1.
STS-89
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STS-89 was a space shuttle mission to the Mir space station flown by Space Shuttle Endeavour, and launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida on 22 January 1998. STS-89 was originally scheduled to return Wendy B. Lawrence but returned David A. Wolf, STS-89 was the eighth of nine planned missions to Mir and the fifth involving an exchange of U. S. astronauts. Astronaut David Wolf, who had been on Mir since late September 1997, was replaced by Astronaut Andrew Thomas, Thomas spent approximately 4 months on the orbiting Russian facility before returning to Earth when Discovery docked to Mir in late May during STS-91. During the mission, more than 3,175 kilograms of experiments, supplies, the insignia depicts Endeavour docked to Mir above the planet Earth. The white inside line in the shape of the number eight, the International Space Station is in the background. List of human spaceflights List of Space Shuttle missions Outline of space science NASA mission summary STS-89 Video Highlights
2.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
3.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Auckland Island
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Auckland Island is the main island of the Auckland Islands, an uninhabited archipelago in the south Pacific Ocean belonging to New Zealand. It is notable for its cliffs and rugged terrain, which rises to over 600 m. Prominent peaks include Cavern Peak, Mount Raynal, Mount DUrville, Mount Easton, the southern end of the island broadens to a width of 26 km. Here, a channel known as Carnley Harbour separates the main island from the smaller Adams Island. The channel is the remains of the crater of a volcano, Adams Island. 3 km north of Carnley Harbours mouth lies Cape Lovitt, the westernmost point of New Zealand, there are introduced Auckland Island pig, cats and mice are present on the island. By the 1970s, only one remained, a group of about 100 based on the northwest side of Port Ross. In 1986 and 1987, over 60 animals were removed from the island for breeding in New Zealand. A decision was made to eradicate the remaining animals, an operation which was completed by 1992, an investigation in 1999 into the fate of the translocated animals in New Zealand found that the breed had become extinct. The 1955 film The Sea Chase has a German merchant ship fleeing from British, the ship stops at Auckland Island to take victuals from the rescue station. A pro-Nazi officer shoots the three castaway fishermen he finds there, following which time another ship locates the corpses and chases the German ship, the plot is inspired on the trip of Norddeutscher Lloyd steamer Erlangen. Composite Antarctic Gazetteer List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands List of islands of New Zealand New Zealand subantarctic islands SCAR Territorial claims in Antarctica
6.
Enderby Island
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Enderby Island is part of the Auckland Islands archipelago in New Zealand. It is situated just off the tip of Auckland Island. Evidence has been found of Polynesian settlement in the 13th and 14th centuries and this was at Sandy Bay, in a sheltered and relatively less inhospitable location, accessible to seal colonies. On 20 March 1887, the Derry Castle, an iron barque registered in Boston, Massachusetts, the ship was en route from Geelong, Victoria to Falmouth, Cornwall and was manned by a crew of twenty-three. It carried one passenger and a cargo of wheat, the Derry Castle was owned by P. Richardson & Co. and was under the command of Captain J. Goffe. The surviving members of the Derry Castle crew found a castaway depot at Sandy Bay on Enderby Island and they proceeded to construct some further crude shelters around this depot. On a cliff overlooking the water, they buried the bodies of their crew members that had washed ashore. The grave was marked with the ships figurehead, after 192 days the Derry Castle was officially posted as missing by Lloyds of London. On 21 September 1887, a 45-ton steamer, the Awarua, arrived in Hobsons Bay, Victoria, on board the Awarua were the remaining eight survivors from the Derry Castle. The Derry Castle grave site was maintained for years by the New Zealand government until it sank into the ground. However, during World War II, the figurehead was resurrected by coastwatchers stationed on the islands in the Cape Expedition programme, the figurehead can now be viewed at the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch. In its place, a tombstone now marks the site of the sailors graves, Enderby Island was cleared of introduced species, such as cattle, pig, rabbit and rat in 1994, and by 2015 the abundance of wildlife was notable compared with Auckland Island. Other fauna include the brown skua, New Zealand pipit, New Zealand sea lion, northern giant petrel, dominant vegetation include rata forest and megaherbs such as the Campbell Island carrot. A distinct variety of rabbit lived on Enderby Island, rabbits are not indigenous to the island, their ancestors were brought from Australia in October 1865 to serve as food for shipwreck survivors. Following their introduction, the population was isolated for almost 130 years, the rabbits were eradicated from the island in the early 1990s, though some were rescued and the breed survives in captivity. Enderby Island rabbits are predominantly silver-grey in colour but a recessive gene ensures that a percentage is cream or beige. As with rabbits, cattle were introduced to Enderby Island in the late 19th century, shorthorn cattle were brought to the island by whalers in 1894 where they proceeded to survive on kelp and other island flora, becoming a distinctive wild variety. By the mid-1980s, the cattle had nearly denuded Enderby Island of its growth, in response, efforts were made to eradicate cattle on the island
7.
Disappointment Island
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Disappointment Island is one of seven uninhabited islands in the Auckland Islands archipelago. It is 8 kilometres from the northwest end of Auckland Island and 290 kilometres south of New Zealand and it is home to a colony of white-capped albatrosses. About 65,000 pairs – nearly the entire world population – nest there, also on the island is the Auckland rail, endemic to the archipelago, once thought to be extinct, it was rediscovered in 1966. On 14 May 1866, the General Grant, a ship of 1,103 tons. Fifteen survivors made their way to the island, where they waited eighteen months for rescue, on 7 March 1907, the Dundonald, a steel, four-masted barque, sank after running ashore on the west side of Disappointment Island. Twelve men drowned and sixteen survivors waited seven months for rescue and they survived on supplies from the castaway depot on Auckland Island. Composite Antarctic Gazetteer List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands List of islands of New Zealand New Zealand subantarctic islands Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
8.
South Island
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The South Island or Te Waipounamu is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman Sea, the South Island covers 150,437 square kilometres and has a temperate climate. In the early stages of European settlement of the country, the South Island had the majority of the European population, in prose, the two main islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite article. Charcoal drawings can be found on rock shelters in the centre of the South Island. The drawings are estimated to be between 500 and 800 years old, and portray animals, people and fantastic creatures, possibly stylised reptiles, some of the birds pictured are long extinct, including moa and Haasts eagles. They were drawn by early Māori, but by the time Europeans arrived, early inhabitants of the South Island were the Waitaha. They were largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāti Mamoe in the 16th century, Kāti Mamoe were in turn largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāi Tahu who migrated south in the 17th century. While today there is no distinct Kāti Mamoe organisation, many Kāi Tahu have Kāti Mamoe links in their whakapapa and, a notable feature of the Moriori culture, an emphasis on pacifism, proved disadvantageous when Māori warriors arrived in the 1830s aboard a chartered European ship. In the early 18th century, Kāi Tahu, a Māori tribe who originated on the east coast of the North Island, There they and Kāti Mamoe fought Ngāi Tara and Rangitāne in the Wairau Valley. Ngāti Māmoe then ceded the east coast regions north of the Clarence River to Kāi Tahu, Kāi Tahu continued to push south, conquering Kaikoura. By the 1730s, Kāi Tahu had settled in Canterbury, including Banks Peninsula, from there they spread further south and into the West Coast. In 1827-1828 Ngāti Toa under the leadership of Te Rauparaha successfully attacked Kāi Tahu at Kaikoura, Ngāti Toa then visited Kaiapoi, ostensibly to trade. When they attacked their hosts, the well-prepared Kāi Tahu killed all the leading Ngāti Toa chiefs except Te Rauparaha, Te Rauparaha returned to his Kapiti Island stronghold. After destroying Te Maiharanuis village they took their captives to Kapiti, John Stewart, though arrested and sent to trial in Sydney as an accomplice to murder, nevertheless escaped conviction. In the summer of 1831–32 Te Rauparaha attacked the Kaiapoi pā, Kaiapoi was engaged in a three-month siege by Te Rauparaha, during which his men successfully sapped the pā. They then attacked Kāi Tahu on Banks Peninsula and took the pā at Onawe, in 1832-33 Kāi Tahu retaliated under the leadership of Tūhawaiki and others, attacking Ngāti Toa at Lake Grassmere. Kāi Tahu prevailed, and killed many Ngāti Toa, although Te Rauparaha again escaped, fighting continued for a year or so, with Kāi Tahu maintaining the upper hand. Ngāti Toa never again made an incursion into Kāi Tahu territory
9.
Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra
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The islands comprising this ecoregion share a long history of isolation, both from other landmasses and each other. Wind speeds reach an average of 40 km/h while even in summer the thick cloud cover prevents much sunlight from penetrating, the Bounty Islands are small granite rocks, while the small Antipodes Islands group, the largest group the Auckland Islands and Campbell Island are volcanic in origin. Macquarie Island is the furthest south and the coldest, where present, soils are mainly boggy peats, up to 8 m deep in flat areas. None of the islands are inhabited although there are ongoing projects including a permanent base of the Australian Antarctic Division on Macquarie Island. The islands represent a transition zone between the Antarctic to the south and temperate climates to the north. Individual species include many endemics, such as a Cyathea tree fern, Macquarie Island, being colder, does not sustain any wooded plants, while the small Bounty Islands lack soils and their flora is largely restricted to algae and lichens on the rocks. There are no land mammals, nor amphibians or reptiles. The large colonies of Salvins albatross on the Bounty Islands build nests of feathers as there is no vegetation to use, there are also isolated populations of land birds that have presumably settled here, having been blown off course by ocean winds. Many of these have evolved into unique species, including two endemic parakeets on Antipodes Island, the Antipodes parakeet and Reischeks parakeet. Similarly, a proportion of the Lepidoptera and other insects of the islands have evolved into unique endemic species. A number of species have disappeared since the islands were discovered by humans, including the Macquarie Island rail, although the islands have been partially occupied at various times the habitats remain largely unspoilt. However introduced animals prey on native wildlife and graze on the plant cover while both mammals and seabirds are vulnerable to entanglement in fishing equipment. Longline fishing for tuna and trawling for squid are particularly damaging, current predators on the islands include rats and cats and these are being systematically removed while cautionary procedures are in place to prevent more alien species becoming established. All cats have now removed from Macquarie Island and there appears to have been an immediate increase in some seabird populations. All the islands are nature reserves, World Heritage Sites and a Centre of Plant Diversity, permission to land must be obtained from the Department of Conservation for the New Zealand islands and the Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service for Macquarie
10.
Ecoregion
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An ecoregion is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than an ecozone. All three of these are less or greater than an ecosystem. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and contain characteristic, the biodiversity of flora, fauna and ecosystems that characterise an ecoregion tends to be distinct from that of other ecoregions. Three caveats are appropriate for all bio-geographic mapping approaches, firstly, no single bio-geographic framework is optimal for all taxa. Ecoregions reflect the best compromise for as many taxa as possible, secondly, ecoregion boundaries rarely form abrupt edges, rather, ecotones and mosaic habitats bound them. Thirdly, most ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned biome, biogeographic provinces may originate due to various barriers. Some physical, some climatic and some ocean chemical related, the history of the term is somewhat vague as it was used in many contexts, forest classifications, biome classifications, biogeographic classifications, etc. The concept of ecoregion of Bailey gives more importance to ecological criteria, while the WWF concept gives more importance to biogeography, there is significant, but not absolute, spatial correlation among these characteristics, making the delineation of ecoregions an imperfect science. Such transition zones are called ecotones, Ecoregions can be categorized using an algorithmic approach or a holistic, “weight-of-evidence” approach where the importance of various factors may vary. An example of the approach is Robert Bailey’s work for the U. S. The intended purpose of ecoregion delineation may affect the method used, according to WWF, the boundaries of an ecoregion approximate the original extent of the natural communities prior to any major recent disruptions or changes. WWF has identified 867 terrestrial ecoregions, and approximately 450 freshwater ecoregions across the Earth, the use of the term ecoregion is an outgrowth of a surge of interest in ecosystems and their functioning. In particular, there is awareness of issues relating to spatial scale in the study and it is widely recognized that interlinked ecosystems combine to form a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. The Global 200 is the list of ecoregions identified by WWF as priorities for conservation, Terrestrial ecoregions are land ecoregions, as distinct from freshwater and marine ecoregions. In this context, terrestrial is used to mean of land, WWF ecologists currently divide the land surface of the Earth into 8 major ecozones containing 867 smaller terrestrial ecoregions. The WWF effort is a synthesis of previous efforts to define. Many consider this classification to be decisive, and some propose these as stable borders for bioregional democracy initiatives. The eight terrestrial ecozones follow the major floral and faunal boundaries, identified by botanists and zoologists, ecozone boundaries generally follow continental boundaries, or major barriers to plant and animal distribution, like the Himalayas and the Sahara
11.
New Zealand Subantarctic Islands
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The New Zealand Subantarctic Islands comprise the five southernmost groups of the New Zealand outlying islands. They are collectively designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, until 1995, scientific research staff were stationed permanently at a meteorological station on Campbell Island. Since then, the islands have been uninhabited, though they are visited by researchers. Protection of reserves were strengthened in 2014, becoming the largest natural sanctuary in the nation
12.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
13.
Stewart Island
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Stewart Island/Rakiura is the third-largest island of New Zealand. It lies 30 kilometres south of the South Island, across the Foveaux Strait and its permanent population is 381 people as of the 2013 census, most of whom live in the settlement of Oban on the eastern side of the island. The original Māori name, Te Punga o Te Waka a Maui, Rakiura is the more commonly known and used Māori name. It is usually translated as Glowing Skies, possibly a reference to the sunsets for which it is famous or for the aurora australis, the southern lights that are a phenomenon of southern latitudes. According to Māori legend, a chief on the island named Te Rakitamau was married to a woman who became terminally ill. Te Rakitamau paddled across Te Moana Tapokopoko a Tawhiki to the South Island where the cousin lived and he blushed with embarrassment, so the island was called Te Ura o Te Rakitamau. Captain James Cook and his crew were the first Europeans to sight the island, in 1770, but Cook thought it was part of the South Island so named it South Cape. The island received its English name in honour of William W. Stewart, who was first officer on the ship Pegasus, Stewart charted the large southeastern harbour that now bears the ships name, and determined the northern points of the island, proving that it was an island. He made three visits to the island from the 1820s to the 1840s. In 1841, the island was established as one of the three Provinces of New Zealand, and was named New Leinster, when New Munster was abolished in 1853, Stewart Island became part of Otago Province until 1861 when Southland Province split from Otago. In 1876 the provinces were abolished altogether, for most of the twentieth century, Stewart Island was the official name, and that in common use by most New Zealanders. The name was altered to Stewart Island/Rakiura by the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998. Stewart Island has an area of 1,680 square kilometres and it is hilly and has a wet climate. The north is dominated by the valley of the Freshwater River. The river rises close to the northwestern coast and flows southeastwards into the indentation of Paterson Inlet. The highest peak is Mount Anglem, close to the northern coast and it is one of a rim of ridges that surround Freshwater Valley. The southern half is more uniformly undulating, rising to a ridge that runs south from the valley of the Rakeahua River, the southernmost point in this ridge is Mount Allen, at 750 metres. In the southeast the land is lower, and is drained by the valleys of the Toitoi River, Lords River
14.
