1.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
Auburn City Hall
–
Auburn City Hall in Auburn, Alabama, built in 1933, is the city hall of Auburn, Alabama. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the U. S. The site for the post office was deeded in 1846 by Auburn founder John J. Harper to Simeon Perry, agent for the Auburn Academy, in 1856, this school became the preparatory department of the East Alabama Male College. An adjacent two-story brick structure for Auburn High School was built just south of the old building in 1899. When Auburn High moved to a new campus in 1915, the structure became the Auburn Grammar School until it was torn down in 1931 to make way for the post office building. The City of Auburn donated the site for the construction of a $90,000 post office in 1933. The building served as the post office for the city of Auburn until a new facility was constructed in 1991, in 1992, the City of Auburn purchased the building, renting the structure to the Food Bank of East Alabama, before renovating it as City Hall in 2001. List of United States Post Offices
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
U.S. state
–
A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
6.
Alabama
–
Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
7.
Lee County, Alabama
–
Lee County is a county of the U. S. state of Alabama. As of the 2010 census the population was 140,247, the county seat is Opelika, and the largest city is Auburn. The county is named for General Robert E. Lee, who served as General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate States in 1865, Lee County comprises the Auburn-Opelika, AL Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is included in the Columbus-Auburn-Opelika, GA-AL Combined Statistical Area. Lee County was established by the State Legislature on December 5,1866, out of parts of Macon, Tallapoosa, Chambers, in an election to determine the county seat, Opelika was chosen over Auburn and Salem. In 1923, Phenix City, located in the corner of Lee County, merged with the town of Girard. This territory is what forms the panhandle of Lee County. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 616 square miles. The population density was 189 people per square mile, there were 50,329 housing units at an average density of 83 per square mile. 1. 43% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,27. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the family size was 3.03. In the county, the population was out with 23. 30% under the age of 18,22. 70% from 18 to 24,28. 10% from 25 to 44,17. 80% from 45 to 64. The median age was 28 years, for every 100 females there were 96.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.20 males, the median income for a household in the county was $30,952, and the median income for a family was $46,781. Males had an income of $33,598 versus $23,228 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,158, about 11. 10% of families and 21. 80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16. 30% of those under age 18 and 12. 00% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2010, there were 140,247 people,55,682 households, the population density was 227.7 people per square mile. There were 62,391 housing units at a density of 101.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 71. 3% White,22. 7% Black or African American,0. 3% Native American,2. 6% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,1. 3% from other races, and 1. 6% from two or more races
8.
2010 United States Census
–
The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
9.
Metropolitan area
–
As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
10.
Central Time Zone
–
The North American Central Time Zone is a time zone in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, Central America, some Caribbean Islands, and part of the Eastern Pacific Ocean. Central Standard Time is six hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, during summer most of the zone uses daylight saving time, and changes to Central Daylight Time which is five hours behind UTC. The province of Manitoba is the province or territory in Canada that observes Central Time in all areas. Also, most of the province of Saskatchewan is on Central Standard Time year-round, major exceptions include Lloydminster, a city situated on the boundary between Alberta and Saskatchewan. The city charter stipulates that it shall observe Mountain Time and DST, putting the community on the time as all of Alberta, including the major cities of Calgary. As a result, during the summer, clocks in the province match those in Alberta. The Central Time Zone is the second most populous in the US after the Eastern Time Zone, lanett and Valley observe Eastern Time historically because they were textile mill towns and the original home office of their mills was in West Point, Georgia. Some eastern counties observe Central Time because they are close to the border of the Middle Tennessee counties surrounding the Nashville metropolitan area. Louisiana Michigan, All of Michigan observes Eastern Time except the four Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin, other westernmost counties from this area such as Ontonagon observe Eastern Time. South Dakota, Eastern half as divided by the Missouri river adjacent to the state capital, note, the metropolitan area of Pierre is Central, including Fort Pierre. Wisconsin Most of Mexico—roughly the eastern three-fourths—lies in the Central Time Zone, except for six northwestern states, the federal entities of Mexico that observe Central Time, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua all use Central Standard Time year-round. The Galápagos Islands in Ecuador uses Central Standard Time all year-round, Daylight saving time is in effect in much of the Central time zone between mid-March and early November. The modified time is called Central Daylight Time and is UTC−5, in Canada, Saskatchewan does not observe a time change. One reason that Saskatchewan does not take part in a change is that, geographically. The province elected to move onto permanent daylight saving by being part of the Central Time Zone, Mexico decided not to go along with this change and observes their horario de verano from the first Sunday in April to the last Sunday in October. In December 2009, the Mexican Congress allowed ten border cities, eight of which are in states that observe Central Time, to adopt the U. S. daylight time schedule effective in 2010
11.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
12.
ZIP Code
–
ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
13.
