1.
Audi
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Audi is a German automobile manufacturer that designs, engineers, produces, markets and distributes luxury vehicles. Audi is a member of the Volkswagen Group and has its roots at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, audi-branded vehicles are produced in nine production facilities worldwide. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz. After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, the company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. Horch, meaning listen in German, becomes audi in Latin, the four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audis predecessor company, Auto Union. Audis slogan is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning Advancement through Technology, however, since 2007 Audi USA has used the slogan Truth in Engineering. Audi, along with BMW and Mercedes are among the luxury automobile brands in the world. Originally in 1885, automobile company Wanderer was established, later becoming a branch of Audi AG, another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimlers four-wheeler. On 14 November 1899, August Horch established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne, three years later in 1902 he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On May, 10th,1904 he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, after troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement, the German Reichsgericht in Leipzig, eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. Since August Horch was prohibited from using Horch as a name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company, during this meeting, Franzs son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Horch. in German means Hark. or hear, which is Audi in the imperative form of audire – to listen – in Latin. The idea was accepted by everyone attending the meeting. On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau was entered in the register of Zwickau registration court. The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/22 hp Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year, followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year. Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model and these cars were successful even in sporting events
2.
Ingolstadt
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Ingolstadt is a city in the Free State of Bavaria, in the Federal Republic of Germany. It is located along the banks of the River Danube, in the centre of Bavaria, as of 31 December 2014, Ingolstadt had 131,002 citizens. It is part of the Munich Metropolitan Area, which has a population of more than 5 million. The Illuminati, a Bavarian secret society, was founded in Ingolstadt in the late 18th century, Ingolstadt is a setting in the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, where the scientist Victor Frankenstein creates his monster. It is the site of the headquarters of the German automobile manufacturer Audi, defence aircraft manufacturer Airbus, Ingolstadt Central Station has been connected to Nuremberg by a high-speed rail link since May 2006. Ingolstadt also has a passenger station at Ingolstadt Nord. Covering an urban area of 133.35 square kilometres, Ingolstadt is geographically Bavarias fourth-largest city after Munich, at its largest point the city is about 18 km from east to west and from north to south about 15 km. The city boundary has a length of 70 km, the city boundary is about 14 km away from the geographic centre of Bavaria in Kipfenberg. The old town is approximately 374 metres above sea level and the highest point, the lowest point of the Schutter confluence with the Danube is at 362 m above sea level. Ingolstadt uses Central European Time as throughout Germany, the time lag is 14 minutes. The city is expanding at the northern and southern banks of the Danube in a flat bowl. The Ingolstadt basin borders the Jura foothills, located south and is to the north of the Donau-Isar-Hügelland, in the southwest is the Donaumoos while in the east the lowland forests of the Danube reach into the urban area. It is the second largest hardwood floodplain on the Danube, the Sandrach, the former Southern main branch of the Danube, partly forms the Southern city border. In the north, the Schutter flows through from the west reaching the Danube near to the Altstadt, Ingolstadt was first mentioned in a document of Charlemagne on 6 February 806 as Ingoldes stat, the place of Ingold. Circa 1250, Ingolstadt was granted city status, Ingolstadt was the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt between 1392 and 1447. Ingolstadt was then united with Bavaria-Landshut, Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria ordered the building of the New Castle, whose form was strongly influenced by French Gothic architecture. In 1472 Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria founded the University of Ingolstadt which became the Ludwig-Maximilians-University, in 1800 it was moved to Landshut and eventually to Munich. The University of Ingolstadt was an important defender of the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation era, Ingolstadt is where William IV, Duke of Bavaria wrote and signed the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot in 1516
3.
Emden
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Emden is a town and seaport in Lower Saxony in the northwest of Germany, on the river Ems. It is the town of the region of East Frisia and. The exact founding date of Emden is unknown, but it has existed at least since the 8th century, older names for Emden are Amuthon, Embda, Emda, and Embden. Town privilege and the coat of arms, the Engelke up de Muer was granted by Emperor Maximilian I in 1495. In 1542 she invited the Polish noble John Laski to become pastor of a Protestant church at Emden, however, in 1549 following pressure from the Emperor Charles V, the Countess was forced to ask Laski to leave for England and the experiment came to an end. Nevertheless, the legacy was important for the reformation in the Netherlands, Emden was a very rich town during the 17th century, due to large numbers of Dutch immigrants such as Diederik Jansz. It was a centre of reformed Protestantism at that time, producing the first Bible translation in Dutch, the Emden Revolution in 1595 resulted in Emden becoming a distinct city-state. The political theorist Johannes Althusius served as Syndic from 1604 to 1638, in 1744 Emden was annexed by Prussia. In 1752 Frederick the Great chartered the Emden Company to trade with Canton, the town was recaptured by Anglo-German forces in 1758 and for the rest of the conflict was used as a major supply base by the British to support the ongoing war in Westphalia. During the Napoleonic French era, Emden and the lands of East Frisia were part of the short-lived Kingdom of Holland. Industrialization started at around 1870, with a mill and a somewhat bigger shipyard. At the end of the 19th century, a big canal, the Dortmund-Ems Canal was constructed and this made Emden the seaport of the Ruhr area, which lasted until the 1970s. Coal from the south was transported to the North Sea port, and imported iron ore was shipped via the canal towards Rhine, the last iron ore freighter was moored in the port of Emden in 1986. In 1903, a shipyard was founded which still exists today. The town centre was almost completely wiped out as a result of Allied bombing raids during the Second World War, the RAF first bombed Emden on 31 March 1940. The most severe bombing took place on 6 September 1944, when roughly 80 percent of all houses in the centre were destroyed. In the collective memory of the town, this date still plays an important role, the shipyard area was largely untouched – the British targeted the civilian areas, apparently in revenge for the bombing of Coventry by the Luftwaffe. The reconstructed town was opened on 6 September 1962, exactly 18 years after the bombing, the main industries in Emden are automobile production and shipbuilding
4.
Wolfsburg
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Wolfsburg is the fifth largest city in the German state of Lower Saxony. Located on the River Aller northeast of Braunschweig, it lies about 75 km east of Hanover and 230 km west of Berlin, in 2013, Wolfsburg ranked as the richest city in Germany with a GDP per capita of $128,000, due to its thriving auto industry. Wolfsburg is famous as the location of Volkswagen AGs headquarters and the worlds biggest car plant, Wolfsburg is one of the few German cities built during the first half of the 20th century. From its foundation on 1 July 1938 as a home for workers producing the KdF-Wagen until 25 May 1945, in 1972, the population first exceeded 100,000. Wolfsburg is located at the Southern edge of the ancient river valley of the Aller at the Mittellandkanal and it is bordered by the districts of Gifhorn and Helmstedt. The total annual precipitation is about 532 mm which is low as it belongs to the lowest tenth of the measured data in Germany. Only 7% of all stations of the Deutscher Wetterdienst record lower data. The driest month is October, most precipitation is measured in June where observation stations measure 1.9 times more precipitation than in October, precipitation hardly diversifies and is constantly distributed all over the year. Only 17% of observation stations measure lower annual deviation, the castle Wolfsburg was first mentioned in 1302 in a document as the domicile of the noble lineage of Bartensleben. Originally a keep next to the Aller, it was protected by a moat some centuries later, in 1372, the first documentary reference to the Burg Neuhaus near Wolfsburg appeared. After the extinction of the Bartensleben line in 1742, the property, the communal manor was an important employer for the nearby settlements Rothenfelde and Heßlingen. Some of todays urban districts, including Heßlingen, belonged to the Duke of Magdeburg during the 18th century, in 1932, these districts were detached from the Prussian province Saxony and integrated in the administrative district of Lüneburg belonging to Hannover. Other urban districts, like Vorsfelde and the transferred to Wolfsburg from the county of Helmstedt. Fallersleben and other villages belonged to the Electorate of Braunschweig - Lüneburg or the Kingdom of Hanover, during World War II military cars, aeroplanes, and other military equipment were built there, mainly by forced workers and POWs. In 1942, the Nazis established the Arbeitsdorf concentration camp in the city for a few months, at the urging of the British occupying power, the city was renamed as Wolfsburg on 25 May 1945, after the eponymous castle located there. In 1951, Wolfsburg was separated from the District of Gifhorn, in 1955 the one-millionth VW Beetle was manufactured in Wolfsburg. Postwar Beetle production ended in Wolfsburg in 1974, though German Beetle production continued in Emden until 1978, the factories in Wolfsburg remain a key part of Volkswagens production capacity. During the German economic miracle Wolfsburg experienced an influx of immigrant workers
5.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
6.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
7.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
8.