Bluff, New Zealand
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Bluff, previously known as Campbelltown, is a town and seaport in the Southland region, on the southern coast of the South Island of New Zealand. It is the southern-most town in New Zealand and, despite Slope Point, according to the 2006 census, the resident population was 1,850, a decrease of 85 since 2001. The Bluff area was one of the earliest areas of New Zealand where a European presence became established, the first ship known to have entered the harbour was the Perseverance in 1813, in search of flax trading possibilities, with the first European settlers arriving in 1823 or 1824. This is the foundation for the claim that Bluff is the oldest permanent European settlement in the country, however, the missionary settlement at Kerikeri was both earlier and larger. The town was officially called Campbelltown in 1856, became a borough in 1878, Bluff is 30 km by road from Invercargill, and the southern terminus of the Bluff Branch, the continuation from Invercargill of the Main South Line. This was one of New Zealands earliest railways, opening on 5 February 1867, Bluff is at the end of a peninsula that forms the western side of Bluff Harbour and Awarua Bay, with the port located in the relatively narrow entrance channel. It is on State Highway 1, which terminates one kilometre to the south of the town at Stirling Point, at Stirling Point there is a signpost showing the distance and direction to various major cities and locations around the world, including the Equator and the South Pole. Bluff is dominated by Bluff Hill / Motupohue, which provides shelter from the prevailing westerly winds. There is a walk along the shore through native bush up to this point. The town is named for this bluff, which was known to early whalers as Old Mans Bluff or Old Man Bluff, east across the entry channel from Bluff is Tiwai Point, home to New Zealands only aluminium smelter and its wharf. Electricity is supplied by the Manapouri Power Station in Fiordland National Park, South Port is the port operating company of the Port of Bluff, and is owned to 66. 5% by the Southland Regional Council. A small port in comparison with New Zealand giants like Ports of Auckland or Port of Tauranga, it moves around 2.2 million tonnes of each year. It is hoped that the Tiwai Point aluminium smelter and fossil fuel exploration activity in the Great South Basin will help to ensure the relevance of the port. A recent weekly container ship service also lifted the volumes, Bluff Harbour is also the terminus for the twice-daily catamaran ferry to Stewart Island / Rakiura,60 kilometres south across Foveaux Strait. It is the gateway for NZ ships heading down to the Antarctic. The harbour is home to the Foveaux Strait oyster fleet. Bluff oysters are renowned for their succulence and flavour, and are considered a delicacy nationwide, the oyster quota was severely reduced during the 1990s due to the effects of the toxic protozoan parasite Bonamia exitiosa upon the oyster beds. Among the attractions of the town was the Paua House, created by Fred and this was an ordinary bungalow transformed by having the outside walls totally covered in paua shells
15.
Volcano
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A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
16.
Port Ross
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Port Ross is a natural harbour on Auckland Island in the Auckland Islands Group, a subantarctic chain that forms part of the New Zealand Outlying Islands. Guarding the mouth of Port Ross are Rose Island, Enderby Island, Ewing Island, the harbour is the most well-established congregation ground for Southern Right Whales in New Zealand waters. In 1842, members of the Ngāti Mutunga Māori arrived in Port Ross from the Chatham Islands with Moriori slaves in an attempt to establish a settlement, in the late 1840s, an agricultural and whaling community set up in Erebus Cove, on the harbour, and named Hardwicke. Due to the climate, the settlement was abandoned within three years. A cemetery remains, later used to bury victims of shipwrecks, survivors of the 1866 wreck of the General Grant set up a camp in the Harbour, where they lived for 18 months before rescue. Later, castaway depots were established in Port Ross to provide succour for any sailors wrecked or marooned on the islands, in 1887 it provided relief for the survivors of the Derry Castle. It was also one of three sites occupied by the wartime Cape Expedition coastwatching stations established on New Zealands subantarctic islands, list of inlets of the Auckland Islands
17.
Miocene
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The Miocene is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago. The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell and its name comes from the Greek words μείων and καινός and means less recent because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch, the earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene, with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages. The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event, the apes arose and diversified during the Miocene, becoming widespread in the Old World. By the end of this epoch, the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path, as in the Oligocene before it, grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent. In the Miocene seas, kelp forests made their first appearance, the plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern. The Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, Two subdivisions each form the lower, middle, continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Mountain building took place in western North America, Europe, both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines. Well studied continental exposures occur in the North American Great Plains, India continued to collide with Asia, creating dramatic new mountain ranges. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish–Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma. The subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea near the end of the Miocene. The global trend was towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture, climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued. Although a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene. The Miocene warming began 21 million years ago and continued until 14 million years ago, by 8 million years ago, temperatures dropped sharply once again, and the Antarctic ice sheet was already approaching its present-day size and thickness. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 7 to 8 million years ago, life during the Miocene Epoch was mostly supported by the two newly formed biomes, kelp forests and grasslands. This allows for more grazers, such as horses, rhinoceroses, ninety five percent of modern plants existed by the end of this epoch. The higher organic content and water retention of the deeper and richer grassland soils, with long term burial of carbon in sediments, produced a carbon and this, combined with higher surface albedo and lower evapotranspiration of grassland, contributed to a cooler, drier climate. The expansion of grasslands and radiations among terrestrial herbivores correlates to fluctuations in CO2
18.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
19.
Sedimentary rock
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Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of that material at the Earths surface and within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the name for processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles to settle in place. The particles that form a rock by accumulating are called sediment. Sedimentation may also occur as minerals precipitate from solution or shells of aquatic creatures settle out of suspension. The sedimentary rock cover of the continents of the Earths crust is extensive, sedimentary rocks are only a thin veneer over a crust consisting mainly of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers as strata, forming a structure called bedding, sedimentary rocks are also important sources of natural resources like coal, fossil fuels, drinking water or ores. The study of the sequence of rock strata is the main source for an understanding of the Earths history, including palaeogeography, paleoclimatology. The scientific discipline that studies the properties and origin of rocks is called sedimentology. Sedimentology is part of both geology and physical geography and overlaps partly with other disciplines in the Earth sciences, such as pedology, geomorphology, geochemistry, sedimentary rocks have also been found on Mars. Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of rock fragments that were cemented by silicate minerals. Clastic rocks are composed largely of quartz, feldspar, rock fragments, clay minerals, and mica, any type of mineral may be present, clastic sedimentary rocks, are subdivided according to the dominant particle size. Most geologists use the Udden-Wentworth grain size scale and divide unconsolidated sediment into three fractions, gravel, sand, and mud and this tripartite subdivision is mirrored by the broad categories of rudites, arenites, and lutites, respectively, in older literature. The subdivision of these three categories is based on differences in clast shape, conglomerates and breccias), composition. Conglomerates are dominantly composed of rounded gravel, while breccias are composed of dominantly angular gravel, composition of framework grains The relative abundance of sand-sized framework grains determines the first word in a sandstone name. Naming depends on the dominance of the three most abundant components quartz, feldspar, or the lithic fragments that originated from other rocks, all other minerals are considered accessories and not used in the naming of the rock, regardless of abundance. Clean sandstones with open space are called arenites. Muddy sandstones with abundant muddy matrix are called wackes, six sandstone names are possible using the descriptors for grain composition and the amount of matrix. Mudrocks are sedimentary rocks composed of at least 50% silt- and clay-sized particles and these relatively fine-grained particles are commonly transported by turbulent flow in water or air, and deposited as the flow calms and the particles settle out of suspension
20.