Geographic Names Information System
–
It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
14.
Columbus, GA-AL MSA
–
As of the 2000 census, the MSA had a population of 281,768. The Columbus metropolitan area is a component of the Columbus-Auburn-Opelika Combined Statistical Area, a trading and marketing region. The racial makeup of the MSA was 54. 56% White,40. 21% African American,0. 40% Native American,1. 22% Asian,0. 14% Pacific Islander,1. 01% from other races, and 1. 74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 02% of the population, the median income for a household in the MSA was $35,262, and the median income for a family was $40,065. Males had an income of $29,196 versus $22,834 for females. The per capita income for the MSA was $16,410, georgia census statistical areas Alabama census statistical areas
15.
Tuskegee, Alabama
–
Tuskegee is a city in Macon County, Alabama, United States. It was founded and laid out in 1833 by General Thomas Simpson Woodward, a Creek War veteran under Andrew Jackson and it is also the largest city in Macon County. At the 2010 census the population was 9,865, down from 11,846 in 2000, Tuskegee has been an important site in African-American history and highly influential in United States history since the 19th century. Before the American Civil War, the area was used as a cotton plantation. After the war, many continued to work on plantations in the rural area. In 1881 the Tuskegee Normal School was founded and its director, Booker T. Washington developed a reputation and philanthropic network to support education of freedmen. Twenty-seven buildings were constructed on the 464-acre campus, the city was the subject of a notable civil rights case, Gomillion v. The citys boundaries were restored in 1961 after the ruling, the area was settled by European Americans in the 1830s after the Creek Native American tribes had been removed to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Pioneer planters brought or purchased African-American slaves to develop the soil for cotton plantations. Invention of the gin at the end of the 18th century meant that this type of cotton could be processed profitably. Designated as the county seat of rural Macon County, Tuskegee developed as its only city, in 1881, the young Booker T. Washington was hired to develop the Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers on the grounds of a former plantation. It was founded to train teachers for the school system. Washington established a program by which students practiced skills and trades. Over the decades, the programs were expanded and this was later named the Tuskegee Institute. Graduate courses were added and it became Tuskegee University, Washington was known for his emphasis on education and self-improvement. The institute became known for stressing a practical education with work experience by students, to them for the work available in the small towns. Teaching was a highly respected calling, as education was a major goal among the freedmen, Washington believed that African Americans would achieve acceptance by southern whites when they had raised themselves. Washington led the school for decades, building a national network of white industrialist donors among some of the major philanthropists of the era
16.
Columbus-Auburn-Opelika, GA-AL CSA
–
The Columbus–Auburn–Opelika, GA-AL Combined Statistical Area is a trading and marketing area made up of four counties in Georgia and three in Alabama. The statistical area includes two areas and one micropolitan area. As of the 2010 Census, the CSA had a population of 469,327, the Combined Statistical Area consists of the, Columbus metropolitan area, population 294,865. Until 2013, the area also officially consisted of the Tuskegee Micropolitan Statistical Area, in 2013, the United States Office of Management and Budget removed Tuskegee Micropolitan Statistical Area from the list of metropolitan areas and from the Columbus-Auburn-Opelika CSA. At the same time, Valley Micropolitan Statistical Area was added to the Columbus-Auburn-Opelika CSA, auburn-Opelika Robert G. S. Route 27 U. S. Highway 29 U. S. Route 80 U. S. Route 280 U. S
17.
Auburn University
–
Auburn University is a public research university in Auburn, Alabama, United States. Auburn was chartered on February 1,1856, as East Alabama Male College, in 1872, under the Morrill Act, it became the states first public land-grant university and was renamed as the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama. In 1892, it became the first four-year coeducational school in Alabama, in 1960, its name was changed to Auburn University to acknowledge the varied academic programs and larger curriculum of a major university. In 1964, under Federal Court mandate, AU admitted its first African American student, Auburn is among the few American universities designated as a land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant research center. The Alabama Legislature chartered the institution as the East Alabama Male College on February 1,1856 and its first president was Reverend William J. Sasnett, and the school opened its doors in 1859 to a student body of eighty and a faculty of ten. Auburns early history is linked with the Civil War and the Reconstruction-era South. Classes were held in Old Main until the college was closed due to the war, the campus was a training ground for the Confederate Army, and Old Main served as a hospital for Confederate wounded. It sits today on the next to Samford Hall. The school reopened in 1866 after the end of the Civil War, in 1872, control of the institution was transferred from the Methodist Church to the State of Alabama for financial reasons. Alabama placed the school under the provisions of the Morrill Act as a land-grant institution and this act provided for 240,000 acres of Federal land to be sold to provide funds for an agricultural and mechanical school. As a result, in 1872 the school was renamed the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama, under the Acts provisions, land-grant institutions were also supposed to teach military tactics and train officers for the United States military. In the late 19th century, most students at the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama were enrolled in the program, learning military tactics. Each county in the state was allowed to nominate two cadets to attend the free of charge. The universitys original curriculum focused on engineering and agriculture and this trend changed under the guidance of William Leroy Broun, who taught classics and sciences and believed both disciplines were important for growth of the university and the individual. In 1892, two events occurred, women were admitted to the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Alabama. Eventually, football replaced polo as the sport on campus. The college was renamed the Alabama Polytechnic Institute in 1899, largely because of Brouns influence, on October 1,1918, nearly all of Alabama Polytechnic Institutes able-bodied male students 18 or older voluntarily joined the United States Army for short-lived military careers on campus. The student-soldiers numbered 878, according to API President Charles Thach, the vocational section was composed of enlisted men sent to Auburn for training in radio and mechanics
18.