Compact executive car
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Compact executive car is a car classification term applied to premium cars smaller than executive cars. In European classification, compact cars are part of the D-segment. In North American terms, close equivalents are compact premium car, compact car, entry-level luxury car. Compact executive cars are available in saloon, estate, coupé. During the late-1960s, buyer preferences fragmented the market, moving to intermediates, personal/specialty, increasing fuel prices and competition pushed AMC to exploit special market segments left untended by the giants. In 1978, AMC introduced its new Concord luxury compact represent an upgraded, more luxurious, more comfortable, more silent, more opulent automobile. On March 31st,2016, Tesla revealed a prototype of the Model 3, an electric compact premium car. Cadillac continued its sales leadership in the market by making changes with the market and introduced the 1982 Cadillac Cimarron. Today, automakers are responding to changes in the marketplace and in the mind-set of consumers looking for status on a budget. Traditional luxury car makers are gearing up to small models that will test whether affluent U. S. car buyers are ready to concede that bigger isnt always better. Facing higher fuel costs and traffic, changes are sweeping through the car market. Two of the earliest European compact executives were created by the Nuffield Organization and introduced in 1952 under the MG, the badge engineered Magnette and 4/44 twins had monocoque construction. Another monocoque compact executive was the Austin Cambridge which was brought to the market in 1954, BMC offered larger Battista Farina designed saloons in 1959, which included the all-new Austin Cambridge Mk. III, Morris Oxford Series V, Riley 4/68-4/72 and Wolseley 15/60-16/60 derivatives, other British compact executive contenders included the 1955 Hillman Minx, Singer Gazelle and sportier Sunbeam Rapier triplets from the Rootes Group. After Leyland bought the Standard-Triumph company, the Standard name was discontinued in 1963 in favour of the more saleable Triumph brand, in 1965 Leyland introduced the Triumph 1300 which was their first front-wheel drive vehicle. This evolved into the Triumph 1500 before being re-engineered for rear-wheel drive for the 1970 Triumph Toledo, the latter was fitted with a 16v, SOHC engine and is considered the worlds first mass-produced multi-valve car. By the time the Austin-Rover group formed in 1983, the Austin Montego - which was available in sporting MG Montego guise - was about to be launched. Like the later Rover 600, Austin marketed the Montego as both a family and a car and correspondingly made it available with luxurious Vanden Plas trim
9.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
10.
Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era
11.
Front-wheel drive
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Front-wheel drive is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature an engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel-drive. Rear-engined layouts are possible, but rare, according to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the worlds first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, in 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front-wheel-drive system for motorising horse-drawn carts. In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination and it was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering and it also known as the Eureka. By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall, in October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/h. In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres non-stop at 29 km/h, when production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs each. J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car and he promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, the next successful application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28,1925, however, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside of the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton, neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a commercial model of the Alvis 12/50 in 1928. The first successful consumer application came in 1929, the BSA produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available, in 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes, other German car producers followed, Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France, the Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, another result of this design is a lengthened chassis
12.
Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)
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Quattro is the sub-brand used by the car brand Audi AG to indicate that all-wheel drive technologies or systems are used on specific models of its Audi automobiles. It is also Audis actual performance division alongside S and RS The word quattro is a trademark of Audi AG. Quattro was first introduced in 1980 on the permanent four wheel drive Audi Quattro model, the term quattro has since been applied to all subsequent Audi AWD models. Due to the rights derived from the trademark, the word quattro is now always spelled with a lower case q. Other companies in the Volkswagen Group have used different trademarks for their 4WD vehicles, while Audi has always used the term quattro, Volkswagen-branded cars initially used syncro, but more recently, VW uses 4motion. Škoda simply uses the nomenclature 4x4 after the name, whereas SEAT uses merely 4. None of the above trademarks or nomenclatures defines the operation or type of 4WD system, Volkswagen Group has been developing four-wheel drive systems almost since its inception during the Second World War. Their military, and four wheel drive experiences later aided them in designing the Volkswagen Iltis for the German military in the 1970s, the Iltis utilized an early form of 4WD, which would later become synonymous with quattro. In that original system, later found in road-going passenger cars. Torque is sent through the transmission to a centre differential which apportions the torque between front and rear driven axles. After 1987, Audi replaced a manually locking centre differential with the Torsen Type 1 centre differential and this allowed engine torque to be automatically directed to individual axles as driving conditions, and grip warranted. Under normal conditions, torque is split between front and rear with a default 50,50 distribution in many, though not all, in adverse conditions, a maximum of 67-80% of the engines torque can be directed to the front or rear axles. This method of operation can be described as proactive, the Torsen-based quattro system also offers an advantage, in the opposite function of distributing torque to the road wheels, namely engine braking. This allows the spreading of the braking effect to all four wheels. The Torsen-based quattro-equipped vehicle is able to execute a more stable high-speed turn under deceleration and this allows for a better weight distribution of 55,45. Hence by nature the Torsen is limited in the amount of torque that can be supplied to the axle with the most grip by the available at the axle with the least amount of grip. Therefore, if one axle has no grip, regardless of the TBR, in the extreme, for a centre differential implementation, complete loss of traction on a single wheel will result in very limited torque to the other three wheels. EDL was implemented across both front and rear differentials to operate at speeds <80 km/h and this has the effect of increasing torque from a single low-traction wheel hence allowing more torque to be passed by the Torsen to the remaining high-traction wheels
13.
Four-wheel drive
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Four-wheel drive, 4×4, and 4WD, is a form of drivetrain capable of providing power to all wheel ends of a two-axled vehicle simultaneously. It may be full-time, or on-demand, and is linked via a transfer case which provides an additional output drive-shaft. When a four-wheeled vehicle has power supplied to axles, this is described as all-wheel drive. However, four-wheel drive typically refers to a set of components and functions, and/or intended offroad application. 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures, the terms used by various manufactures often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. Four-by-four refers to the class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels, and the second, syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine power to only two axle-ends, the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which power to two wheel ends each. Four wheel drive refers to vehicles with two axles providing power to four wheel ends, in the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term 4WD is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All wheel drive historically was synonymous with four-wheel drive on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use, some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, individual-wheel drive was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available power to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and this can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners. The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels, for example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD. Two wheels fixed to the same turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves
14.
Car platform
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It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias
15.
Volkswagen Group B platform
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The Volkswagen Group B platform is a mid-size automobile platform from the Volkswagen Group. It has been used for saloon cars/sedans, estate cars/station wagon, more recently, Volkswagen Group have introduced a new alphanumeric nomenclature for car platforms. An Audi derived platform, the first Volkswagen Passat was nearly identical to the Audi 80, sharing much of its mechanical systems, VW Passat B1 / VW Dasher Audi 80 Audi 80 1980-1996. The BX platform, developed by Volkswagens Brazilian subsidiary, again borrowed heavily from the Audi 80 of the day, the BX platform was used for the Brazilian Volkswagen Gol, Voyage, Parati, Saveiro and Furgão models. The VW BX family was restyled in 1987 and 1991, the Santana was produced until 2012 in China. The B3 was also the first Passat with an independently designed platform, instead, the design borrowed heavily from the Volkswagen Group A2 platform. Volkswagen Passat B3 The B3 designation is used to refer to the Typ 89 version of the Audi 80/90 produced from 1987 to 1992. However these are not based on the platform as the B3 Passat. The B4 Passat was a face lifted B3, remaining nearly mechanically identical, but with new sheetmetal. Volkswagen Passat B4 The B4 designation is used to refer to the Typ 8C version of the Audi 80. However these are not based on the platform as the B4 Passat. The B5 platform employs a longitudinal engine placement, which differs from the Volkswagen Group A platform which have been traditionally transversely mounted and this platform was introduced with the first-generation Audi A4 and the 1996 Volkswagen Passat. B5 platform cars can be equipped with a front suspension. In late 2000, the B5 Passat received a facelift, referred to as B5.5, the platform used by these models is formally known as the PL46 platform. Confusingly, the generation of Volkswagens Passat are also colloquially referred to as B6. However this generation of the Passat uses the PQ46 platform for its sixth generation, the B7 A4/S4 retains the Typ 8E/8H numbers of the B6 A4/S4, though with different suffixes, while the SEAT Exeo though it has derived from the Audi A4 B7 takes the Typ 3R number. Audi A4 Audi S4 Audi RS4 quattro SEAT Exeo Source, **Audi 2009 Cabriolet was a carry-over from the 2008 model year The MLB or MLP component matrix is used in the B8, C7 and D5 families of Audi vehicles. This is noteworthy for placing the front differential ahead of the clutch and this results in an increase in wheelbase and a slightly more rearward weight distribution for better vehicle dynamics
16.
