1.
Artificial Horizon (album)
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Artificial Horizon is a compilation album of remixed tracks by rock band U2. It was released exclusively to subscribing members of U2. com, replacing Medium, the remix CD is of a similar vein to the bands 1995 release Melon, Remixes for Propaganda, which was also released exclusively to fans. A triple-vinyl edition was released to the public until 14 May 2010. Artificial Horizon includes thirteen remixed tracks spanning the most recent fifteen years of the bands career, the opening track, Elevation was taken from the 2001 single Elevation. It was produced by Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois, and includes synthesizers played by Eno, the remix was performed by Leo Pearson. Elevation was always played over the PA system as the band took the stage on the Elevation Tour, the Jacknife Lee mix of Fast Cars was first released on the 2005 single All Because of You. The original studio version, a track on some versions of the 2004 album How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb, was produced by Steve Lillywhite. The Jacknife Lee remix includes additional keyboards played by Jacknife Lee, get on Your Boots is a previously unreleased track, the song was remixed by Declan Gaffney and Matt Paul. Vertigo was taken from the 2005 single Sometimes You Cant Make It on Your Own, produced by Lillywhite, the track was remixed by Trent Reznor. The guitar part for Native Son, a version of Vertigo, is interspersed throughout the song. Produced by Eno and Lanois, Magnificent was first released on the 2009 single Magnificent, the track was remixed by Fred Falke, who plays additional keyboards in the piece. The track was recorded by Alastair McMillan on 27 July 2009 at Croke Park in Dublin, Ireland, singer Bono includes snippets of the Frankie Goes to Hollywood songs Relax and Two Tribes at the beginning and end of the song. Beshno Az Ney/Windfall, performed by Iranian singer Sussan Deyhim, is sampled at the end as the track fades out, the David Holmes remix of Beautiful Day was included on the Elevation single. With the exception of a few backing vocals in the final minute, Staring at the Sun was first released on the 1997 single Staring at the Sun. It was produced by Flood and remixed by The Sonic Morticians, the Danny Saber mix of Happiness Is a Warm Gun was taken from the 1997 single Last Night on Earth. Produced by Flood, it was remixed by Danny Saber, get on Your Boots was originally released as a b-side to the Magnificent single. The track was remixed by the French band Justice, the Hot Chip 2006 remix of City of Blinding Lights is the third previously unreleased track. Produced by Flood, it was remixed by Hot Chip, the track If God Will Send His Angels was taken from the 1997 single Mofo
2.
Instrument landing system
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An instrument landing system enables aircraft to land if the pilots are unable to establish visual contact with the runway. It does this by way of transmitted radio signals, an instrument approach procedure chart is published for each ILS approach to provide the information needed to fly an ILS approach during instrument flight rules operations. A chart includes the frequencies used by the ILS components or navaids. An aircraft approaching a runway is guided by the ILS receivers in the aircraft by performing modulation depth comparisons, many aircraft can route signals into the autopilot to fly the approach automatically. An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems, the localizer provides lateral guidance, the glide slope provides vertical guidance. A localizer is an antenna array normally located beyond the end of the runway. Due to the complexity of ILS localizer and glide slope systems, localizer systems are sensitive to obstructions in the signal broadcast area, such as large buildings or hangars. Glide slope systems are limited by the terrain in front of the glide slope antennas. If terrain is sloping or uneven, reflections can create an uneven glidepath, additionally, since the ILS signals are pointed in one direction by the positioning of the arrays, glide slope supports only straight-line approaches with a constant angle of descent. Installation of an ILS can be costly because of siting criteria, ILS critical areas and ILS sensitive areas are established to avoid hazardous reflections that would affect the radiated signal. The location of these areas can prevent aircraft from using certain taxiways leading to delays in takeoffs, increased hold times. Instrument guidance system - a modified ILS to accommodate a non-straight approach, in addition to the previously mentioned navigational signals, the localizer provides for ILS facility identification by periodically transmitting a 1,020 Hz Morse code identification signal. For example, the ILS for runway 4R at John F. Kennedy International Airport transmits IJFK to identify itself and this lets users know the facility is operating normally and that they are tuned to the correct ILS. The glide slope station transmits no identification signal, so ILS equipment relies on the localizer for identification and it is essential that any failure of the ILS to provide safe guidance be detected immediately by the pilot. To achieve this, monitors continually assess the characteristics of the transmissions. If any significant deviation beyond strict limits is detected, either the ILS is automatically switched off or the navigation and identification components are removed from the carrier, either of these actions will activate an indication on the instruments of an aircraft using the ILS. Modern localizer antennas are highly directional, however, usage of older, less directional antennas allows a runway to have a non-precision approach called a localizer back course. This lets aircraft land using the signal transmitted from the back of the localizer array, highly directional antennas do not provide a sufficient signal to support a back course
3.
