstein copyist named Toni who worked from reproductions, Toni signed the works with his own name as after Spitzweg, but fraudsters later removed his name and artificially aged the paintings in order to sell them as originals. At the Stuttgart Criminal Court Assizes the conspirators were jailed for up to ten years for the swindle
3.
Neue Pinakothek
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The Neue Pinakothek is an art museum in Munich, Germany. Its focus is European Art of the 18th and 19th century and is one of the most important museums of art of the century in the world. Together with the Alte Pinakothek and the Pinakothek der Moderne it is part of Munichs Kunstareal, the museum was founded by the former King Ludwig I of Bavaria in 1853. The original building constructed by Friedrich von Gärtner and August von Voit was destroyed during World War II, the ruin of the Neue Pinakothek was demolished in 1949. Designed by architect Alexander Freiherr von Branca the new building with features such as arched windows, keystones, bay windows and stairways. It combines a concrete construction with a stone facade design, Ludwig began to collect contemporary art already as crown prince in 1809 and his collection has been steadily enlarged. Owing to the preference of Ludwig I there was initially a strong focus on paintings of German Romanticism. Also dynastic considerations played a role as Greece had become a secundogeniture of Bavaria in 1832, the so-called Tschudi Contribution between 1905 and 1914 brought the Pinokathek an extraordinary collection of masterpieces of Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. Hugo von Tschudi was dismissed by Kaiser Wilhelm as a penalty for his bringing Gauguins The Birth of Christ into the National Gallery in Berlin and he went on to become the director of the Pinokathek. As general director of the State Collections, Tschudi acquired 44 paintings, nine sculptures and 22 drawings, since public funds could not be used to purchase these works, Tschudi’s associates raised the money from private contributions after his death in 1911. The delimitation to the modern painters displayed in the Pinakothek der Moderne was later fixed by taking the restart of Henri Matisse, consequentially a painting of Matisse acquired by the Tschudi Contribution is now displayed in the Pinakothek der Moderne. In 1915, the Neue Pinakothek became the property of the Bavarian state, a self-portrait of Vincent van Gogh was confiscated in 1938 by the Nazi regime as degenerate art and sold one year later. The museum is under supervision of the Bavarian State Painting Collections which houses a collection of more than 3.000 European paintings from classicism to art nouveau. About 400 paintings and 50 sculptures of these are exhibited in the New Pinakothek, international paintings of the second half of 18th century, Among others the gallery exhibits works of Francisco de Goya, Jacques-Louis David, Johann Friedrich August Tischbein and Anton Graff. German artists of Classicism in Rome like Friedrich Overbeck, Friedrich Wilhelm von Schadow, Heinrich Maria von Hess, Peter von Hess, German Romanticism with paintings of Caspar David Friedrich, Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Carl Blechen and others. Biedermeier represented by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, Carl Spitzweg, Moritz von Schwind and Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, French Realism and French Romanticism with Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Géricault, Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Honoré Daumier and others. Deutschrömer such as Hans von Marées, Arnold Böcklin, Anselm Feuerbach, history paintings with Wilhelm von Kaulbach, Karl Theodor von Piloty, Franz von Defregger and Hans Makart. German Realism like Wilhelm Leibl, Franz von Lenbach and Adolph Menzel, German Impressionists especially Max Liebermann, Lovis Corinth, August von Brandis and Max Slevogt
4.
Berlin
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Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
5.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
6.
Loft
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A loft can be an upper storey or attic in a building, directly under the roof. Alternatively, a loft apartment refers to large open space, often converted for residential use from some other use. Adding to the confusion, some converted lofts include upper open loft areas, within certain upper loft areas exist even further lofts, which may contain loft areas of their own, and so forth. An upper room or story in a building, mainly in a barn, directly under the roof, used either for storage, for a purpose, e. g. an organ loft in a church. In barns a hayloft is often larger than the floor as it would contain a years worth of hay. An attic loft can often be converted to form living accommodation. Loft apartments are apartments that are built from former industrial buildings. When industrial developments are developed into condominiums instead of apartments, they may be called loft condominiums, the general term warehouse-to-loft conversions may sometimes be used for development of industrial buildings into apartments and condominiums. Loft-style may also simply to developments where a street-level business occupies the first floor while apartment lofts are placed above the first floor. One such sector is Manhattans Meatpacking District, such is the demand for these spaces that real estate developers have taken to creating ready-made lofts in urban areas that are gentrifying or that seem primed to do so. While some of units are created by developers during the renovation of old buildings. Real estate industry distinguishes between two kinds of lofts, hard lofts are former industrial buildings converted to residential or live/work use. Soft lofts are loft-style residential buildings built entirely anew and they are open-concept spaces with high ceilings, large windows, brickwork and cement ceilings. Soft lofts can be warmer and have modern finishes but lack the history of hard lofts, such adaptation of loft space, can result in better operating efficiencies for ongoing light industrial, commercial and work/live use. In New York State, a live/work loft must meet the criteria,1. The building was used for manufacturing or commercial purposes,2. The building has at least three units that were occupied residentially for 12 consecutive months during the period from January 1,2008 – December 31,20093. The unit is at least 400SF with at least one window and can be accessed directly from an area such as a hallway or the street
7.