Volkswagen Passat
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The Volkswagen Passat is a large family car produced by the German automaker Volkswagen since 1973, through eight design generations. In 2008, Volkswagen extended its range with the launch of the Passat CC, Volkswagen currently markets two variants of the Passat globally. In January 2011, Volkswagen announced that the new mid-size sedan being built at the Volkswagen Chattanooga Assembly Plant for the North American market would be named the Passat, Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive also manufactures the Passat NMS in its Nanjing factory. The NMS is sold in the North American, South Korean, Chinese, the Volkswagen Passat NMS won the 2012 Motor Trend Car of the Year. A new Passat model entered production in Europe in 2014, based on the MQB platform, the original Volkswagen Passat was launched in 1973. The body types offered originally were two- and four-door sedans and similar looking three-, externally all four shared a modern fastback style design, styled by the Italian designer Giorgetto Giugiaro. In essence, the first Passat was a version of the mechanically identical Audi 80 sedan. A five-door station wagon was introduced in 1974, in Europe, the Passat was equipped with two rectangular, two round 7-inch, or four round 5. 5-inch headlights depending on specification. The Passat was one of the most modern European family cars at the time, the only other European cars of its size to feature front-wheel drive and a hatchback were the Renault 16 and Austin Maxi. It had a MacPherson strut front suspension with a solid axle/coil spring setup at the rear, the SOHC1. 5-litre was enlarged to 1. 6-litre in August 1975 with unchanged power ratings and slightly higher torque ratings. In July 1978 the Passat Diesel became available, equipped with the VW Golfs 1. 5-litre diesel, in North America, the car was called the Volkswagen Dasher. The three- and five-door hatchback and a wagon model were launched in North America for. Sole available engine was a carburetted 1. 5-litre inline-four developing 75 hp, North American cars were equipped with single DOT standard headlights. In 1978 the Dasher received a facelift along the lines of the European Passat, with sealed beam headlights. The trim was upgraded and the ride softened. 1979 saw the introduction of the 1. 5-litre diesel engine, 0–100 km/h time for the Diesel was 19.4 seconds,6.2 seconds slower than the gasoline engine. All gasoline engines were dropped for North America in 1981 in preparation for the next generation, in Brazil, the Passat B1 was produced from June 1974 until 1988. Since the Audi 80 was not marketed in Brazil, the Passat received the Audis different front-end treatment after a facelift for 1979, a sports version, named Passat TS1.6 and later Passat GTS1.8 Pointer was also introduced
17.
Audi F103
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F103 is the internal designation for a series of car models produced by Auto Union GmbH in West Germany from 1965 to 1972, derived from the earlier DKW F102. To signify the change from a two-stroke to four-stroke engine, the DKW marque was dropped in favour of Audi, the first model was launched simply as the Audi, later being renamed the Audi 72, also known as hp/m. The more powerful Audi 80 and Audi Super 90 sports saloons appeared in 1966, the Audi 75 replaced both the Audi 72 and the Audi 80 from 1969 onwards. In 1972 the F103 series was discontinued in favour of the B1 Audi 80, the F103 series were equipped exclusively with four-cylinder four-stroke engines. To avoid this, it was recommended to run a hotter spark plug in the front cylinder than in the other three. The engines of the F103 series were a development of Daimler-Benz for a project that never came into being. They were dubbed the Mitteldruckmotor because of their unusually high BMEP values, the engines had spiral-formed intake channels that gave the fuel-air mixture a good swirl. The engine had Heron-type combustion chambers with broad bands, further enhancing the mixture swirl. These features made it possible to use very high compression ratios for the time. The initial engine version had a CR of 11.2 to 1 for 98 RON fuel and even the intended for 92 RON fuel had a CR of 9 to 1. The car came with a manual transmission. Inboard mounted front disc brakes were featured, which was unusual in the mid-size car market at this time. The rear brakes followed the more conventional drum configuration, the F103 bodyshell was a development of the earlier DKW F102. The engine compartment had to be extended so that the new engine could be accommodated. All Audi F103 models were offered as sedans with two and four doors, the two-door saloon/sedan, however, was not sold in markets such as Italy and Britain with little demand for two-door cars of this size. With the exception of the Audi Super 90, the F103 series were also as three-door station wagon models. Visually the car changed little, but keen eyed observers would have noticed a discreetly modernised rear from August 1970, with slightly larger rear lights. Inside the 1970 upgrade also involved a reconfigured dashboard, manufacturers figures except where stated Good overview of the development of the DKW F103 to the Audi 60 A Super 90 at a vintage rally Website Audi60. com
18.
Audi A4
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The Audi A4 is a line of compact executive cars produced since late 1994 by the German car manufacturer Audi, a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group. The A4 has been built in five generations and is based on the Volkswagen Group B platform, the first generation A4 succeeded the Audi 80. The automakers internal numbering treats the A4 as a continuation of the Audi 80 lineage, with the initial A4 designated as the B5-series, followed by the B6, B7, B8 and the B9. The B8 and B9 versions of the A4 are built on the Volkswagen Group MLB platform shared with many other Audi models, the Audi A4 automobile layout consists of a longitudinal engine front-engine design, with transaxle-type transmissions mounted at the rear of the engine. The cars are front-wheel drive, or on some models, quattro all-wheel drive, the A4 is available as a sedan and station wagon. The first generation Audi A4 debuted in October 1994, with production starting November 1994, North American sales later began in September 1995 for the 1996 model year. It was built on the Volkswagen Group B5 platform, which it shared with the fourth generation Volkswagen Passat and it had a front-mounted longitudinal engine and front-wheel drive. Many variations of the A4 were also available with Audis quattro four-wheel drive system, the A4 was initially introduced as a four-door saloon/sedan, the Avant was introduced in November 1995 and went on sale in February 1996. Development began in 1988, with the first design sketches being created later that year, by 1991, an exterior design by Imre Hasanic was chosen and frozen for November 1994 production by 1992. The interior design was finalized in 1992, with pilot production commencing in the first half of 1994. Development concluded in the quarter of 1994, preceding November 1994 start of production. The 2.6 and 2. 8-litre V6 engines which had carried over from the old 80/90 proved popular, although in North America. A turbocharged 1. 8T version produced 150 PS and 210 newton metres torque, moreover, a quattro GmbH special edition of the B51. 8T was later available in Germany and Europe, for which the engines power output was raised to 178 PS and 235 newton metres. Audi also debuted their new tiptronic automatic transmission on the B5 platform, the transmission is a conventional automatic gearbox with a torque converter offering the driver fully automatic operation or manual selection of the gear ratios. The B5 marked Audis continued move into the luxury car segment. The Audi A4 B5 saw nearly constant minor changes and alterations throughout its seven-year run, moreover, a significant facelift was introduced for the 1998 B5 model year at the 1997 Frankfurt Motor Show, with sales beginning in Europe in early 1998. The 2. 8-litre 30-valve V6 engine replaced the 2. 8-litre 12-valve, a 2. 5-litre V6 Turbocharged Direct Injection diesel engine with 150 PS was standard on the quattro. A six-speed manual gearbox was available, as well as the new high-performance Audi S4, cosmetic updates included new rear lights, headlights, door handles, and other minor exterior/interior changes
19.