Flight instruments
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Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot with information about the flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed and direction. They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the aircraft in level flight, visual flight rules require an airspeed indicator, an altimeter, and a compass or other suitable magnetic direction indicator. Instrument flight rules require a gyroscopic pitch-bank, direction and rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid indicator, adjustable altimeter. Flight into Instrument meteorological conditions require radio navigation instruments for precise takeoffs, the term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit instruments as a whole, in which context it can include engine instruments, navigational and communication equipment. Many modern aircraft have electronic flight instrument systems, most regulated aircraft have these flight instruments as dictated by the US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Part 91. They are grouped according to system, compass systems. It is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings, as the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite effect occurs when descending, with the advancement in aviation and increased altitude ceiling the altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. This modification was introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence of air caused by the confusion in the pilots mind. At higher altitudes the window will disappear, the airspeed indicator shows the aircrafts speed relative to the surrounding air. It works by measuring the pressure in the aircrafts Pitot tube relative to the ambient static pressure. The Indicated airspeed must be corrected for pressure and temperature in order to obtain the True airspeed. The instrument is color coded to indicate important airspeeds such as the speed, never-exceed airspeed. The VSI senses changing air pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute, the compass shows the aircrafts heading relative to magnetic north. Errors include Variation, or the difference between magnetic and true direction, and Deviation, caused by the wiring in the aircraft. Additionally, the compass is subject to Dip Errors, while reliable in steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing, descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earths magnetic field. For this reason, the indicator is also used for aircraft operation. The attitude indicator shows the relation to the horizon
4.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
5.
Aircraft principal axes
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The axes are alternatively designated as lateral, vertical, and longitudinal. These axes move with the vehicle and rotate relative to the Earth along with the craft and these definitions were analogously applied to spacecraft when the first manned spacecraft were designed in the late 1950s. These rotations are produced by torques about the principal axes, on an aircraft, these are intentionally produced by means of moving control surfaces, which vary the distribution of the net aerodynamic force about the vehicles center of mass. Elevators produce pitch, a rudder on the vertical tail produces yaw, on a spacecraft, the moments are usually produced by a reaction control system consisting of small rocket thrusters used to apply asymmetrical thrust on the vehicle. Normal axis, or yaw axis — an axis drawn from top to bottom, lateral axis, transverse axis, or pitch axis — an axis running from the pilots left to right in piloted aircraft, and parallel to the wings of a winged aircraft. Longitudinal axis, or roll axis — an axis drawn through the body of the vehicle from tail to nose in the direction of flight. Normally, these axes are represented by the letters X, Y and Z in order to them with some reference frame. Normally, this is made in such a way that the X is used for the longitudinal axis, but there are other possibilities to do it. The vertical yaw axis is defined to be perpendicular to the wings and to the line of flight with its origin at the center of gravity. Yaw moves the nose of the aircraft from side to side, a positive yaw, or heading angle, moves the nose to the right. The rudder is the control of yaw. The pitch axis passes through the plane from wingtip to wingtip, pitch moves the aircrafts nose up and down. A positive pitch angle raises the nose and lowers the tail, the elevators are the primary control of pitch. The roll axis passes through the plane from nose to tail, the angular displacement about this axis is called bank. The pilot changes bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other, a positive roll angle lifts the left wing and lowers the right wing. The ailerons are the control of bank. The rudder also has an effect on bank. These axes are related to the axes of inertia, but are not the same
6.