Oceanic climate
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Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 °C in the warmest month, and above 0 °C in the coldest month. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is evenly dispersed throughout the year. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and mild to cool winters, Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents. Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies, many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this, between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days. In most areas with a climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter, outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the climate zone, snowfall is more frequent. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature, summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the subpolar oceanic climate, with long and cold winters and cool. Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile, Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels, however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, in coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes, the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the adjacent to them. In summer, high pressure pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west-coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain, examples of oceanic climates are found in London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia-San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe
21.
Faroe Islands
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The Faroe Islands, also spelled the Faeroes, is an archipelago between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about halfway between Norway and Iceland,320 kilometres north-northwest of Scotland. Its area is about 1,400 square kilometres with a population of 49,188 in 2016, the Faeroe Islands is an autonomous country within the Danish Realm. The land of the Faeroes is rugged, and these islands have an oceanic climate, windy, wet, cloudy. Despite this island groups northerly latitude, temperatures average above freezing throughout the year because of the Gulf Stream, between 1035 and 1814, the Faeroes were part of the Hereditary Kingdom of Norway. In 1814, the Treaty of Kiel granted Denmark control over the islands, the Faroe Islands have been a self-governing country within the Kingdom of Denmark since 1948. The Faroese have control of most domestic matters, areas that remain the responsibility of Denmark include military defence, the police department, the justice department, currency, and foreign affairs. However, as they are not part of the customs area as Denmark, the Faroe Islands have an independent trade policy. The islands also have representation in the Nordic Council as members of the Danish delegation, the people of the Faroe Islands also compete as national team in certain sports. In Danish, the name Færøerne may reflect an Old Norse word fær, the morpheme øerne represents a plural of ø in Danish. The Danish name thus translates as the islands of sheep, in Faroese, the name appears as Føroyar. Oyar represents the plural of oy, older Faroese for island, the modern Faeroese word for island is oyggj. In the English language, their name is sometimes spelled Faeroe, archaeological evidence shows settlers living on the Faroe Islands in two successive periods prior to the arrival of the Norse, the first between 400 and 600 and the second between 600 and 800. Scientists from the University of Aberdeen have also found early cereal pollen from domesticated plants, archaeologist Mike Church noted that Dicuil mentioned what may have been the Faroes. He also suggested that the living there might have been from Ireland, Scotland or Scandinavia. A Latin account of a made by Brendan, an Irish monastic saint who lived around 484–578. This association, however, is far from conclusive in its description, Dicuil, an Irish monk of the early 9th century, wrote a more definite account. 800, bringing Old West Norse, which evolved into the modern Faroese language, according to Icelandic sagas such as Færeyjar Saga, one of the best known men in the island was Tróndur í Gøtu, a descendant of Scandinavian chiefs who had settled in Dublin, Ireland. Tróndur led the battle against Sigmund Brestursson, the Norwegian monarchy, a traditional name for the islands in Irish, Na Scigirí, possibly refers to the Skeggjar Beards, a nickname given to island dwellers
22.
Aleutian Islands
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The Aleutian Islands are a chain of 14 large volcanic islands and 55 smaller ones belonging to both the United States and Russia. Crossing longitude 180°, at which point east and west longitude end, the westernmost U. S. island in real terms, however, is Attu Island, west of which runs the International Date Line. The islands, with their 57 volcanoes, are in the part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Physiographically, they are a section of the larger Pacific Border province. These Islands are most known for the battles and skirmishes occurred there during the Aleutian Islands Campaign of World War II. It was one of two attacks on the United States during that war. The largest islands in the Aleutians are Attu, and Unalaska, Umnak, and Unimak in the Fox Islands. The largest of those is Unimak Island, with an area of 1,571.41 mi², followed by Unalaska Island, the axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has a southwest trend, but near 179° its direction changes to the northwest. This change of direction corresponds to a curve in the line of fissures that have contributed their products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the Kuril Islands, the Japanese chain, and in the Philippines. All these island arcs are at the edge of the Pacific Plate and experience much seismic activity, but are still habitable, the general elevation is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The island chain is a continuation of the Aleutian Range on the mainland. The coasts are rocky and surf-worn, and the approaches are exceedingly dangerous and these volcanic islands reach heights of 6,200 feet. Makushin Volcano located on Unalaska Island, is not quite visible from within the town of Unalaska, though the steam rising from its cone is visible on a clear day. Residents of Unalaska need only to one of the smaller hills in the area, such as Pyramid Peak or Mt. Newhall. The volcanic Bogoslof and Fire Islands, which rose from the sea in 1796 and 1883 respectively, in 1906 a new volcanic cone rose between the islets of Bogoslof and Grewingk, near Unalaska, followed by another in 1907. These cones were demolished by an explosive eruption on September 1,1907. Newly found information in 2017, the volcanic cone erupted sending ash, the Aleutians seen from space The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall
23.
Jabez Peters
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Dundonald was a steel, four-masted barque of 2,205 tons launched in Belfast in 1891. She was wrecked in 1907 in the New Zealand Subantarctic Islands, only 15 of her 28 crew survived, they were rescued seven months later by a scientific expedition. Only 17 members of the 28 crew managed to escape the wreck, one man, Walter Low, made the shore but slipped off the cliff back into the sea and was never seen again. Another, the mate Jabez Peters, died of exposure on 25 March 1907, for the first three days they ate raw mollymawks until their supply of matches dried enough to get a fire going. They kept the fire burning for the rest of their stay on the island. The survivors also improvised clothes and tools from materials salvaged from the wreck or made from seals, the crew knew that there was a food depot 8 km away on Auckland Island. They built a coracle and oars from branches and ship′s canvas to try to reach it, the first attempt in August 1907 landed three men on Auckland Island, but they failed to locate the depot. The coracle was smashed on launching in the second attempt, the men built another coracle, and in October 1907 four of the crew landed on Auckland Island. The coracle was smashed on landing, the four crew hiked their way through rough terrain to reach Port Ross, where they located the food depot and a boat. The boat had no sails, so the cut up their clothes for sails. The castaways eventually were rescued by a New Zealand government steamer, NZGSS Hinemoa, on 16 November 1907, Hinemoa arrived at Port Ross to refresh the depot and to drop off some members of the 1907 Sub-Antarctic Islands Scientific Expedition. On arriving at the port, Hinemoa′s crew and passengers noticed that the government depot flag was flying at half mast - an indication of a shipwrecked crew, captain Bollons launched a boat and, after landing, found the castaways. Captain Bollons took only one of the crew off the island at that point and he asked Charles Eyre to act as cook for the expedition group intending to stay on Campbell Island for the remaining outward leg of the voyage to the Bounty Islands and Campbell Islands. The rest of the castaways were supplied with stores and were told the Hinemoa would call for them on the return trip. When Hinemoa returned, the scientists on board asked the crew to bring the remaining coracle, the coracle was exhibited at the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, New Zealand, to raise funds for the benefit of the survivors. The survivors also received money from the Shipwreck Relief Society, photo of the coracle The Castaways of Disappointment Island The Wreck of the Dundonald by Albert Roberts. 44 Last of the Windjammers, Vol.2, by Basil Lubbock, the Otago Witness carried photos of the survivors on 18 December 1907. The Annual Dog Watch No.16 Wreck of the Dundonald by Capt. W. E, eglen The Castaways of Disappointment Island by the Rev. Herbert Escott Inman
24.