Audi A5
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The Audi A5 is a series of compact executive cars produced by the German automobile manufacturer Audi since 2007. The A5 range comprises the coupé, cabriolet, and Sportback version of the Audi A4 saloon, under Audis internal platform numbering convention, the A5 is a member of the B-platform series of vehicles, sharing its platform designation with the A4 saloon and Avant. The first generation A5 is therefore a member of the B8 family, both are derived from the Volkswagen MLB architecture. The A5 marked Audis return to the entry-level luxury coupé market since the Audi 80–based coupé model ended production in 1996, on May 10,2006, Audi confirmed that the A5 would go into production. The B6/B7 A4 spawned a convertible variant but not a coupé, for the fourth generation A4, Audi decided to spin off the cabriolet, along with a new coupé and five-door hatchback coupé, into a nameplate of its own as the A5. The A5 was the first of the B8 family of vehicles to be released, all based on the Audi MLP platform which underpin the next generation A6, the A5 is the third coupé in Audis line-up, following the second-generation TT and the R8. The A5 adopted design elements of the Nuvolari quattro concept car, the A5 debuted with the 3. 2-litre FSI V6 engine delivering 195 kW. The design was based on the Nuvolari quattro concept car, both the Audi A5 and the S5 Coupé models were unveiled simultaneously in Salon International de lAuto and Melbourne International Motor Shows on March 6,2007. Ordering of the A5 and S5 began on March 6,2007, launch models included 3.2 FSI V6 engine multitronic and 3.0 TDI quattro 6-speed, with 1.8 TFSI available in autumn 2007. Early U. S. models included the A53.2 FSI quattro, both included either a 6-speed manual or 6-speed Tiptronic automatic transmission. The S5 model went on sale in November 2007, equipped only with a transmission, while the A5. Canadian models went on sale in 2008, launch model included A53.2 FSI with choice of 6-speed manual or 6-speed Tiptronic transmission. Since 2011 only the 2.0 L Turbo engines are available for the A5 in Canada, in 2013 Audi introduced the new A5 Black Edition. Both the Audi A5 and the S5 Cabriolet production began in early 2009, the A5 Cabriolet included a fabric roof as opposed to a retractable hardtop as on the Volkswagen Eos. The engine ranges are same as contemporary A5 coupé models, the A5 Cabriolet replaces the A4 Cabriolet. Delivery of A5 Cabriolet began in the quarter of 2009. The vehicle was unveiled in 2009 New York Auto Show, the U. S. versions of A5 and S5 Cabriolet went on sale in September 2009 as a 2010 model. Early models included A52.0 I4 TFSI multitronic, A52.0 quattro Tiptronic, the A5 Sportback has four frameless doors and a long, tapering fastback-like roofline, giving it a four-door coupé-like appearance
20.
Auto Union
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Auto Union AG, Chemnitz, was an amalgamation of four German automobile manufacturers, founded in 1932 and established in 1936 in Chemnitz, Saxony, during the Great Depression. It is the predecessor of Audi as it is known today. As well as acting as a firm for its four constituent brands. The companys distinctive logo, of four interlocking rings to represent the four members of the Auto Union. Horch – founded 1904 by August Horch in Zwickau and it built cars starting from straight-two engines to luxury models with V8- and V12 engines. Audi – because of disputes with the CFO, August Horch in 1909 left his namesake enterprise and founded Audi across town, building inline-four-, six-, in 1928 Audi became a subsidiary of Zschopauer Motorenwerke. In the same year, Rasmussen bought the remains of the US automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker, including the equipment for eight-. These engines were used in Audi Zwickau, Audi Imperator and Audi Dresden models, at the same time, six-cylinder and four-cylinder models were manufactured. Although all four continued to sell cars under their own names and brands. Auto Union chairman, Klaus, Baron von Oertzen, wanted a project to announce the new brand. Ferdinand Porsche, who had work for him before. This highly annoyed Mercedes, who had developed their Mercedes-Benz W25. It resulted in a heated exchange both on and off the track between the two companies until World War II. Having garnered state funds, Auto Union bought Porsches Hochleistungsfahrzeugbau GmbH and hence the P-Wagen Project for 75,000 RM, the Auto Union racing cars types A to D were built as Grand Prix racing cars from 1934 to 1939. They resembled the earlier Benz Tropfenwagen, also built in part by Rumpler engineers, The only Grand Prix racers to wear Auto Unions four-ringed logo, they were particularly dominant in 1936. From 1935 to 1937, Auto Union cars car won 25 races, driven by Ernst von Delius, Bernd Rosemeyer, Hans Stuck Sr. and Achille Varzi. Much has been written about the handling characteristics of this car. The cars used supercharged engines, eventually producing almost 550 hp
21.
NSU Motorenwerke
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NSU Motorenwerke AG, or NSU, was a German manufacturer of automobiles, motorcycles and pedal cycles, founded in 1873. Acquired by Volkswagen Group in 1969, VW merged NSU with Auto Union, creating Audi NSU Auto Union AG, the name NSU originated as an abbreviation of Neckarsulm, the city where NSU was located. The business relocated in 1880 to Neckarsulm, there followed a period of rapid growth and in 1886, the company began to produce bicycles, the first of them a high wheeler or Penny-farthing branded as the Germania. By 1892, bicycle manufacturing had completely replaced knitting machine production, at about this time, the name NSU appeared as a brand name. The first NSU motorcycle appeared in 1901, followed by the first NSU car in 1905, from 1957, NSU-Fiat cars assumed the brand name Neckar. During World War II NSU produced the Kettenkrad, the NSU HK101 and they also made the 251 OSL motorcycle during the war. In December 1946, Das Auto reported the company had resumed the manufacture of bicycles and motor-bicycles at Neckarsulm, the first postwar model was the NSU Fox in 1949, available in 2-stroke and 4-stroke versions. In 1953, the NSU Max followed, a 250 cc motorbike with a unique overhead camdrive with connecting rods, all these new models had an innovative monocoque frame of pressed steel and a central rear suspension unit. Albert Roder, the engineer behind the success story, made it possible that in 1955. NSU also holds four world records for speed,1951,1953,1954, in August 1956, Wilhelm Herz at the Bonneville Salt Flats, Utah, became the first man to ride a motorcycle faster than 200 mph. In 1957, NSU re-entered the car market with the new Prinz, a car with a doubled NSU Max engine. NSUs last production motorcycle was the Quick 50, in 1964, NSU offered the worlds first Wankel engined car, the Wankelspider. In development of the project, NSU built the Sport Prinz, in the same year Prinz 1000 and derivatives like the TT and TT/S followed. The Typ 110 was launched in 1965 as a car with a more spacious body design. The last NSU cars with a conventional four-stroke engine had the air-cooled OHC four-cylinder engine in common, the car was marketed in the U. K. In 1967, the four-door NSU Ro 80, with a 115 hp version of the same 2-rotor, was presented to the public. Weighing 1,200 kg, it had a Cd of 0.36, disc brakes, independent suspension and it soon gained several design awards such as car of the year 1967, while drivers liked its performance. Virtually all the major motor manufacturers purchased licenses from NSU to develop and produce the rotary engine
22.
Sedan (automobile)
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A sedan /sᵻˈdæn/ or saloon is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine, passenger and cargo. The passenger compartment features two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the compartment for adult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, with the exception of some rear-engined models, such as the Renault Dauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and it is one of the most common car body styles. A battery electric sedan such as the Tesla Model S has no engine compartment, but a front cargo compartment, the primary purpose of the sedan is to transport people and their baggage on ordinary roads. Sedan versions of the body style have a central pillar that supports the roof and come in two-. Sedans usually have a two-box or three-box body, popular in the U. S. from the 1950s through the 1970s, true hardtop body designs have become increasingly rare. For example,1962 Rambler Classic sedans feature identical windshield, A-pillar, roof, C-pillar, and rear window. A two- or four-door design built on a chassis, but with a shorter roof and interior space. Originating from the car on a Pullman passenger train that was well appointed. A notchback sedan is a sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle. The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the window at a sharp angle to the roof. A fastback sedan is a sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck and their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their ends are tall — sometimes in a Kammback style — to increase trunk space. Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages, automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form. In historic terminology, a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, a true hardtop design also has no center or B pillar for roof support behind the front doors). This pillarless body style offers greater visibility, however, it requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately, or it can be called a hardtop sedan, during the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by several American manufacturers and they were among the top selling body styles
23.