The Deserted Village
–
The Deserted Village is a poem by Oliver Goldsmith published in 1770. It is a work of social commentary, and condemns rural depopulation, the location of the poems deserted village is unknown, but the description may have been influenced by Goldsmiths memory of his childhood in rural Ireland, and his travels around England. The poem is written in couplets, and describes the decline of a village. In the poem, Goldsmith criticises rural depopulation, the moral corruption found in towns, consumerism, enclosure, landscape gardening, avarice, and the pursuit of wealth from international trade. The poem employs, in the words of one critic, deliberately precise obscurity, the poem was very popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but also provoked critical responses, including from other poets such as George Crabbe. References to the poem, and particularly its ominous Ill fares the land warning, have appeared in a number of other contexts, Goldsmith grew up in the hamlet of Lissoy in Ireland. In the 1760s, Goldsmith travelled extensively around England, visiting many small settlements, in this period, the enclosure movement was at its height. The poem is dedicated to the artist Sir Joshua Reynolds, Reynolds and Goldsmith were close friends, and were both founding members, along with Samuel Johnson, of a dining society called The Club. Reynolds had helped to promote Goldsmiths play The Good-Naturd Man to the actor and theatre manager David Garrick, the Deserted Village condemns rural depopulation and the indulgence of the rich. This was a subject that Goldsmith had tackled in his earlier poem The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society, Goldsmith also set out his ideas about rural depopulation in an essay entitled The Revolution in Low Life, published in Lloyds Evening Post in 1762. There is no single place which has identified as the village of the poems title. While personal references in the give the impression of referring to the village in which Goldsmith grew up. In The Revolution in Low Life, Goldsmith had condemned the destruction of a village within 50 miles of London in order to construct a landscape garden. Goldsmith reported that he had witnessed this scene in 1761. In the same year, Nuneham Courtenay was removed to make way for Nuneham Park and its owner—Simon Harcourt, 1st Earl Harcourt—moved the village 1.5 miles away. There are a number of other concordances between Nuneham Courtenays destruction and the contents of the The Deserted Village, the position of both villages, on a hill near a river, was similar, and both had parsons who enjoyed gardening. The poem opens with a description of a village named Auburn, loveliest village of the plain, Where health and plenty cheered the labouring swain, Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid, And parting summers lingering blooms delayed. The poem then moves on to describe the village in its current state, Goldsmith then states that the residents of Auburn have not moved to the city, but have emigrated overseas
19.
Oliver Goldsmith
–
He is thought to have written the classic childrens tale The History of Little Goody Two-Shoes. Goldsmiths birth date and year are not known with certainty, according to the Library of Congress authority file, he told a biographer that he was born on 10 November 1728. The location of his birthplace is also uncertain, when Goldsmith was two years old, his father was appointed the rector of the parish of Kilkenny West in County Westmeath. The family moved to the parsonage at Lissoy, between Athlone and Ballymahon, and continued to live there until his fathers death in 1747, in 1744 Goldsmith went up to Trinity College, Dublin. Neglecting his studies in theology and law, he fell to the bottom of his class, in 1747, along with four other undergraduates, he was expelled for a riot in which they attempted to storm the Marshalsea Prison. He settled in London in 1756, where he held various jobs, including an apothecarys assistant. There, through fellow Club member Edmund Burke, he made the acquaintance of Sir George Savile, the combination of his literary work and his dissolute lifestyle led Horace Walpole to give him the epithet inspired idiot. During this period he used the pseudonym James Willington to publish his 1758 translation of the autobiography of the Huguenot Jean Marteilhe. Goldsmith was described by contemporaries as prone to envy, a congenial but impetuous and disorganised personality who once planned to emigrate to America, mitchell sorely missed good company, which Goldsmith naturally provided in spades. Thomas De Quincey wrote of him All the motion of Goldsmiths nature moved in the direction of the true, the natural, the sweet and his premature death in 1774 may have been partly due to his own misdiagnosis of his kidney infection. Goldsmith was buried in Temple Church in London, the inscription reads, HERE LIES/OLIVER GOLDSMITH. There is a monument to him in the centre of Ballymahon, see The Vicar of Wakefield, The Good-Naturd Man, The Traveller, and She Stoops to Conquer. In 1760 Goldsmith began to publish a series of letters in the Public Ledger under the title The Citizen of the World and it was inspired by the earlier essay series Persian Letters by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. Goldsmith wrote this romantic ballad of precisely 160 lines in 1765, the hero and heroine are Edwin, a youth without wealth or power, and Angelina, the daughter of a lord beside the Tyne. Angelina spurns many wooers, but refuses to make plain her love for young Edwin, quite dejected with my scorn, Edwin disappears and becomes a hermit. One day, Angelina turns up at his cell in boys clothes and, not recognising him, Edwin then reveals his true identity, and the lovers never part again. The poem is notable for its portrayal of a hermit. In keeping with tradition, however, Edwin the Hermit claims to spurn the sex
20.