Inertial frame of reference
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In classical physics and special relativity, an inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference that describes time and space homogeneously, isotropically, and in a time-independent manner. The physics of a system in an inertial frame have no causes external to the system, all inertial frames are in a state of constant, rectilinear motion with respect to one another, an accelerometer moving with any of them would detect zero acceleration. Measurements in one frame can be converted to measurements in another by a simple transformation. In general relativity, in any region small enough for the curvature of spacetime and tidal forces to be negligible, systems in non-inertial frames in general relativity dont have external causes because of the principle of geodesic motion. Physical laws take the form in all inertial frames. For example, a ball dropped towards the ground does not go straight down because the Earth is rotating. Someone rotating with the Earth must account for the Coriolis effect—in this case thought of as a force—to predict the horizontal motion, another example of such a fictitious force associated with rotating reference frames is the centrifugal effect, or centrifugal force. The motion of a body can only be described relative to something else—other bodies, observers and these are called frames of reference. If the coordinates are chosen badly, the laws of motion may be more complex than necessary, for example, suppose a free body that has no external forces on it is at rest at some instant. In many coordinate systems, it would begin to move at the next instant, however, a frame of reference can always be chosen in which it remains stationary. Similarly, if space is not described uniformly or time independently, indeed, an intuitive summary of inertial frames can be given as, In an inertial reference frame, the laws of mechanics take their simplest form. In an inertial frame, Newtons first law, the law of inertia, is satisfied, Any free motion has a constant magnitude, the force F is the vector sum of all real forces on the particle, such as electromagnetic, gravitational, nuclear and so forth. The extra terms in the force F′ are the forces for this frame. The first extra term is the Coriolis force, the second the centrifugal force, also, fictitious forces do not drop off with distance. For example, the force that appears to emanate from the axis of rotation in a rotating frame increases with distance from the axis. All observers agree on the forces, F, only non-inertial observers need fictitious forces. The laws of physics in the frame are simpler because unnecessary forces are not present. In Newtons time the stars were invoked as a reference frame
7.
Steep turn (aviation)
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A steep turn in aviation, performed by an aircraft, is a turn that involves a bank of more than 30 degrees. This means the angle created by the running along both wings and the horizon is more than 30 degrees. Generally, for training purposes, steep turns are demonstrated and practiced at 45 degrees, sometimes more. The purpose of learning and practicing a steep turn is to train a pilot to control of an aircraft in cases of emergency such as structural damage. For Jet training an increase of 7-8% of N1 caters, do not remember the amount of power for Cessnas now. While doing this the pilot has to no loss or gain of altitude. The pilot is expected to look outside the aircraft while keeping a close check on the Attitude indicator for angle of bank. When the aircraft is in a 45 degree bank, it is common for a amount of opposite aileron control to be required to prevent the aircraft from slipping into a steeper bank. This section would best be understood by a private pilot or someone who has studied the curriculum contained within the private pilot ground syllabus. For purposes of testing, a turn is a 360 degree turn in either direction with a 45 degree bank angle while maintaining altitude, speed. Furthermore the roll out heading must be within 10 degrees of the heading for the manoeuvre to be deemed successful by most flight training standards. A steep turn increases the load factor of an aircraft, simply put the aircraft feels heavier due to the effect of centrifugal force. At a 45 degree bank angle the load factor of an aircraft is 1.4 i. e. the aircraft effectively becomes 40% heavier. This requires the pilot to exert pressure on the flight stick or column to raise the nose. In the event that backward pressure is not exerted on the stick / column and this applies to cockpits with two seats arranged horizontally or abreast. Assuming the pilot performing the manoeuvre is positioned in the seat when a steep turn to the right is performed. Conversely, a turn to the left will make it seem like the nose is rising against the horizon. This is parallax error based purely on the vantage point
8.