Station wagon
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The body style transforms a standard three-box design into a two-box design — to include an A, B, and C-pillar, as well as a D-pillar. Station wagons can flexibly reconfigure their interior volume via fold-down rear seats to prioritize passenger or cargo volume. Can be loaded through a tailgate, when a model range includes multiple body styles, such as sedan, hatchback and station wagon, the models typically share their platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. In 1969, Popular Mechanics said, Station wagon-style, follows that of the production sedan of which it is the counterpart. Most are on the wheelbase, offer the same transmission and engine options. Station wagons have evolved from their use as specialized vehicles to carry people and luggage to and from a train station. Station wagon and wagon are the names in American, Canadian, New Zealand, Australian and African English, while estate car. Both names harken to the role as a shuttle, with storage space for baggage. Having shared antecedents with the British shooting-brake, station wagons have been marketed as breaks, early U. S. models often had exposed wooden bodies and were therefore called woodies. Manufacturers may designate station wagons across various model lines with a proprietary nameplate. Examples include Estate, Avant, Touring, Tourer and Cross-Tourer, SW for Station Wagon or Sports Wagon, Estate, MCV, Tourer, Kombi or Variant and Sports Tourer, SW - Sportswagon or Caravan. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically share a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers and cargo — and a rear door for cargo access. Further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C-pillars, station wagons feature a D-pillar, cargo Volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume — with windows aside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons may have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks may only have one or two. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons have also enjoyed numerous tailgate configurations. Hatchbacks may be called Liftbacks when the area is very sloped. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2005–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon and three and five-door hatchback models. The first station wagons were a product of the age of train travel and they were originally called depot hacks because they worked around train depots as hacks
24.
Convertible
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A convertible or cabriolet is an automobile body style that can convert between an open-air mode and an enclosed one, varying in degree and means by model. Convertibles evolved from the phaeton, an open vehicle without glass side windows that sometimes had removable panels of fabric or other material for protection from the elements. Historically, a retractable roof consisted of a frame covered with a folding. A lesser seen detachable hardtop provided a more weatherproof and secure alternative, as technology improved, a retractable hardtop which removes and stows its own rigid roof in its trunk appeared, increasingly becoming the most popular form. A semiconvertible also known as a coach has a retractable or removable top which retains fully framed windows on its doors. A landaulet is a convertible with a fully enclosed front cabin. Other common terms include cabriolet, cabrio, soft top, and drop top, and where the roof is more than emergency weather protection, open two-seater, rag top, spider. The erected top secures to the frame header with manual latches, semimanual latches. The folded convertible top is called the stack, a tonneau cover provides a solution. A range of materials is available for soft tops, automakers had problems in securing raw materials to fulfill orders after World War II, including canvas in various shades for convertible tops and limiting their manufacture. Polyvinyl chloride material was used for many convertible tops, the material consists of two layers, a top layer made of PVC, which has a specific structure depending on the vehicle model, and a lower layer made of fabric. Side windows were not existent in open cars, which may have detachable side screens, rear windows have evolved similarly, with plastic rear windows appearing as late as the first-generation Porsche Boxster. Plastic windows can degrade, fade, yellow, and crack over time, a windblocker or wind deflector minimizes noise and rushing air reaching the occupants. Mazda pioneered a version on the RX7 convertible which featured an integral rigid opaque panel that folded up from behind the front seats, current convertibles feature windblockers of various designs including detachable fold-up designs, vertically retractable glass, minimal flaps – or other integrated wind controlling systems. According to the responsible for the 2008 Chrysler Sebring, its windblocker reduces wind noise by roughly 11 to 12 dB. Mercedes and Audi currently offer a heating duct to the area of the seat on SLK, SL. Windblockers are also available on the aftermarket for use on convertibles that do not have them, the Volvo C70 retractable hardtop includes a door-mounted side-impact protection inflatable curtain which inflates upward from the interior belt-line – vs. downward like the typical curtain airbag. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are offset from each other
25.
Audi 80
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The Audi 80 is a compact executive car produced by the German manufacturer Audi from 1966 to 1996. It shared its platform with the Volkswagen Passat from 1973 to 1986 and was available as a sedan, the coupé and convertible models were not badged as members of the range but shared the same platform and many parts. In North America and Australia, the 80 was sold as the Audi Fox for model years 1973–79, the original Audi Cabriolet was badged thus, without a number, but was closely related to the 80/90. There were several different internal combustion types, of which the petrol engines included the fuel-injected E, and carburetor S. Originally this numbering convention ran concurrently with that of the Volkswagen Passat and this link was severed in 1988 when the Passat moved to a non-related, transverse-engined, VW-specific platform for its 80-unrelated B3 and B4 versions. It was again based on the Audi A4 for its B5 generation, the Audi F103 series, based on the DKW F102 but with an all-new range of four-stroke engines developed in conjunction with Daimler-Benz, was sold between 1965 and 1972. It comprised several models named for their horsepower ratings, from 1966 to 1969 this series included an Audi 80, and there were also Audi 60,72,75, and Super 90 models available over the years. This model debuted in Europe in 1972 as the Audi 80, and in 1973 in Australia and North America as the Audi Fox, the internal combustion engines were available in various rated power outputs. For the 1. 3-litre engines, was rated at 55 PS, code, the 1. 5-litre at 75 PS for the ZB and 85 PS for the ZC. On the home market, two- and four- door saloons were available in base trim, in September 1973, Audi added the sporty 80 GT featuring a carburettor 1. 6-litre engine rated at 100 PS. The Audi 80 had a MacPherson strut front suspension, and a C-section beam rear axle located by trailing arms and a Panhard rod, and using coil springs and telescopic dampers. Audis design and development efforts paid off during the 1973 European Car of the Year competition where the 80 won ahead of the Renault 5, the Fox had a 1.5 ltre engine rated at 55 hp attached to a four-speed manual transmission. Subsequent versions came with 1. 6-litre engines rated at 83 hp, in certain markets a five-door Avant variant was offered — effectively a rebadged Volkswagen Passat with Audi front panels. This version appeared in the United States, South Africa, the B1 platform was dropped from the European market in 1978, although it was sold into the 1979 model year in North America. Audi presented a redesigned 80 based on the B2 platform in September 1978, deliveries of the fuel injected GLE and two door bodied cars began early in 1979. The redesigned car was first seen in North America in 1979, Audi continued to use the 80 nameplate in Europe, but badged their Typ 81 as the Audi 4000 in North America. The body of the B2 Audi 80 was designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro, the 80 first became available with four-wheel drive in 1983. The model was essentially an Ur-Quattro without the turbocharger and with saloon bodywork, top speeds are 187 and 199 km/h respectively, with similar fuel economy advantages for the larger 100
26.
Internal combustion engine
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An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
27.
Petrol engine
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A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol and similar volatile fuels. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed before compression, the process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed, and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites. The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in Germany by Nikolaus August Otto, although there had been attempts by Étienne Lenoir, Siegfried Marcus, Julius Hock. The first petrol engine was prototyped in 1882 in Italy by Enrico Bernardi. British engineer Edward Butler constructed the first petrol combustion engine. Butler invented the spark plug, ignition magneto, coil ignition and spray jet carburetor, with both air and fuel in a closed cylinder, compressing the mixture too much poses the danger of auto-ignition — or behaving like a diesel engine. Spark plugs are typically set statically or at idle at a minimum of 10 degrees or so of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches T. D, higher octane petrol burns slower, therefore it has a lower propensity to auto-ignite and its rate of expansion is lower. Thus, engines designed to run high-octane fuel exclusively can achieve higher compression ratios, Petrol engines run at higher rotation speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft and due to petrol burning more quickly than diesel. However the lower compression ratios of petrol engines give petrol engines lower efficiency than diesel engines, examples, Bedford OB bus Bedford M series lorry GE 57-ton gas-electric boxcab locomotive Petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. For details of working cycles see, Four-stroke cycle Two-stroke cycle Wankel engine Common cylinder arrangements are from 1 to 6 cylinders in-line or from 2 to 16 cylinders in V-formation. Flat engines – like a V design flattened out – are common in airplanes and motorcycles and were a hallmark of Volkswagen automobiles into the 1990s. Flat 6s are still used in many modern Porsches, as well as Subarus, less common, but notable in vehicles designed for high speeds is the W formation, similar to having 2 V engines side by side. Alternatives include rotary and radial engines the latter typically have 7 or 9 cylinders in a single ring, Petrol engines may be air-cooled, with fins, or liquid-cooled, by a water jacket and radiator. The coolant was formerly water, but is now usually a mixture of water and either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol, the cooling system is usually slightly pressurized to further raise the boiling point of the coolant. Petrol engines use spark ignition and high current for the spark may be provided by a magneto or an ignition coil. In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic Engine Control Unit, the most common way of engine rating is what is known as the brake power, measured at the flywheel, and given in kilowatts or horsepower. This is the mechanical power output of the engine in a usable
28.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
29.