Muscogee
–
The Muscogee, also known as the Creek and the Creek Confederacy, are a group of related Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands. Originally from Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and northern Florida, Muscogee people were relocated in the early 19th century to Indian Territory, Alabama, Louisiana. Their languages, Muscogee and Hitchiti-Mikasuki, belong to the Eastern Muskogean branch of the Muscogean language family, the Muscogee are descendants of the Mississippian culture peoples, who built earthwork mounds at their regional chiefdoms located throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Early Spanish explorers encountered ancestors of the Muscogee when they visited Mississippian-culture chiefdoms in the Southeast in the mid-16th century, the Muscogee were the first Native Americans considered to be civilized under George Washingtons civilization plan. The result was a weakening of the Creek Nation and the ceding of Creek lands to the US. During the Indian Removal of the 1830s, most of the Muscogee Confederacy were forcibly relocated to Indian Territory, at least 12,000 years ago, Native Americans or Paleo-Indians lived in what is today the Southern United States. Paleo-Indians in the Southeast were hunter-gatherers who pursued a range of animals, including the megafauna. During the time known as the Woodland period, from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE, locals developed pottery, the Mississippian culture arose as the cultivation of maize from Mesoamerica led to population growth. Increased population density gave rise to urban centers and regional chiefdoms, stratified societies developed, with hereditary religious and political elites, and flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from 800 to 1500 CE. The early historic Muscogee were descendants of the builders of the Mississippian culture along the Tennessee River in modern Tennessee, Georgia. They may have related to the Tama of central Georgia. At the time the Spanish made their first forays inland from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, many centers of the Mississippians were already in decline. The region is best described as a collection of moderately sized native chiefdoms interspersed with autonomous villages. After Cabeza de Vaca, a castaway who survived the ill-fated Narváez expedition, returned to Spain, Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the first expedition into the interior of the North American continent. De Soto, convinced of the riches, wanted Cabeza de Vaca to go on the expedition, from 1540–1543, de Soto explored through present-day Florida and Georgia, and then westward into the Alabama and Mississippi area. The areas were inhabited by historic Muscogee Native Americans, de Soto brought with him a well-equipped army. He attracted many recruits from a variety of backgrounds who joined his quest for riches in the Americas, as the de Soto expeditions brutalities became known to the indigenous peoples, they decided to defend their territory. The Battle of Mabila was a point for the de Soto venture, the battle broke the back of the Spanish campaign
21.
Treaty of Cusseta
–
The Treaty of Cusseta was a treaty between the government of the United States and the Creek Nation signed March 24,1832. The treaty ceded all Creek claims east of the Mississippi River to the United States, the Treaty of Cusseta was one of several with the Five Civilized Tribes. Creek territory was constrained to a strip in east central Alabama along the Georgia border, president Jackson had signed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, which ultimately led to the deportation of native peoples in the Southeast to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Although treaty stipulations had prohibited white settlement of Creek lands, squatters moving into the territory were common, the settlers encroached on their land and competed for game, destroying hunting territory by clearing land and developing farms. Tensions eventually resulted in a party of Creek warriors attacking and burning the town of Roanoke, in response, federal officials met with Creek leaders in the Creek village of Cusseta on the Chattahoochee River in Georgia. The Creeks were compelled to agree to terms as outlined in the Treaty of Cusseta. The treaty was signed in Washington, D. C. The Treaty of Cusseta required that the Creek nation relinquish all claims to land east of the Mississippi River, in return, individual Creeks were to be granted land claims in the former Creek territory. Each of the ninety Creek chiefs was to one section of land. Despite the land grants, the treaty made clear the intention of the US government to remove as many Creeks as possible to the west in the least amount of time, the United States agreed to pay expenses for Creek emigrants for the first year after relocation. The treaty also called for the US to make payments to the Creek nation of approximately $350,000 and those Creeks who managed to keep legal title to their lands were soon overwhelmed by squatters, whom state and federal officials generally refused to evict. When individual Creek attempted to enforce their property rights against squatters, by 1835, the situation became intractable and open conflict broke out between Creeks and settlers. The US government responded to violations of the treaty by deporting most of the remaining Creek to the Indian Territory. Treaty of Fort Jackson Treaty of Washington Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek Treaty of New Echota Martin, Joel W. Sacred Revolt, LCCCN 83-081693 Treaty with the Creeks,1832. Glimpses into the past from my Grandfathers Trunk
22.