Polynesians
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The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli, Marquesans and New Zealand Māori, are a subset of the Austronesian peoples. They share the same origins as the peoples of maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar. This is supported by genetic, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, the origins of the Polynesian people are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. These are outlined well by Kayser et al, however, Soares et al. have argued for an older pre-Holocene Sundaland origin within Island Southeast Asia based on mitochondrial DNA. Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture. However, a study by Kayser et al. discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin. Another study by Friedlaender et al. also confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, the study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians. Thus the high frequencies of mtDNA B4a1a1 in the Polynesians are the result of drift, the Polynesian population experienced a population bottleneck and genetic drift. DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage that results in a mixed Asian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians. The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites is that the skulls lacks Australian or Papuan affinities, there is an estimated 2 million ethnic Polynesians and their descendants worldwide, majority of which live in Polynesia, United States, Australia and New Zealand
25.
William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland
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William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland PC, FRS was a British statesman and diplomat. The subantarctic Auckland Islands group to the south of New Zealand, a member of the influential Eden family, Auckland was a younger son of Sir Robert Eden, 3rd Baronet, of Windlestone Hall, County Durham, and Mary, daughter of William Davison. His brothers included Sir Robert Eden, 1st Baronet, of Maryland, Governor of Maryland and he was educated at Durham School, Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and was called to the bar, Middle Temple, in 1768. In 1771 Auckland published Principles of Penal Law, and soon became an authority on commercial. In 1772 he took up an appointment as Under-Secretary of State for the North and he was Member of Parliament for Woodstock from 1774 to 1784 and served as a Lord of Trade from 1776 to 1782. During the War, he was head of the British spies in Europe and he probably oversaw a small group of intelligence collectors for Lord Suffolk. On his return in 1779 he published his widely read Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle, in 1780 Auckland became Chief Secretary for Ireland, which he remained until 1782, and was admitted to the Irish Privy Council in 1780. He represented Dungannon in the Irish House of Commons between 1781 and 1783 and was Joint Vice-Treasurer of Ireland between 1783 and 1784, while in Ireland he established the National Bank. Between 1784 and 1793 Auckland was Member of Parliament for Heytesbury, with Pitt’s sanction he published his Remarks on the Apparent Circumstances of the War in 1795, to prepare public opinion for a peace. He was later included in Pitts government as Joint Postmaster General in 1798 and he severely criticized Pitt’s resignation in 1801, from which he had endeavoured to dissuade him, and retained office under Henry Addington. His Journal and Correspondence, published in 1861–1862, throws light on the political history of the time. Lord Auckland married Eleanor, daughter of Sir Gilbert Elliot, 3rd Baronet and they had six sons and eight daughters. Their eldest son the Hon. William Eden was Member of Parliament for Woodstock and his daughter Elizabeth Eden married Francis Osborne, 1st Baron Godolphin. In 1799 she married Robert Hobart, 4th Earl of Buckinghamshire, the fifth daughter, Mary Louisa, married Andrew Colville, who was instrumental in opening up the Red River Colony to poor Scottish emigrants. The seventh daughter, Emily Eden, was a successful poet, Lord Auckland died in May 1814 and was succeeded by his second but eldest surviving son, George, who was created Earl of Auckland in 1839. Lady Auckland died in May 1818, archival material relating to William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland
26.
Businessman
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An entrepreneur is an example of a businessperson. The term may mean someone who is involved in an upper-level management role in a corporation, company, enterprise, firm, organization. This can especially apply to the founder, an owner, a manager, since a businessman can mean anyone in industry or commerce, businessmen have existed as long as industry and commerce have existed. Commerce can simply mean trade, and trade has existed through all of recorded history, the first businessmen were traders, or merchants. Merchants emerged as a class in medieval Italy, between 1300 and 1500, modern accounting, the bill of exchange, and limited liability were invented, and thus the world saw the first true bankers, who are certainly businessmen. Around the same time, Europe saw the emergence of rich merchants and this rise of the merchant class came as Europe needed a middleman for the first time, and these burghers or bourgeois were the people who played this role. Europe became the dominant global power in the 16th century. In this period, Europe developed and used paper money, checks, developments in actuarial science led to insurance. Together, these new tools were used by a new kind of businessman and these people owned or financed businesses as bankers, but they were not merchants of goods. These capitalists were a force in the Industrial Revolution. The newest kind of businessperson is the manager, one of the first true managers was Robert Owen, an industrialist in Scotland. He studied the problems of productivity and motivation, and was followed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, after World War I, management became popular due to the example of Herbert Hoover and the Harvard Business School, which offered degrees in business administration. There are no prescribed educational qualifications, rules or guidelines which one may follow, a person owning a small gas station in a local market is as much as a businessperson as a person who owns and leads a large Silicon Valley technology giant. There are many paths to becoming a businessperson, hence, no rigid formal educational qualification requirements can be stated for becoming a businessperson. However, there are attributes that successful businessmen must possess, Tact financial and business savvy, courage, leadership, vision, creativity, imagination. Among these components include branding, advertising, and public relations, well-balanced consistency in their business approach. Interest in giving back to society through philanthropy or venture capitalism for future socioeconomic development, hence, a businessperson should have the ability to take prompt decisions. Determination, courage and perseverance, They must have strong power and determination
27.
Archipelago
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An archipelago, sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster or collection of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi-, in Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Archipelago was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands. It is now used to refer to any group or, sometimes. Archipelagos may be isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago, archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin, continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Maldives, the Bahamas, Greece, Hawaii, the largest archipelagic state in the world by area and population is Indonesia. Island arc List of landforms List of archipelagos by number of islands List of archipelagos List of islands Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Archipelago
28.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
29.
Dumont D'Urville
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Jules Sébastien César Dumont dUrville was a French explorer, naval officer and rear admiral, who explored the south and western Pacific, Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica. As a botanist and cartographer he left his mark, giving his name to several seaweeds, plants and shrubs, Dumont was born at Condé-sur-Noireau in Lower Normandy. His father, Gabriel Charles François Dumont, sieur d’Urville, Bailiff of Condé-sur-Noireau, was, like his ancestors and his mother Jeanne Françoise Victoire Julie came from Croisilles, Calvados and was a rigid and formal woman from an ancient family of the rural nobility of Lower Normandy. The child was weak and often sickly, after the death of his father when he was six, his mother’s brother, the Abbot of Croisilles, played the part of his father and from 1798 took charge of his education. The Abbot taught him Latin, Greek, rhetoric and philosophy, from 1804 Dumont studied at the lycée Impérial in Caen. In Caen’s library he began to read the encyclopédists and the reports of travel of Bougainville, Cook and Anson, at the age of 17 years he failed the physical tests of the entrance exam to the École Polytechnique and he therefore decided to enlist in the navy. In 1808, he obtained the grade of first class candidate, at the time the neglected French navy was of a much lower quality than Napoleons Grande Armée, and its ships were blockaded in their ports by the absolute domination of the British Royal Navy. Dumont was confined to land like his colleagues and spent the first years in the navy studying foreign languages, in this period Dumont built on his already substantial cultural knowledge. He already spoke, in addition to Latin and Greek, English, German, Italian, Russian, Chinese, during his later travels in the Pacific, thanks to his prodigious memory, he would acquire some knowledge of an immense number of dialects of Polynesia and Melanesia. Meanwhile, ashore at Toulon, he learnt about botany and entomology in long excursions in the hills of Provence, finally in 1814, when Napoleon had been exiled to Elba, Dumont undertook his first short navigation of the Mediterranean Sea. In 1819 Dumont dUrville sailed on board Chevrette, under the command of Captain Gauttier-Duparc, during a pause near the island of Milos, the local French representative brought to Dumonts attention the rediscovery of a marble statue a few days before by a local peasant. The statue, now known as the Venus de Milo dates from around the year 130 BC, Dumont recognised its value and would have acquired it immediately, but the ship’s commander pointed out that there was not enough space on board for an object of its size. Moreover, the expedition was likely to proceed through stormy seas that could damage it, Dumont then wrote to the French ambassador to Constantinople about its discovery. Chevrette arrived in Constantinople on 22 April and Dumont succeeded in convincing the ambassador to acquire the statue, meanwhile, the peasant had sold the statue to a priest, Macario Verghis, who wished to present it as a gift to an interpreter for the Sultan in Constantinople. The two began to plan an expedition of exploration in the Pacific, an area from which France had been forced during the Napoleonic Wars, France considered it might be able to regain some of its losses by taking over part of New South Wales. On 11 August 1822 the ship La Coquille sailed from Toulon with the objective of collecting as much scientific and strategic information as possible on the area to which it was dispatched, Duperrey was named Commander of the expedition because he was four years older than Dumont. Dumont discovered the Adélie penguin, which is named after his wife, rené-Primevère Lesson also travelled on La Coquille as a naval doctor and naturalist. Dumont was now 35 and in poor health, on the return to France, Duperrey was promoted to commander, while Dumont was demoted to a lower rank, even after having been on his best behaviour
30.