Turbo-diesel
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Turbo-diesel, also written as turbodiesel and turbo diesel, refers to any diesel engine equipped with a turbocharger. Turbocharging is common in car and truck diesel engines to produce higher power outputs, lower emissions levels. Turbo-diesels in automobiles offer a higher refinement level than their naturally aspirated counterparts, the turbocharger was invented in the early 20th century by Alfred Büchi, a Swiss engineer and the head of diesel engine research at Gebruder Sulzer engine manufacturing company in Winterthur. Büchi specifically intended his device to be used on diesel engines and his patent of 1905 noted the efficiency improvements that a turbocharger could bring to diesel engines which in 1922 had first been developed for use in road transportation. At the time, metal and bearing technology was not sufficiently advanced to allow a practical turbocharger to be built. The first practical turbodiesels were marine engines fitted to two German passenger liners - the Danzig and the Preussen in 1923, each having two 10-cylinder engines of 2,500 horsepower. By the late 1920s, several engine builders were making large turbodiesels for marine and stationary use. Turbocharger technology was improved greatly by developments during World War II and it was now possible to use smaller turbochargers on smaller, higher-speed engines. Diesel locomotives with turbodiesels began appearing in the late 1940s and 1950s, in 1951 MAN presented a turbocharged version of their MK26 truck, although it was never put into mass production. Series production of turbocharged diesel trucks commenced in 1954, when both MAN 750TL1 and Volvo Titan Turbo were introduced to the markets, the building of the Interstate Highway System in the USA from 1956 made long-distance road transportation of goods more attractive. To keep up with traffic, more powerful engines came in increasing demand. Cummins, Detroit, and CAT all had turbo-charging as an option by the late-1960s, in Europe, legislation was introduced in Germany mandating a minimum power-to-weight ratio for trucks, by the late 1960s, a 38-tonne consist had to have at least 304 hp. Turbo-charging was not preferred initially as the engines were perceived to be less reliable, experiments with smaller turbodiesels of a size suitable for an automobile were carried out in the 1960s. The Rover Company built experimental 2.5 liter 4-cylinder turbodiesels in 1963, the first turbodiesel production car was the Mercedes-Benz 300SD, introduced in May 1978. It used a Garrett AiResearch turbocharger, and was produced only for the United States, in Europe, the first turbodiesel was the Peugeot 604 in early 1979. Turbodiesel cars began to be built and sold in Europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s. In France, due to a tax structure which gave turbodiesels a comparative advantage, sales shot up earlier, turbodiesels are generally considered more flexible for automotive uses than naturally aspirated diesels, which have strong low-speed torque outputs but lack power at higher speeds. These factors give naturally aspirated diesels a poor power-to-weight ratio, Turbocharger units weigh very little but can offer significant power, torque, and efficiency improvements
30.
Turbocharged direct injection
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Turbocharged direct injection or TDI is a design of turbodiesel engines featuring turbocharging and cylinder-direct fuel injection that was developed and produced by the Volkswagen Group. These TDI engines are used in all mainstream Volkswagen Group marques of passenger cars. They are also used as marine engines in Volkswagen Marine and Volkswagen Industrial Motor applications, the emissions controls were suppressed otherwise, allowing the TDI engines to exceed legal limits on emissions. VW has admitted to using the device in its TDI diesel cars. In many countries, TDI is a trademark of Volkswagen AG. The TDI designation has also used on vehicles powered by Land Rover-designed diesel engines. These are unrelated to Volkswagen Group engines, similar technology has been used by other automotive companies, but TDI specifically refers to these Volkswagen Group engines. Naturally aspirated direct-injection diesel engines made by Volkswagen Group use the Suction Diesel Injection label, because these engines are relatively low displacement and quite compact, they have a low surface area. The resulting reduced surface area of the direct injection diesel engine reduces heat losses, a direct injection engine is also easier to start when cold, because of more efficient placing and usage of glowplugs. Direct injection turbodiesel engines are frequent winners of prizes in the International Engine of the Year Awards. In 1999 in particular, six out of categories were won by direct injection engines. Notably that year, the Volkswagen Group 1.2 TDI3 L beat the Toyota Prius to win Best Fuel Economy in its class, the TDI engine has won Green Car of the Year award in the years 2009 and 2010 beating other various electric cars. It was also sold in form by Volvo. It used a Bosch VE injection pump, the engine had been launched in naturally aspirated form for commercial vehicles in 1986. There have been a few generations, starting with what are known as VE, and VP engines. In 2000, the Pumpe Düse TDI engine began to appear in Europe, some current PD TDI engines now use piezoelectric unit injectors, allowing far greater control of injection timing and fuel delivery. From the 2009 model year onwards, TDI engines using the common rail technique, again with piezoelectric injectors, are now used in various Volkswagen Group models. The CR engines are available in sizes, including 1.2,1.6,2.0,2.7,3.0,4.2 and 6.0 litres
31.
Rebadging
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Rebadging, sometimes called badge engineering, is the application of a different brand or trademark to an existing product and subsequently marketing the variant as a distinct product. The term badge engineering is a misnomer, in that little or no actual engineering takes place. The term originated with the practice of replacing an automobiles emblems to create a new model sold by a different maker. More extreme examples involve differing engines and drivetrains, the term badge engineered does not apply to vehicles that share a common platform architecture but are uniquely designed so that they may look completely different from each other. This is achieved by not sharing visible parts, and maintaining a host of underlying parts specific to their respective applications, rebadging in the automotive industry can be compared with white-label products in other consumer goods industries, such as consumer electronics and power tools. The first case of engineering began in 1917 with the Texan automobile assembled in Fort Worth, Texas. The chairman and CEO of the company, Charles W. Nash, ordered that the Ajax models be marketed as the Nash Light Six, Nash being a known and respected automobile brand. Production was stopped for two days so Nash emblems, hubcaps and radiator shells could be exchanged on all unshipped Ajax cars. Conversion kits were distributed at no charge to Ajax owners to transform their cars. Starting with the beginning of General Motors in 1923, chassis, exterior appearances were gradually upgraded between these vehicle brands. For 1958, GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand, Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, a later example was Wolseley Motors after it was bought out by William Morris. After World War I, the Wolseley started to lose its identity and this was repeated with the consolidation of Austin Motor Company and the Nuffield Organisation to form the British Motor Corporation. Badge Engineering, as it known, was symptomatic of a policy of sales competition between the constituent organizations. Badge engineering often occurs when a manufacturer, such as General Motors, owns a portfolio of different brands. It may also be done to sell the model in different regions. For example, cars built by Daewoo, now owned by GM, are no longer badged as Daewoos, instead, they are now badged as Chevrolets. Similarly, in Australia and New Zealand, where Daewoo was unsuccessful, the Australian car manufacturing industry experienced major badge reengineering during the 1980s and 1990s as part of the failed Button car plan. In Japan, Toyota, Nissan and Honda used this approach to vehicle production by offering one car at multiple Japanese dealerships
32.
DKW F102
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The DKW F102 is a passenger car that was produced from August 1963 by the German manufacturer Auto Union. Superseding the Auto Union 1000, it was the last model branded as a DKW by the manufacturer and it was the last model developed before the Volkswagen take-over. Under Volkswagen control, the F102 provided the basis for the later Audi F103 models, the F102 featured state-of-the-art two-stroke technology for its time and a unibody of modern design. Nevertheless, the market of the 1960s shunned two-stroke engines as old-fashioned, the F102 in consequence sold below the companys expectations and was the source of huge financial losses. Due to this situation Volkswagen was forced to implement a change in 1965. The production of two-stroke-engines was ended, with the last F102s produced in March 1966, the F102 was redesigned to accommodate a four-cylinder-four-stroke-engine. At this point the name of DKW was abandoned, and the F102 mutated into the Audi F103, the first new Audi model since 1938
33.