Harris County, Georgia
–
Harris County is a county located in the west central portion of the U. S. state of Georgia, its western border is formed by the Chattahoochee River. As of the 2010 census, the population was 32,024, the county was created on December 14,1827 and named for Charles Harris, a Georgia judge and attorney. Harris County is part of the Columbus, GA-AL Metropolitan Statistical Area, in the antebellum era, it was considered part of the Black Belt in the southern United States, an upland area developed for cotton plantations in the nineteenth century before the American Civil War. Muscogee County, to the south, was heavily developed for cotton. In the antebellum era, parts of the county were developed for cotton plantations, planters imported numerous slaves from the Upper South through the domestic slave trade as workers. The County courthouse was designed by Edward Columbus Hosford of Georgia, there were 200 years of families with many inter-connections among them, justice was nearly always meted out to kin. Periodically some of the whites would try to reduce the relations of white men with mixed-race and black women, the mountain areas of the county had moonshiners in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both whites and blacks took part in this. On January 22,1912, a woman and three black men were lynched in Hamilton, the county seat, allegedly for the murder of local white landowner Norman Hadley. He was described by journalist Karen Branan in her 2016 book about these events as a white “near penniless plowboy-playboy”, dusky Crutchfield was the first woman lynched in Georgia, and the lynching case attracted attention of national northern newspapers. Also murdered by the mob were Eugene Harrington, Burrell Hardaway. The four had taken in for questioning about Bradleys murder by Sheriff Marion Madison “Buddie” Hadley. Lynched as scapegoats by a mob of 100 men, they were later shown to have been utterly innocent. As an example of the relationships in the town and county, Johnie Moore was a mixed-race cousin of the sheriff. The county is now part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area, by per capita income, the county is the sixth-wealthiest in the state of Georgia, and the wealthiest county in the state outside of Metro Atlanta. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 473 square miles. George Lake sub-basin of the same ACF River Basin, the population density was 69.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 13,397 housing units at a density of 28.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 79. 3% white,17. 2% black or African American,0. 9% Asian,0. 3% American Indian,0. 1% Pacific islander,0. 7% from other races, and 1. 5% from two or more races
23.
Macon County, Alabama
–
Macon County is a county in the U. S. state of Alabama. As of the 2010 census, the population was 21,452 and its name is in honor of Nathaniel Macon, a member of the United States Senate from North Carolina. Developed for cotton plantation agriculture in the century, the county is considered within the Black Belt of the South. It has had a majority-black population since before the American Civil War, presidential Election, Macon had the third-highest number of voters in the state for the Democratic Senator John Kerry. It was the setting of the 1974 movie, Macon County Line, the Sheriff of Macon County is Andre Brunson, he also was the former strength coach at Tuskegee University. For thousands of years, this area was inhabited by varying cultures of indigenous peoples, the historic tribes encountered by European explorers were the Creek people, descendants of the Mississippian culture. Macon County was established by European Americans on December 18,1832, from land ceded by the Creek, the Creek were removed to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. The new settlers brought slaves with them from areas of the South, or purchased them in slave markets. They developed the county for cotton plantations. Those who remained have struggled for employment in the rural county. Before 1983, Macon County was primarily known as the home of historic Tuskegee Institute, now Tuskegee University, the quiet hamlet began to awaken in 1983 when parimutuel gambling arrived in the form of VictoryLand greyhound racing. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 613 square miles. Interstate 85 U. S. Highway 29 U. S.82. 6% were Black or African American,15. 5% White,0. 4% Asian,0. 1% Native American,0. 3% of some other race and 1. 1% of two or more races. As of the census of 2000, there were 24,105 people,8,950 households, the population density was 40 people per square mile. There were 10,627 housing units at a density of 17 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 84. 64% Black or African American,13. 96% White,0. 16% Native American,0. 38% Asian,0. 13% from other races,0. 72% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 33. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.13. In the county, the population was out with 25. 20% under the age of 18,16. 90% from 18 to 24,22. 90% from 25 to 44,21. 00% from 45 to 64
24.
Methodism
–
Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
25.
Baptists
–
Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith
26.
Academy
–
Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
27.