James Clark Ross
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Ross was born in London, the nephew of Sir John Ross, under whom he entered the navy in 1812, accompanying him on Sir Johns first Arctic voyage in search of a Northwest Passage in 1818. Between 1819 and 1827, Ross took part in four Arctic expeditions under Sir William Parry and it was during this trip that they located the position of the North Magnetic Pole on 1 June 1831 on the Boothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada. It was on this trip, too, that Ross charted the Beaufort Islands, in 1834, Ross was promoted to Captain. In December 1835, he offered his services to the Admiralty to resupply 11 whaling ships which had trapped in Baffin Bay. They accepted his offer, and he set sail in HMS Cove in January 1836, the crossing was difficult, and by the time he had reached the last known position of the whalers in June, all but one had managed to return home. Ross found no trace of this last vessel, the William Torr and he returned to Hull in September 1836 with all his crew in good health. From 1835–39, except for his voyage with the Cove, he conducted a survey of Great Britain with Edward Sabine. Between 1839 and 1843, Ross commanded an Antarctic expedition comprising the vessels HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, Francis Crozier was second-in-command of the expedition and commanded HMS Terror. Support for the expedition had been arranged by Francis Beaufort, hydrographer of the Navy, on the expedition was Joseph Dalton Hooker, who had been invited along as assistant surgeon. In 1841, James Ross discovered the Ross Sea, Victoria Land, and the volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, which were named for the expeditions vessels. They sailed for 250 nautical miles along the edge of the low, Ross reported that Admiralty Sound appeared to Ross to have been blocked by glaciers at its southern end. He was awarded the Gold Medal of the Société de Géographie in 1843, elected to the Royal Society in 1848, in 1848, Ross was sent on one of three expeditions to find Sir John Franklin. In the spring he and Francis McClintock explored the west coast of the island by sledge and he recognized Peel Sound but thought it too ice-choked for Franklin to have used it. The next summer he tried to reach Wellington Channel but was blocked by ice and he was married to Lady Ann Ross. He died at Aylesbury in 1862, five years after his wife, a blue plaque marks Rosss home in Eliot Place, Blackheath, London. His closest friend was Crozier, with whom he sailed many times, Crozier is known to have become leader of the Franklin Expedition after the death of Sir John Franklin, but he disappeared thereafter along with the other members of the expedition. He also lived in the ancient country house of the Abbots of St. Albans, later known as The Abbey and he is buried with his wife in the local churchyard of St. James the Great, Aston Abbotts. In the gardens of the Abbey there is a lake with two islands, named after the ships Terror and Erebus
31.
Campbell Island, New Zealand
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Campbell Island / Motu Ihupuku is an uninhabited subantarctic island of New Zealand, and the main island of the Campbell Island group. It covers 112.68 square kilometres of the groups 113, the island is mountainous, rising to over 500 metres in the south. A long fjord, Perseverance Harbour, nearly bisects it, opening out to sea on the east coast, Campbell Island is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Campbell Island was discovered in 1810 by Captain Frederick Hasselborough of the sealing brig Perseverance, Captain Hasselborough was drowned on 4 November 1810 in Perseverance Harbour. The island became a hunting base, and the seal population was almost totally eradicated. The first sealing boom was over by the mid-1810s, the second was a brief revival in the 1820s. The whaling boom extended here in the 1830s and ’40s, in 1874, the island was visited by a French scientific expedition intending to view the transit of Venus. Much of the topography is named after aspects of, or people connected with. In the late 19th century, the became a pastoral lease. Sheep farming was undertaken from 1896 until the lease, along with the sheep, in 1883 the American schooner Sarah W. Hunt, a whaler, was near Campbell Island. Twelve men in two small whaleboats headed for the island in terrible weather looking for seals, one of the boats disappeared, and the other boat with six men aboard managed to make it ashore. Sanford Miner, the captain of the Sarah W. Hunt, assumed all the whalers were lost, fortunately for the stranded whalers, a seal protection boat, the Kekeno, happened to arrive at the island, and rescued the castaways. The captains behavior caused an international scandal, in 1907, a group of scientists spent eight days on the island group surveying. The 1907 Sub-Antarctic Islands Scientific Expedition conducted a survey and also took botanical, zoological and geological specimens. During World War II, a station was operative at Tucker Cove at the north shore of Perseverance Harbour as part of the Cape Expedition program. After the war, the facilities were used as a station until the summer of 1957/58, when a new base was established at Beeman Cove. The new location provided improved exposure for the instruments, particularly wind recordings. The new meteorological station at Beeman Cove was operated by the New Zealand government with ten full-time staff
32.
Macquarie Island
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Macquarie Island, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, lies in the southwest Pacific Ocean, about halfway between New Zealand and Antarctica, at 54°30 S, 158°57 E. Politically a part of Tasmania, Australia, since 1900, it became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978 and was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1997 and it was a part of Esperance Municipality until 1993 when the municipality was merged with other municipalities to Huon Valley. The island is home to the royal penguin population during their annual nesting season. Ecologically, the island is part of the Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion, since 1948 the Australian Antarctic Division has maintained a permanent base, the Macquarie Island Station, on the isthmus at the northern end of the island at the foot of Wireless Hill. The population of the base, the only human inhabitants. A heliport is located near the base, in September 2016, the Australian Antarctic Division confirmed it will close its research station on the island in 2017. The Australian/Briton Frederick Hasselborough discovered the uninhabited island accidentally on 11 July 1810 when looking for new sealing grounds and he claimed Macquarie Island for Britain and annexed it to the colony of New South Wales in 1810. The island took its name after Colonel Lachlan Macquarie, Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821, Hasselborough reported a wreck of ancient design, which has given rise to speculation that the island may have been visited before by Polynesians or others. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, who explored the area for Alexander I of Russia, Bellingshausen landed on the island on 28 November 1820, defined its geographical position and traded his rum and food for Macquarie Islands fauna with the sealers. Between 1810 and 1919, seals and then penguins were hunted almost to the point of extinction, the conditions on the island and the surrounding seas were considered so harsh that a plan to use it as a penal settlement was rejected. In 1877, the crew of the schooner Bencleugh was shipwrecked on the islands for four months, the ships owner, John Sen Inches Thomson, wrote a book on his sea travels, including his time on the island. The book, written in 1912, was entitled Voyages and Wanderings In Far-off Seas, in 1890, New South Wales transferred the island to Tasmania, which leased it to Joseph Hatch between 1902 and 1920 for his oil industry based on harvesting penguins. Between 1911 and 1914, the became a base for the Australasian Antarctic Expedition under Sir Douglas Mawson. George Ainsworth operated a station between 1911 and 1913, followed by Harold Power and by Arthur Tulloch from 1914 until it was shut down in 1915. The Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions established its headquarters on 25 May 1948 on Macquarie Island. The island had status as a reserve under the Man. On 23 December 2004, an earthquake measuring 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale rocked the island, geoscience Australia issued a Tsunami Inundation Advice for Macquarie Island Station. Such a tsunami would likely affect other parts of the coastline, such a significant earthquake at Macquarie Island capable of causing such a tsunami is a high risk according to several papers
33.