Daimler-Benz
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Daimler-Benz AG was a German manufacturer of automobiles, motor vehicles, and internal combustion engines, founded in 1926. Daimler had died in 1900, and Maybach had left in 1907, the inclusion of the name Mercedes in the new brand name honored the most important model series of DMG automobiles, the Mercedes series, which were designed and built by Wilhelm Maybach. They derived their name from a 1900 engine named after the daughter of Emil Jellinek and that race car later became known as the Mercedes 35 hp. The first of the series of production models bearing the name, Jellinek left the DMG board of directors in 1909. Karl Benz remained as a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz AG until his death in 1929, although Daimler-Benz is best known for its Mercedes-Benz automobile brand, during World War II it also created a notable series of aircraft, tank, and submarine engines. Daimler also produced parts for German arms, most notably barrels for the Mauser rifle, during World War II Daimler-Benz employed slave labour. In 1989 Daimler-Benz InterServices AG was created to handle data processing, financial and insurance services, in 1998, Daimler-Benz AG bought the American automobile manufacturer Chrysler Corporation, and formed DaimlerChrysler AG
34.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
35.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
36.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
37.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
38.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
39.
Automatic transmission
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The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well. The most popular form found in automobiles is the automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles. This system uses a coupling in place of a friction clutch. These systems have a set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as forklifts and lawn mowers. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow a number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions, semi-automatics, the obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs, allowing amputees and other disabled individuals to drive, the automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA235757 in 1923. Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid and they were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being battle-tested. However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, zFs origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915, the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early horseless carriage gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston and this unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged, as the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasnt up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the next significant phase in the automatic transmissions development occurred in 1908 with the introduction of Henry Fords remarkable Model T. The pedals actuated the transmissions friction elements to select the desired gear, in 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission, parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chryslers work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use
40.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
41.
Opel Ascona
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The Opel Ascona was a large family car produced by the German automaker Opel from 1970 to 1988. It was produced in three generations from 1970 to 1988, beginning with rear-wheel-drive and ending up as a front-wheel drive J-car derivative. In motorsport, the Ascona 400 rally car driven by Walter Röhrl won the World Rally Championship drivers title in the 1982 season. 7-litre engine borrowed from the larger Rekord model of the time. The Opel Ascona A launched in 1970 and sold across Europe was, however, the Ascona was introduced in September 1970 and ended production in August 1988, to be replaced by the Opel Vectra A. In the fall of 1970, Opel presented its new vehicle range in Rüsselsheim. The Opel Manta coupé was launched on September 9, followed by the Opel Ascona on October 28 in two and four-door sedan forms, plus a station wagon, called the Caravan or Voyage. These models were positioned between the existing Opel Kadett and the Opel Rekord, the Opel Ascona A stayed in production until 1975. By that time, almost 692,000 vehicles of the first series had been produced, the range featured petrol engines from 1.2 L to 1.9 L, with power between 60 PS and 90 PS. The 1.2 L had a valve head, while the 1.6 L and 1.9 L featured the Opel Cam-in-head engine. The CIH was an effort, with the camshaft mounted next to the valves rather than above them. All used a single barrel carburetor, even with this simple design, the Ascona 1.9 SR had a successful career in motorsports, with Walter Röhrl winning the European Rally Championship in 1974. Tuner Steinmetz developed a version of the Ascona SR, with two single-barrel Solex carburettors, lifting power to 125 PS. From 1971–75, the 1. 9-liter Ascona was exported to the United States as the Opel 1900 sold through Buick-Opel dealerships, All three body styles were offered at first, but the four-door sedan was dropped after 1973. In 1974, heavy rubber-clad impact bumpers were added in response to federal regulations, All Opels sold in the US in 1975 were equipped with Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection, which was not available on the European versions. The fuel injection was added because of the emissions requirements that were in force that year. Dollar exchange rate, after 1975, all Opels in Buick showrooms were replaced by Japanese-built Isuzu Gemini models wearing Opel badges and it was available as a two or four-door saloon. There were related two and three-door coupé models in the Opel Manta range, there was no estate body available. The Ascona B retained the engine range as its predecessor, versions with higher compression ratio and needing 98 octane petrol
42.
Ford Taunus
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The Ford Taunus is a family car that was sold by Ford Germany throughout Europe. Models from 1970 onward were similar to the Ford Cortina in the United Kingdom, the model line was named after the Taunus mountain range in Germany and was first made in 1939 and continued through several versions until 1994. The Ford Taunus G93A was a development of the Ford Eifel and used the same 1172 cc four cylinder engine but in a longer chassis and it was the first German Ford to have hydraulic brakes. Due to the war, production was interrupted from 1942 to 1948,74,128 were made including estate cars and light vans. From 1952 to 1968 all German Fords were called the Taunus, using the model names 12M, 15M, 17M, 20M, the M is said to stand for Meisterstück, in English Masterpiece, but that word was found to be already registered by another German automaker. Taunus was also adopted as the brand-name in export markets, particularly where British. With the introduction of the new 12M line for 1962 came the V4 engine, the 20 and 26M models had the Ford Cologne V6 engine which is basically the same engine design with two extra cylinders added. The 12,15,17 etc. numbers refer to the displacement,1200,1500,1700 cc etc. From 1962 to 1970, the smaller models 12M and its successor 12M/15M had front wheel drive, all other models had rear wheel drive. The following models were offered, The Taunus 12M presented in 1952 was the first new German Ford after World War II and it featured ponton styling, similar in style to British Ford Zephyr. The Taunus 15M used a new and more powerful engine, 12M,1172 cc,38 hp,112 km/h 15M,1498 cc,55 hp,128 km/h Body styles were two door sedan, two station wagon and sedan delivery. Not a new car, but a rework of the 1952 model, all cars are called 12M, though both engines are continued. Body styles were the same as in the 1952 model, the new Ford Taunus 12M P4 was similar in size, but a completely new car based on the Ford Cardinal project. New body, new V4 engine, front wheel drive, the first Ford car with front wheel drive. The Ford Taunus P6 came with new bodies, engines and platform are continued, again, the car with the bigger engine is called 15M. In 1970, the P6 is replaced by the Taunus TC, growing prosperity in postwar Germany encouraged Ford to offer a line of bigger and more expensive cars. The Ford Taunus 17M of 1957 was as long as the British Consul Mk2 and it presented a style similar to American 1955 Fords, featuring substantial tailfins. The transatlantic flamboyance of the cars styling gained it the sobriquet Baroque Taunus, unusually for middle class German cars of this period, it was available with either two or four doors
43.
Ford Cortina
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The Ford Cortina is a car which was built by Ford of Britain in various guises from 1962 to 1982, and was the United Kingdoms best-selling car of the 1970s. The Cortina was produced in five generations from 1962 until 1982, from 1970 onward, it was almost identical to the German-market Ford Taunus which was originally a different car model. This was part of a Ford attempt to unify its European operations, by 1976, when the revised Taunus was launched, the Cortina was identical. The new Taunus/Cortina used the doors and some panels from the 1970 Taunus and it was replaced in 1982 by the Ford Sierra. In Asia and Australasia, it was replaced by the Mazda 626-based Ford Telstar, the name was inspired by the name of the Italian ski resort Cortina dAmpezzo, site of the 1956 Winter Olympics. As a publicity stunt, several Cortinas were driven down the run at the resort which was called Cortina Auto-Bobbing. Using the project name of Archbishop, management at Ford of Britain in Dagenham created a car which they could sell in large numbers. The chief designer was Roy Brown Jr. the designer of the Edsel, the Cortina, aimed at buyers of the Morris Oxford Farina and Vauxhall Victor, was launched on 20 September 1962. The car was designed to be economical, cheap to run and easy, the front-wheel drive configuration used by Ford of Germany for the new Ford Taunus P4, a similarly sized model, was rejected in favour of traditional rear-wheel drive layout. Originally to be called Ford Consul 225, the car was launched as the Consul Cortina until a modest facelift in 1964, the Cortina was available with 1200 and 1500 four-cylinder engines with all synchromesh gearbox, in two-door and four-door saloon, as well as in five-door estate forms. Standard, Deluxe, Super, and GT trims were offered, early Standard models featured a simple body coloured front grille, earning it the nickname Ironbar. Since this version cost almost the same as the better equipped Deluxe it sold poorly and is rare today. Options included heater and bench seat with column gearchange, Super versions of the estates offered the option of simulated wood side and tailgate trim. In an early example of product placement many examples of the brand new Cortina featured as Glamcabs in the comedy film Carry On Cabby, there were two main variations of the Mark 1. The Mark 1a possessed elliptical front side-lights, whereas the Mark 1b had a front grille incorporating the more rectangular side-light. A notable variant was the Ford Cortina Lotus, a few months later, in January 1963, the Cortina Super was announced with a five-bearing 1,498 cc engine. The engines used across the Mark I range were of identical design, differing only in capacity, the formula used was a four-cylinder pushrod design that came to be known as the pre-crossflow version as both inlet and exhaust ports were located on the same side of the head. The most powerful version of engine was 1,498 cc
44.