Primary school
–
A primary school or elementary school is a school in which children receive primary or elementary education from the age of about five to twelve, coming after preschool and before secondary school. In most parts of the world, primary education is the first stage of education, and is normally available without charge. The term grade school is used in the US though this term may refer to both primary education and secondary education. The term primary school is derived from the French école primaire, primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Elementary school is preferred in some countries, especially in the United States, in the United States, primary school may refer to a school with grades Kindergarten through second grade or third grade. In these municipalities, the school includes grade three through five or grades four to six
28.
Classical education movement
–
The curriculum and pedagogy of classical education was first developed during the Middle Ages by Martianus Capella, and systematized during the Renaissance by Petrus Ramus. Capellas original goal was to provide a systematic, memorable framework to all human knowledge. The term classical education has been used in Western culture for centuries, with each era modifying the definition. In the 20th and 21st centuries it is used to refer to a study of the liberal arts and sciences. There exist a number of groups and professional organizations which undertake the classical approach to classical education in earnest. Within the secular movement, in the 1930s Mortimer Adler. Also some public schools have structured their curricula and pedagogy around the trivium, within the classical Christian education movement, the Society for Classical Learning, the Association of Classical and Christian Schools, and the CiRCE Institute play a leading role. The University of Pennsylvania seal depicted the trivium as a stack of books providing the foundation for a modified quadrivium of mathematics, natural philosophy, astronomy, Classical education developed many of the terms now used to describe modern education. Western classical education has three phases, each with a different purpose, the phases are roughly coordinated with human development, and would ideally be exactly coordinated with each individual students development. Primary education teaches students how to learn, tertiary education then prepares a person to pursue an educated profession such as law, theology, military strategy, medicine or science. In classical terms, primary education was the trivium comprising grammar, logic, Logic and rhetoric were often taught in part by the Socratic method, in which the teacher raises questions and the class discusses them. By controlling the pace, the teacher can keep the very lively. Grammar consists of skills such as reading and the mechanics of writing. An important goal of grammar is to acquire as many words and manage as many concepts as possible so as to be able to express, in the modern renaissance of classical education, this period refers to the upper elementary school years. Logic is the process of correct reasoning, the traditional text for teaching logic was Aristotles Logic. Training in logic, both formal and informal, enables students to critically examine arguments and to analyze their own. Rhetorical debate and composition are taught to somewhat older students, who by this point in their education have the concepts and logic to criticize their own work, according to Aristotle Rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic, concerned with finding all the available means of persuasion. The student now learns to articulate answers to important questions in his/her own words, to try to persuade others with these facts, the student learns to reason correctly in the Logic stage so that they can now apply those skills to Rhetoric
29.
Liberal arts education
–
Grammar, logic, and rhetoric were the core liberal arts, while arithmetic, geometry, the theory of music, and astronomy also played a part in education. In modern times, liberal arts education term that can be interpreted in different ways and it can refer to academic subjects such as literature, philosophy, mathematics, and social and physical sciences, or it can also refer to overall studies in a liberal arts degree program. For example, Harvard University offers a Bachelor of Arts degree, for both interpretations, the term generally refers to matters not relating to the professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. The four scientific artes – music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy – were known from the time of Boethius onwards as the Quadrivium. After the 9th century, the three arts of the humanities – grammar, logic, and rhetoric – were classed as well as the Trivium. It was in that form that the seven liberal arts were studied in the medieval Western university. During the Middle Ages, logic gradually came to take predominance over the parts of the Trivium. In the Renaissance, the Italian humanists and their Northern counterparts, despite in many respects continuing the traditions of the Middle Ages, the ideal of a liberal arts, or humanistic education grounded in classical languages and literature, persisted until the middle of the twentieth century. Some subsections of the arts are in the trivium—the verbal arts, grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and in the quadrivium—the numerical arts, arithmetic, geometry, music. Analyzing and interpreting information is also included, the liberal arts education at the secondary school level prepares the student for higher education at a university. They are thus meant for the more academically minded students, in addition to the usual curriculum, students of a liberal arts education often study Latin and Ancient Greek. Some liberal arts education provide general education, others have a specific focus, today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, here, the prefix pro is equivalent to pre. In the United States, liberal arts colleges are schools emphasizing undergraduate study in the liberal arts, in most parts of Europe, liberal arts education is deeply rooted. In Germany, Austria and countries influenced by their education system, the term is not to be mixed up with some modern educational concepts that use a similar wording. Educational institutions that see themselves in that tradition are often a Gymnasium and they aim at providing their pupils with comprehensive education in order to form personality with regard to a pupils own humanity as well as his/her innate intellectual skills. Going back to the tradition of the liberal arts in Europe, education in the above sense was freed from scholastic thinking. In particular, Wilhelm von Humboldt played a key role in that regard, universities encourage students to do so and offer respective opportunities, but do not make such activities part of the universitys curriculum
30.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
31.