Airspeed indicator
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The airspeed indicator or airspeed gauge is an instrument used in an aircraft to display the crafts airspeed, typically in knots, to the pilot. In its simplest form, an ASI measures the difference in pressure between the air around the craft and the pressure caused by propulsion. The needle tracks pressure differential but the dial is marked off as airspeed, during instrument flight, the airspeed indicator is used in addition to the Artificial horizon as an instrument of reference for pitch control during climbs, descents and turns. The airspeed indicator is used in dead reckoning, where time, speed. Airspeed indicators in many Light and Recreational aircraft can only show the pilot Indicated Airspeed, for True Airspeed other components would have to be added by the manufacturer. Airspeed Indicator markings use a set of standardized coloured bands and lines on the face of the instrument, the white range is the normal range of operating speeds for the aircraft with the flaps extended as for landing or takeoff. The green range is the range of operating speeds for the aircraft without flaps extended. The yellow range is the range in which the aircraft may be operated in smooth air, a redline mark indicates VNE, or velocity. This is the maximum demonstrated safe airspeed that the aircraft must not exceed under any circumstances, the red line is preceded by a yellow band which is the caution area, which runs from VNO to VNE. A green band runs from VS1 to VNO, VS1 is the stall speed with flaps and landing gear retracted. A white band runs from VSO to VFE, VSO is the stall speed with flaps extended, and VFE is the highest speed at which flaps can be extended. The airspeed indicator is especially important for monitoring V-Speeds while operating an aircraft, however, in large aircraft, V-speeds can vary considerably depending on airfield elevation, temperature and aircraft weight. Jet aircraft do not have VNO and VNE like piston-engined aircraft, to observe both limits, the pilot of a jet airplane needs both an airspeed indicator and a Machmeter, each with appropriate red lines. An alternative single instrument is the maximum allowable airspeed indicator and it has a movable pointer that indicates the maximum operating limit. The movable pointer moves with altitude and temperature so that it indicates the maximum allowable speed of the aircraft. The pointer is usually striped, and thus known as a barber pole. As the aircraft climbs to altitude, such that MMO rather than VMO becomes the limiting speed. The airspeed is typically presented in the form of a strip that moves up and down
9.
Altimeter
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An altimeter or an altitude meter is an instrument used to measure the altitude of an object above a fixed level. The measurement of altitude is called altimetry, which is related to the term bathymetry, altitude can be determined based on the measurement of atmospheric pressure. The greater the altitude, the lower the pressure, when a barometer is supplied with a nonlinear calibration so as to indicate altitude, the instrument is called a pressure altimeter or barometric altimeter. A pressure altimeter is the altimeter found in most aircraft, hikers and mountain climbers use wrist-mounted or hand-held altimeters, in addition to other navigational tools such as a map, magnetic compass, or GPS receiver. The calibration of an altimeter follows the equation z = c T log , where c is a constant, T is the temperature, P is the pressure at altitude z. The constant c depends on the acceleration of gravity and the mass of the air. A barometric altimeter, used along with a map, can help to verify ones location. An altimeter is the most important piece of skydiving equipment, after the parachute itself, altitude awareness is crucial at all times during the jump, and determines the appropriate response to maintain safety. This is the most basic and common type, and is used by all student skydivers. The common design has a face marked from 0 to 4000m, the face plate sports sections prominently marked with yellow and red respectively, signifying the recommended deployment altitude, as well as emergency procedure decision altitude. Some advanced electronic altimeters are also available which use of the familiar analogue display. Digital visual altimeters, mounted on the wrist or hand and this type always operates electronically, and conveys the altitude as a number, rather than a pointer on a dial. An electronic altimeter is turned on on the ground before jump, if the intended landing zone is at a different elevation than the takeoff point, the user needs to input the appropriate offset by using a designated function. These are inserted into ones helmet, and emit a warning tone at a predefined altitude, audibles are strictly auxiliary devices, and do not replace, but complement a visual altimeter which remains the primary tool for maintaining altitude awareness. Audibles are not recommended and often banned from use by student skydivers and these do not show the precise altitude, but rather help maintain a general indicator in ones peripheral vision. The exact choice of altimeters depends heavily on the individual preferences, experience level, primary disciplines. On one end of the spectrum, a demonstration jump with water landing and no free fall might waive the mandated use of altimeters. Another skydiver doing similar types of jumps might wear a digital altimeter for their primary visual one, in aircraft, an aneroid barometer measures the atmospheric pressure from a static port outside the aircraft
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