Alfa Romeo Alfetta
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The Alfa Romeo Alfetta was an executive saloon and fastback coupé produced by the Italian manufacturer Alfa Romeo from 1972 to 1987. It was popular due to its combination of a modest weight with powerful engines, the Alfetta introduced a new drivetrain layout to the marque. Clutch and transmission were housed at the rear of the car, together with the differential for a balanced weight distribution. The suspension relied on double wishbones and torsion bars at the front, when leaving the factory all Alfettas originally fitted Pirelli Cinturato 165HR14 tyres. The rear de Dion transaxle found on the Alfetta and derivatives- GTV,90, the advantages to handling were noticed in contemporary commentaries by motor testers such as Vicar. The transaxle design, in combination with a Watts parallelogram linkage, inboard rear brakes, the front suspension design was also unusual in that it incorporated independent longitudinal torsion bar springs acting directly onto the lower wishbones and with separate dampers. The Alfetta saloon was launched in 1972, equipped with a 1. 8-litre four-cylinder, at the 1975 Brussels Motor Show Alfa Romeo introduced the 1,594 cc,108 PS Alfetta 1.6 base model, easily recognizable by its single, larger round front headlights. Meanwhile, the 1. 8-litre Alfetta was rebadged Alfetta 1.8, engines in both models were Alfa Romeo Twin Cams, with two overhead camshafts, 8-valves and two double-barrel carburettors. Two years later the 1.6 was upgraded to the exterior and interior features of the 1.8, in 1977 a 2. 0-litre model was added. Launched at the March Geneva Motor Show, the Alfetta 2000 replaced the outgoing Alfa Romeo 2000, inside there were a new dashboard, steering wheel and upholstery materials. Just a year later, in July 1978, the model was updated becoming the Alfetta 2000 L. Engine output rose from 122 PS to 130 PS, inside upholstery was changed again, the Alfetta 2000 was sold as the Alfa Romeo Sport Sedan in the United States, where Alfetta did not have the same cachet as in Europe. The 2000 received fuel injection in 1979, a turbodiesel version was introduced in late 1979, the Alfetta Turbo D, whose engine was supplied by VM Motori. Apart from a boot lid badge, the Turbo D was equipped and finished like the top-of-the-line 2000 L both outside and inside. Therefore, it received an unusual in diesels of this era. The turbodiesel, a first on an Alfa Romeos passenger car, was of 2.0 litres, the Alfetta Turbo D was sold mostly in Italy and in France, as well as a few other continental European markets where the tax structure suited this model. Called Alfetta CEM, it was shown at the Frankfurt Motor Show, an initial batch of ten examples were assigned to taxi drivers in Milan, to verify operation and performance in real-world situations. 0-litre. After the first trial, in 1983 a small series of 1000 examples was put on sale, despite this second experimental phase, the project had no further developments
45.
Triumph Dolomite
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The Triumph Dolomite is a popular small saloon car that was produced by the Triumph Motor Company division of the British Leyland Corporation in Canley, Coventry between October 1972 and August 1980. The Dolomite was the addition to Triumphs small-car range, which had started in 1965 with the Triumph 1300. Designed to be a replacement for the rear-wheel drive Triumph Herald, the later model, introduced in September 1970 as the Triumph 1500, featured a remodelled front and rear, styled by Michelotti, and a larger 1,493 cc engine. In an attempt to improve matters, the car was comprehensively re-engineered, launched in September 1970, the Triumph Toledo was a cheaper and more basic variant of the 1300, but with conventional rear-wheel drive. This new model was assembled alongside the now larger-engined front-wheel drive version which was launched at the time as the Toledo. However, due to a number of strikes and other industrial upsets, the name Dolomite had been used by Triumph for a range of models prior to the Second World War and this name was revived for the new car. The Dolomite used the bodyshell of the front wheel drive Triumph 1500. Initially, the version available used the new slant-four 1854 cc engine. This was a version of the engine that the company was providing to Saab for use in their 99 model. Styling was similar to the Triumph 1500, with updates such as a black painted rear panel, vinyl D-posts. The car was capable of 100 mph, with 60 mph coming up in just over 11 seconds, an overdrive gearbox was soon made available as an option, offering relaxed motorway cruising and improved fuel economy, and there was also an optional automatic transmission. Although the Dolomite proved to be refined and rapid, competitors such as the BMW2002 had an advantage which was costing Triumph dearly. To remedy this, Triumph unveiled the Dolomite Sprint in June 1973, although the launch had been delayed by a year, it had been due to go on sale in 1972. A team of engineers led by Spen King developed a 16-valve cylinder head with all of the valves being actuated using a single rather than the more conventional DOHC arrangement. The capacity was increased to 1,998 cc. This represented a significant power increase over the smaller 1850cc variant and this led to the original model designation, the Dolomite 135, being replaced at short notice with the Sprint name. As a result of the use of engine, the Dolomite Sprint has been claimed to be the worlds first mass-produced multi-valve car. While other multi-valve engines were produced in volume, they were not used in production vehicles until after the introduction of the Dolomite Sprint
46.
Overhead camshaft
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Compared to OHV pushrod systems with the same number of valves, the reciprocating components of the OHC system are fewer and have a lower overall mass. Though the system drives the camshafts may be more complex, most engine manufacturers accept that added complexity as a trade-off for better engine performance. The fundamental reason for the OHC valvetrain is that it offers an increase in the ability to exchange induction. Another performance advantage is gained as a result of the better optimised port configurations made possible with overhead camshaft designs, with no intrusive pushrods, the overhead camshaft cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous cross-section and length. The OHC design allows for higher speeds than comparable cam-in-block designs. The higher engine speeds thus allowed increases power output for a given torque output, in earlier OHC systems, including inter-war Morrises and Wolseleys, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue. Single overhead camshaft is a design in which one camshaft is placed within the cylinder head, in the SOHC design, the camshaft operates the valves directly, traditionally via a bucket tappet, or via an intermediary rocker arm. SOHC cylinder heads are less expensive to manufacture than double overhead camshaft cylinder heads. Timing belt replacement can be easier since there are fewer camshaft drive sprockets that need to be aligned during the replacement procedure, SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to overhead valve designs — when used for multivalve cylinder heads, in which each cylinder has more than two valves. Exhaust and inlet manifolds were both on the side of the engine block. This did, however, offer excellent access to the spark plugs, in the early 1980s, Toyota and Volkswagen Group also used a directly actuated, SOHC parallel valve configuration with two valves for each cylinder. The Toyota system used hydraulic tappets, the Volkswagen system used bucket tappets with shims for valve clearance adjustment. Honda later used a similar system in their motorcycles, using the term Unicam for the concept. This system uses one camshaft for each bank of cylinder heads, with the cams operating directly onto the valve and indirectly, through a short rocker arm. This allows a compact, light valvetrain to operate valves in a combustion chamber. The Unicam valve train was first used in single cylinder dirt bikes, a dual overhead camshaft valvetrain layout is characterised by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and the other one operating the exhaust valves. This design reduces valvetrain inertia more than is the case with a SOHC engine, a DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than do SOHC engines. This can allow for a less restricted airflow at higher engine speeds, DOHC with a multivalve design also allows for the optimum placement of the spark plug which, in turn, improves combustion efficiency
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