Texas
–
Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
32.
Confederate States of America
–
The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
33.
Wilson's Raid
–
Wilsons Raid was a cavalry operation through Alabama and Georgia in March–April 1865, late in the American Civil War. Thomas ordered Brig. Gen. James H. Wilson to lead a raid to destroy the arsenal at Selma, Alabama, Selma was strategically important as one of the few Confederate military bases remaining in Southern hands. The town contained an arsenal, a foundry, gun factories, a powder mill, military warehouses. Wilson led approximately 13,500 men in three divisions, commanded by Brig, Edward M. McCook, Eli Long, and Emory Upton. Each cavalryman was armed with the formidable 7-shot Spencer repeating rifle, James R. Chalmers and William H. Jackson, two partial brigades under Brig. Gen. Philip D. Roddey and Colonel Edward Crossland, and a few local militia. Wilson was delayed in crossing the rain-swollen Tennessee River, but he got underway on March 22,1865, departing from Gravelly Springs in Lauderdale County, Alabama. He sent his forces in three columns to mask his intentions and confuse the enemy, Forrest learned very late in the raid that Selma was the primary target. Minor skirmishes occurred at Houston and Black Warrior River, and Wilsons columns rejoined at Jasper on March 27, on March 28, at Elyton, near present-day Birmingham, another skirmish occurred and the Union troopers destroyed the Oxmoor and Irondale iron furnaces. A detachment of General Emory Uptons division destroyed the C. B. Churchill and Company foundry in Columbiana and they then burned the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, the site of a prominent military school, on April 4. This movement diverted Chalmers division away from Forrests main force, on March 31, Forrest was routed by the larger, better-armed Union force at Montevallo. The cavalrymen under Chalmers had not arrived to reinforce Forrest, during the action, Forrests headquarters were overrun and documents captured that gave valuable intelligence concerning his plans. Wilson dispatched McCook to link up with Croxtons brigade at Trion, Forrest made a stand on April 1 at Plantersville, near Ebenezer Church, and was routed once again at the Battle of Ebenezer Church. The Confederates raced toward Selma and deployed into a three-mile, semicircular defensive line anchored at both ends by the Alabama River, the Battle of Selma took place on April 2. The divisions of Long and Upton assaulted Forrests hastily constructed works, General Wilson personally led a mounted charge of the 4th U. S. Cavalry against an unfinished portion of the line. General Long was severely wounded in the head during the assault, Forrest, who was also wounded, and whose tiny corps was severely damaged, regrouped at Marion, where he finally rejoined Chalmers. Wilsons men worked for over a week at destroying military facilities, from there, Wilsons forces moved toward Montgomery, which they occupied on April 12. Before Wilson could do just that, there were several key bridges over the Chattahoochee River that needed taking, one such bridge led into the town of West Point. To avoid any delay in the raid, Wilson separated his force sending a 3, thus, the Battle of West Point, Georgia, was fought on Easter Sunday, April 16, when Colonel Oscar Hugh La Granges brigade attacked an earthwork defensive position named Fort Tyler
34.
Morrill Land-Grant Acts
–
The Morrill Land-Grant Acts are United States statutes that allowed for the creation of land-grant colleges in U. S. states using the proceeds of federal land sales. The Morrill Act of 1862 was enacted during the American Civil War, for 20 years prior to the first introduction of the bill in 1857, there was a political movement calling for the creation of agriculture colleges. The movement was led by Professor Jonathan Baldwin Turner of Illinois College, for example, the Michigan Constitution of 1850 called for the creation of an agricultural school, though it was not until February 12,1855, that Michigan Governor Kinsley S. Unlike the Turner Plan, which provided a grant to each state. This was more advantageous to the populous eastern states. The Morrill Act was first proposed in 1857, and was passed by Congress in 1859, in 1861, Morrill resubmitted the act with the amendment that the proposed institutions would teach military tactics as well as engineering and agriculture. Aided by the secession of states that did not support the plans. The previous day Lincoln signed a bill financing the railroad with land grants. Less than two months earlier he signed the Homestead Act encouraging western settlement, together these actions, taken at a time when the Union Army was poorly performing, did much to define post-Civil War America. Under the act, each state received a total of 30,000 acres of federal land, either within or contiguous to its boundaries. This land, or the proceeds from its sale, was to be used toward establishing and funding the educational institutions described above. After the war, however, the 1862 Act was extended to the former Confederate states, it was extended to every state and territory. 8 On September 11,1862, the state of Iowa was the first to accept the terms of the Morrill Act which provided the funding boost needed for the fledgling State Agricultural College and Model Farm. The first land-grant institution actually created under the Act was Kansas State University, which was established on February 16,1863, before the Civil War American engineers were mostly educated at West Point. While the Congressional debate associated with the Morrill Act was largely focused on benefits to agriculture, after the Civil War, as the German University model began to replace the English College, with the encouragement of the Morrill Act the engineering discipline was gradually defined. Because the Morrill Act excluded spending on buildings, engineering specific infrastructure such as textbooks, in 1866 there were around 300 American men with engineering degrees and six reputable colleges granting them. By 1911 the United States was graduating 3000 engineers a year, the Morrill Act coincided with the establishment of engineering in the American university. With a few exceptions, nearly all of the Land-Grant Colleges are public, to maintain their status as land-grant colleges, a number of programs are required to be maintained by the college
35.