Hardwicke, New Zealand
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Hardwicke was the name of an agricultural and whaling community set up at Port Ross, a natural harbour on Auckland Island in the Auckland Islands Group in the Southern Ocean south of New Zealand. Although a short-lived settlement was established, it was abandoned three years. This colonial settlement was first proposed in 1846, the Southern Whale Fishery Company was formed in Britain and granted a Royal Charter with its founder, Charles Enderby, as the resident Chief Commissioner and Lieutenant Governor of the new colony. Charles Enderby was the son of Samuel Enderby, founder of the London whaling company Samuel Enderby & Sons, three ships, the Samuel Enderby, Fancy and Brisk from Britain arrived at Port Ross with the intending colonists, prefabricated houses and bricks with which to build chimneys. The settlers were carefully chosen to establish the new colony and they included women and children as well as farm workers, shipwrights, a surgeon, a civil engineer and other people with appropriate skills. When the colonists arrived at Port Ross they found a group of Ngāti Mutunga Māori settlers, with their Moriori slaves from the Chatham Islands, already there, having arrived in 1841-42. The new colonists employed the Māori to help clear the forest, build roads and crew the ships, with their leaders appointed as constables to maintain law, in January 1850 the settlement was officially named Hardwicke after the Earl of Hardwicke, the governor of the company. Two farm sites were chosen, one on Auckland Island and the other on Enderby Island, however crops were difficult to grow because of poor soils, harsh climate and high rainfall. Livestock were hard to muster in the thick scrub, within three years special commissioners from the whaling company decided to close the settlement as it was too expensive to maintain. It was abandoned in August 1852 after a period of two years and nine months during which five weddings, sixteen births and two infant deaths had taken place. Most buildings were disassembled and removed leaving little evidence that settlement had occurred, except for a cemetery containing the graves of the infants, a few years later the island was also abandoned by the Māori settlers and their slaves
34.
Moriori
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Moriori are the indigenous people of the Chatham Islands, east of the New Zealand archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. These people lived by a code of non-violence and passive resistance and this story, incorporated into Percy Smiths Great Fleet hypothesis, was widely believed during the early 20th century. However the hypothesis was not always accepted, the earlier hypothesis was discredited in the 1960s and 1970s. They developed a distinct Moriori culture in the Chatham Islands as they adapted to local conditions, the word Moriori derives from Proto-Polynesian *maqoli, which has the reconstructed meaning true, real, genuine. It is cognate with the Māori language word Māori and likely also had the meaning people, the earliest indication of human occupation of the Chathams, inferred from middens exposed due to erosion of sand dunes, has been established as 450 years BP. The Chathams are colder and less hospitable than the land the settlers left behind, and although abundant in resources. The Chathams proved unsuitable for the cultivation of most crops known to Polynesians, food was almost entirely marine-sourced — protein and fat from fish, fur seals, and the fatty young of sea birds. The islands supported about 2,000 people, lacking resources of cultural significance such as greenstone and plentiful timber, they found outlets for their ritual needs in the carving of dendroglyphs. Some of these carvings are protected by the J M Barker National Historic Reserve, as a small and precarious population, Moriori embraced a pacifist culture that rigidly avoided warfare, substituting it with dispute resolution in the form of ritual fighting and conciliation. The ban on warfare and cannibalism is attributed to their ancestor Nunuku-whenua, however, when considered as a moral imperative rather than a pragmatic response to circumstances, it also led to their later near-destruction at the hands of invading North Island Māori. Moriori castrated some male infants in order to control population growth, william R. Broughton landed on 29 November 1791, and claimed possession of the islands for Great Britain, naming them after his ship, HMS Chatham. Sealers and whalers soon made the islands a centre of their activities, the effects of influenza were made more serious by the habit, also common to the Māori, of immersion in cold water. Māori arrivals created their own village at Wharekauri which became the Māori name for the Chatham Islands, some sealing ships came to the Chathams but captains kept this secret so other ship owners would not find out about the vast fur seal population. In 1835 some displaced Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama people, Māori from the Taranaki region of the North Island of New Zealand, while the second shipment of invaders were waiting, the invaders killed a 12-year-old girl and hung her flesh on posts. They proceeded to enslave some Moriori and kill and cannibalise others, parties of warriors armed with muskets, clubs and tomahawks, led by their chiefs, walked through Moriori tribal territories and settlements without warning, permission or greeting. If the districts were wanted by the invaders, they informed the inhabitants that their land had been taken. A hui or council of Moriori elders was convened at the settlement called Te Awapatiki, a Moriori survivor recalled, commenced to kill us like sheep. Were terrified, fled to the bush, concealed ourselves in holes underground and it was of no avail, we were discovered and killed - men, women and children indiscriminately
35.
Chatham Islands
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The Chatham Islands form an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean about 650 kilometres east of mainland New Zealand. It consists of ten islands within a 40-kilometre radius, the largest of which are Chatham Island. The archipelago is called Rēkohu in the indigenous Moriori language, Moriori are the indigenous people of the Chatham Islands, and members of the Māori Ngāti Mutunga tribe have also settled on the island. It has officially been part of New Zealand since 1842 and includes the countrys easternmost point, the islands are at about 43°53′S 176°31′W, roughly 840 kilometres east of Christchurch, New Zealand. The nearest mainland New Zealand point to the Chatham Islands is Cape Turnagain, in the North Island at a distance of 650 kilometres, the nearest mainland city to the islands is Hastings, New Zealand, located 697 kilometres to the North-West. The two largest islands, Chatham Island and Pitt Island, constitute most of the area of 966 square kilometres. The islands sit on the Chatham Rise, a large, relatively shallowly submerged part of the Zealandia continent that stretches east from near the South Island. The Chatham Islands, which emerged only within the last four years, are the only part of the Chatham Rise showing above sea level. The islands are hilly with coasts being a mixture including cliffs and dunes, beaches. Chatham has a number of streams, including Te Awainanga and Tuku, Chatham and Pitt are the only inhabited islands, with the remaining smaller islands being conservation reserves with restricted or prohibited access. The livelihoods of the inhabitants depend on agriculture, with the island being an exporter of coldwater crayfish, the names of the main islands, in the order of occupation are, Chatham Islands have a maritime climate characterised by a narrow temperature range and relatively frequent rainfall. Its isolated position far from any sizeable landmass renders the record temperature for main settlement Waitangi to be just 23.8 °C. The climate is cool, wet and windy, with high temperatures between 15 and 20 °C in summer, and between 5 and 10 °C in July, the Southern Hemisphere winter. Snow is extremely rare, having being recorded near sea level in July 2015 after several decades, the International Date Line lies to the east of the Chathams, even though the islands lie east of 180° longitude. Of interest are the trees, with branches trailing almost horizontally in the lee of the wind. The ferns in the forest understory include Blechnum discolor, the islands are a breeding ground for huge flocks of seabirds and are home to a number of endemic birds, some of which are seabirds and others which live on the islands. The best known species are the magenta petrel and the black robin, Other endemic species are the Chatham oystercatcher, the Chatham gerygone, Chatham pigeon, Forbes parakeet, the Chatham snipe and the shore plover. The endemic Chatham shag, Pitt shag and the Chatham albatross are at risk of capture by a variety of fishing gear, including fishing lines, trawls, gillnets, for accounts and notes on seabird species seen in the Chathams between 1960 and 1993 online
36.