Garret
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A garret is a habitable attic or small and often dismal or cramped living space at the top of a house or larger residential building. In the days before lifts this was the least prestigious position in a building, in this era, the garret often had sloping ceilings. The word entered Middle English via Old French with a connotation of a watchtower or something akin to a garrison. Like garrison it comes from an Old French word garir of ultimately Germanic origin meaning to provide or defend, garrets were very often internal elements of the mansard roof, often with skylights or dormer windows. A bow garret is an outhouse situated at the back of a typical terraced house often used in Lancashire for the hat industry in pre-mechanised days. Bowing was the given to the technique of cleaning up animal fur in the early stages of preparation for turning it into hats. What is now believed to be the last bow garret in existence has now been listed in order to preserve this historical relic, Garratt - a type of steam locomotive Garratt Garet - people Garrett Garrett - history of the name Jarrett Old maid in the garret
8.
Rafter
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A pair of rafters is a couple. A type of beam that supports the roof of a building, in home construction rafters are normally made of wood. Exposed rafters could be a feature of traditional roof styles, there are many names for rafters depending on their location, shape, or size. The earliest surviving roofs in Europe are of common rafters on a tie beam, later principal rafters and common rafters were mixed which is called a major/minor or primary/secondary roof system. Historically many rafters, including hip rafters, often taper in height 1/5 to 1/6 of their width, architect George Woodward discusses the purpose of this in 1860, “The same amount of strength can be had with a less amount of lumber. There is a labor in sawing such rafters, as well as a different calculation to be made in using up a log to the best advantage. It is necessary always to order this special bill of rafters direct from the mill, john Muller also discusses a one-sixth taper for rafters. Pieces added at the feet to create an overhang or change the pitch are called a sprocket or coyau in French. (The projecting piece on the gable of a forming an overhang is called a lookout. A rafter can be reinforced with a strut, principal purlin, collar beam, rafter types include, Principal rafter, A larger rafter. Usually land directly on a tie beam, usually the purpose of having a larger rafter is to carry a purlin which supports the rafters in each bay. Sometimes the top cord of a truss looks like a principal rafter, Principal rafters are sometimes simply called principals. Common rafter, being smaller than a principal rafter, a “principal/common rafter roof” or double roof has both principals and commons. Auxiliary rafter, A secondary rafter below and supporting a principal rafter, compass rafter, A rafter curved or bowed on the top or both the top and bottom surfaces. Curb rafter, The upper rafters in a curb roof, hip rafter, The rafter in the corners of a hip roof. The foot of a hip rafter lands on a dragon beam, king rafter, the longest rafter on the side of a hip roof in line with the ridge. Valley rafter, A rafter forming a valley, intermediate rafter, “one between principal or common rafters to strengthen a given place”. Jack rafter, cripple rafter, cripple-jack rafter, A shortened rafter such as landing on a hip rafter or interrupted by a dormer, arched rafter, Of segmental form in an arched roof
9.
Loft conversion
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A loft conversion or an attic conversion is the process of transforming an empty attic space or loft into a functional room, typically used as a bedroom, office space, a gym, or storage space. Loft conversions are one of the most popular forms of home improvement in the United Kingdom as a result of their numerous perceived benefits, another type of loft conversion is converting non-residential spaces into habitable homes. This form of conversion has its origins in the US. This form of loft first became popular in the SoHo section of New York City during the 1960s, artists created living spaces on the upper levels of obsolete industrial buildings, sometimes located in the heart of the city. In the pioneering period of lofts, most SoHo buildings were not zoned as residential, in 1971, New York City legalized the residential use of space in SoHo, and loft living became popular throughout the neighborhood. Loft living spread to other previously industrial Manhattan neighborhoods including TriBeCa, Chelsea, the first stage of any loft conversion is a close inspection of the loft space to find out its exact dimensions and whether conversion is feasible. On entering the one needs to establish if there is adequate room under the ridge of the roof. The roof should be checked for any signs that rainwater is entering the roof space, the appearance of dark stains on the roof rafters is a strong indication that this problem exists. Repairs to the roof are usually carried out during the works as part of the conversion process due to the construction of dormers. Due to the slope of the roof and the required access headroom, providing that this requirement is met, most properties will likely possess the potential to have the loft space converted. The installation of such windows will provide the space with substantial light. In the UK, a roof window conversion can often be completed under permitted development rights and will not require planning permission, a dormer is a window-featured extension of the roof, usually installed to provide more space and headroom within the loft, in addition to improved staircase access. Dormers are also due to the aesthetic enhancement to a property that they provide. In the UK, the installation of a dormer is subject to planning permission requirements from the authorities only when certain rules arent met. Most dormer conversions come under permitted development, in addition to roof window and dormer conversions, there are less common hip to gable and mansard conversions, which can be installed when certain circumstances require their features. Building control regulations will almost always be required if the space is being converted into any usable form of accommodation. Planning permission may not be required as many conversions fall within the development rights. These requirements are in place to ensure that the necessary construction criteria are met, a professional loft conversion specialist will usually conduct all liaisons with the relevant local authority
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