Land-grant university
–
A land-grant university is an institution of higher education in the United States designated by a state to receive the benefits of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890. The Morrill Acts funded educational institutions by granting federally controlled land to the states for them to sell, to funds, to establish. This mission was in contrast to the practice of higher education to focus on an abstract liberal arts curriculum. Ultimately, most land-grant colleges became large public universities that offer a full spectrum of educational opportunities. However, some land-grant colleges are schools, including Cornell University. The concept of publicly funded agricultural and technical educational institutions first rose to attention through the efforts of Jonathan Baldwin Turner in the late 1840s. The first land-grant bill was introduced in Congress by Representative Justin Smith Morrill of Vermont in 1857, the bill passed in 1859, but was vetoed by President James Buchanan. Morrill resubmitted his bill in 1861, and it was enacted into law in 1862. Upon passage of the federal land-grant law in 1862, Iowa was the first state legislature to accept the provisions of the Morrill Act, Iowa subsequently designated the State Agricultural College as the land grant college on March 29,1864. The first land-grant institution actually created under the Act was Kansas State University, which was established on February 16,1863, the oldest school that currently holds land-grant status is Rutgers University, founded in 1766 and designated the land-grant college of New Jersey in 1864. The oldest school to ever hold land-grant status was Yale University and this designation was later stripped by the Connecticut legislature under populist pressure and transferred to what would become the University of Connecticut. A second Morrill Act was passed in 1890, aimed at the former Confederate states and this act required each state to show that race was not an admissions criterion, or else to designate a separate land-grant institution for persons of color. Among the seventy colleges and universities which eventually evolved from the Morrill Acts are several of historically black colleges and universities. In imitation of the land-grant colleges focus on agricultural and mechanical research, Congress later established programs of sea grant colleges, space grant colleges and it is also the smallest land-grant university in the country. The Farmers High School of Pennsylvania, later to become The Pennsylvania State University, michigan State and Penn State were subsequently designated as the federal land-grant colleges for their states in 1863. Older state universities – such as the University of Georgia, which was established with a grant of land in 1784 – were also funded through the use of land grants. Indeed, land grants to institutions are a practice inherited from Europe. These earlier examples, however, offered a different mission than the education offered by land-grant institutions established under the Morrill Act
36.
Hatch Act of 1887
–
The bill was named for Congressman William Hatch, who chaired the House Committee of Agriculture at the time the bill was introduced. State agricultural stations created under this act were usually connected with those land-grant state colleges and universities founded under the Morrill Act of 1862, many stations founded under the Hatch Act later became the foundations for state cooperative extension services under the Smith-Lever Act of 1914. Congress amended the act in 1955 to add a formula that uses rural, under the 2002 farm bill, states will continue to be required to provide at least 100% matching funds. On average, Hatch Act formula funds constitute 10% of total funding for each experiment station
37.
Agricultural science
–
The three terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts, Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals, Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. Agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plant-based crops, food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the USA and the EU. It can be considered a science of ecoregions, because it is linked to soil properties and climate. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, soil characteristics, others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interaction with nature. In the United States, a revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887. The Hatch Act was driven by farmers interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer, the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years, in fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science. Recent crises illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate,1977 Russell E.3, ju.2002 Saltini Antonio, Storia delle scienze agrarie,4 vols, Bologna 1984-89, ISBN 88-206-2412-5, ISBN 88-206-2413-3, ISBN 88-206-2414-1, ISBN 88-206-2415-X Vavilov Nicolai I. The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants, selected Writings, in Chronica botanica,13, 1-6, Waltham, Mass. Cinquante ans de recherches, Masson & c
38.
Engineering
–
The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to contrive, devise. Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel, each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering. The term engineering is derived from the engineer, which itself dates back to 1390 when an engineer originally referred to a constructor of military engines. In this context, now obsolete, a referred to a military machine. Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, the word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium, meaning innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep, as one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains, the Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed, the first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery. The development of this gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and he was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse where he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and his lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeatons Tower. The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000, there were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U. S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U. S. mechanical engineering graduates, in 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, the theoretical work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics
.jpg)