Flax in New Zealand
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New Zealand flax describes the common New Zealand perennial plants Phormium tenax and Phormium colensoi, known by the Māori names harakeke and wharariki respectively. They have played an important part in the cultural and economic history of New Zealand for both the Māori people and the later European settlers. Both species and their cultivars have now been widely distributed to temperate regions of the world as ornamental garden plants - and to lesser extent for fibre production. Although the Māori made textiles from a number of plants, including tī kōuka, tōī, pingao, kiekie, toetoe and the paper mulberry. As Captain Cook wrote, “Of the leaves of plants, with very little preparation, they make all their common apparel. They also made baskets, mats, and fishing nets from the undressed flax, the Māori practised advanced weft twining in phormium fibre cloaks. Leaves were cut near the base of the plant using a mussel shell or specially shaped rocks. The flax fibre, called muka, is washed, pounded. The cords form the base cloth for intricate cloaks or garments such as the highly prized traditional feather cloak. Different type of cloaks, such as kahu kiwi and kahu kākā, were produced by adorning them with colourful feathers from different native birds, such as kiwi, kākā, tui, huia and kererū. The handmade flax cording and ropes had such great strength that they were used to successfully bind together sections of hollowed out logs to create huge ocean-going canoes. With the help of wakas, pre-European Māori deployed seine nets which could be one thousand metres long. The nets were woven from green flax, with weights and light wood or gourd floats. It was also used to make rigging, sails and lengthy anchor warps, frayed ends of flax leaves were fashioned into torches and lights for use at night. The dried flower stalks, which are light, were bound together with flax twine to make river rafts called mokihi. For centuries, Māori have used nectar from the flowers for medicinal purposes, boiled and crushed harakeke roots were applied externally as a poultice for boils, tumours and abscesses, as well as to varicose ulcers. Juice from pounded roots was used as a disinfectant, and taken internally to relieve constipation or expel worms, the pulp of pounded leaves was applied as dressings to bullet, bayonet or other wounds. The gum-like sap produced by harakeke contains enzymes that give it blood clotting, splints were fashioned from korari and leaves, and fine cords of muka fibre utilise the styptic properties of the gel before being used to stitch wounds
37.
Whaling
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Whaling is the hunting of whales for their usable products like meat, oil and blubber. Its earliest forms date to at least circa 3000 BC, various coastal communities have long histories of subsistence whaling and harvesting beached whales. By the late 1930s, more than 50,000 whales were killed annually In 1986, contemporary whaling is subject to intense debate. Pro-whaling countries, notably Japan, Norway, and Iceland, wish to lift the ban on certain whale stocks for hunting, anti-whaling countries and environmental groups oppose lifting the ban. Whaling began in times and was initially confined to coastal waters. Early whaling affected the development of disparate cultures – such as Norway. The Basques were the first to catch whales commercially, and dominated the trade for five centuries, spreading to the far corners of the North Atlantic and even reaching the South Atlantic. Although prehistoric hunting and gathering is considered to have had little ecological impact. Whale oil is used today and modern commercial whaling is primarily done for food. The primary species hunted are the common minke whale and Antarctic minke whale, recent scientific surveys estimate a population of 103,000 in the northeast Atlantic. International cooperation on whaling began in 1931 and culminated in the signing of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling in 1946. Its aim is to, provide for the conservation of whale stocks. The International Whaling Commission was set up under the ICRW to decide hunting quotas, non-member countries are not bound by its regulations and conduct their own management programs. The IWC voted on July 23,1982, to establish a moratorium on commercial whaling beginning in the 1985–86 season. Since 1992, the IWCs Scientific Committee has requested that it be allowed to give proposals for some whale stocks. At the 2010 meeting of the International Whaling Commission in Morocco, Japan, Norway and Iceland have urged the organisation to lift the ban. A coalition of anti-whaling nations has offered a plan that would allow these countries to continue whaling. Their plan would also completely ban whaling in the Southern Ocean, opponents of the compromise plan want to see an end to all commercial whaling, but are willing to allow subsistence-level catches by indigenous peoples
38.
Grafton (ship)
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Grafton was a 56-ton schooner sailing out of Sydney during the 1860s. She was wrecked in the arm of Carnley Harbour, Auckland Island on 3 January 1864. Raynal had spent 6 years at sea and then 11 years in the Australian goldfields before a collapse had caused him to move to Sydney to recover. He had decided to return to France when he was approached by a friend who had good grounds for believing that a mine of argentiferous tin existed in Campbell Island. The friend, a known as Charles Sarpy, and his business partner suggested that Raynal could survey this island. Even if no mine were discovered it was suggested that Raynal could take advantage of the number of seals and hunt them for skins. Raynal agreed to the proposition but on the understanding that he would not undertake the command of the vessel, Mr Sarpys partner suggested his nephew for the command and Mr Thomas Musgrave was offered the command of the ship. The ship left Sydney for the Campbell Islands on 12 November 1863 with a crew of five, after reaching the Auckland Islands Raynal fell very ill and was unable to complete his survey for the tin. Musgrave carried on with the search but was unable to find any trace of tin, with limited numbers of seals and an unsuccessful search for tin at Campbell Island the crew headed to Auckland Islands to hunt seals. Grafton entered one of the sounds of the Auckland Islands on 31 December 1863, a heavy gale came on 1 January 1864 which continued into midnight of 2 January when the anchor chains parted, and the vessel struck a rocky beach and foundered. The crew were able to get ashore and managed to salvage food, tools, navigation equipment, Raynals gun, powder and shot, despite only being provisioned for two months they survived for a year and a half on seal meat, birds, fish and water. They originally made a tent from portions of the spars and sails of the wreck before building a permanent cabin from wreck timber and stone. Raynal had experience in building huts from his time in the goldfields and guided the crew in building a cabin with a stone chimney, furnished with stretchers. However it took time to build as the only available tools were an axe, an adze, a hammer. The men named the cabin Epigwaitt which was suggested by Musgrave as an American Indian word meaning a dwelling by the water, the men manufactured clothes from sealskin and hunted and fished for food. For entertainment Captain Musgrave started reading classes and Mr Raynal manufactured a set, dominoes. However he found Musgrave to be such a bad loser that he judged it best to destroy the cards, the crew used the tools they had salvaged from the wreck and Mr Raynal created a pair of blacksmiths bellows from metal from the wreck, wood and sealskin. He used the bellows to forge more tools from metal from the wreck, the castaways had made progress on sections of the proposed vessel but were unable to complete it as Mr Raynal found it impossible to manufacture an auger despite a number of attempts
New Zealand
