1.
Audi
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Audi is a German automobile manufacturer that designs, engineers, produces, markets and distributes luxury vehicles. Audi is a member of the Volkswagen Group and has its roots at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, audi-branded vehicles are produced in nine production facilities worldwide. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz. After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, the company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. Horch, meaning listen in German, becomes audi in Latin, the four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audis predecessor company, Auto Union. Audis slogan is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning Advancement through Technology, however, since 2007 Audi USA has used the slogan Truth in Engineering. Audi, along with BMW and Mercedes are among the luxury automobile brands in the world. Originally in 1885, automobile company Wanderer was established, later becoming a branch of Audi AG, another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimlers four-wheeler. On 14 November 1899, August Horch established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne, three years later in 1902 he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On May, 10th,1904 he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, after troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement, the German Reichsgericht in Leipzig, eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. Since August Horch was prohibited from using Horch as a name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company, during this meeting, Franzs son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Horch. in German means Hark. or hear, which is Audi in the imperative form of audire – to listen – in Latin. The idea was accepted by everyone attending the meeting. On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau was entered in the register of Zwickau registration court. The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/22 hp Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year, followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year. Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model and these cars were successful even in sporting events
Audi
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Audi head office in
Ingolstadt
Audi
–
Audi AG
Audi
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Audi Type E
Audi
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IFA F9
2.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
Car classification
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Aixam
Car classification
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Citroën C1
Car classification
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Renault Clio IV
Car classification
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Ford Focus (International)
3.
Compact car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
Compact car
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A
Japanese designed compact car, the
Honda Civic
Compact car
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Ford Focus
Compact car
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Chevrolet Cruze
Compact car
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1952
Nash Rambler 2-door station wagon
4.
Small family car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
Small family car
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A
Japanese designed compact car, the
Honda Civic
Small family car
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Ford Focus
Small family car
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Chevrolet Cruze
Small family car
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1952
Nash Rambler 2-door station wagon
5.
C-segment
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C-segment is a Euro Car Segment, a car classification loosely defined by the European Commission as the third smallest segment in the European market. Although the definition is vague, there is overlap between segments A-F based on mass and area parameters. In 2011, the C-segment had an EU market share of 23%, the tiny A-segment cars include the Chevy Spark and Smart Fortwo. Theyre extremely short and very light, slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevy Sonic. The A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts, in the C-segment — typically called compacts — are the largest of the small cars
C-segment
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Volkswagen Golf, a C-segment vehicle.
6.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
Automobile layout
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FF layout
7.
Transverse engine
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A transverse engine is an engine mounted in a vehicle so that the engines crankshaft axis is perpendicular to the long axis of the vehicle. Many modern front wheel drive vehicles use this engine mounting configuration, the Critchley light car, made by the Daimler Motor Company in 1899, had a transverse engine with belt drive to the rear axle. A1911 front-wheel drive car had an engine with a clutch at each end. The first successful transverse-engine cars were the two-cylinder DKW Front series of cars, after the Second World War, SAAB used the configuration in their first model, the Saab 92, in 1947. The arrangement was used for Borgwards Goliath and Hansa brand cars. However, it was with Alec Issigoniss Mini, introduced by the British Motor Corporation in 1959, Issigonis incorporated the cars gearbox into the engines sump, producing a drivetrain unit narrow enough to install transversely in a car only four feet wide. Coupled to the much greater interior space afforded by the layout this made the Mini a genuine alternative to the small family car. This design reached its ultimate extent starting with Dante Giacosas elaboration of it for Fiat and he connected the engine to its gearbox by a shaft and set the differential off-center so that it could be connected to the gearbox more easily. The axleshafts from the differential to the wheels therefore differed in length, Giacosas lay-out was first used in the Autobianchi Primula in 1964 and later in the wide-selling Fiat 128. With the gearbox mounted separately to the engine cars were by neccesity larger than the Mini. The Giacosa lay-out also provided superior refinement, easier repair and was better-suited to adopting five-speed transmissions than the original Issigonis in-sump design, now most small and small/medium-sized cars built throughout the world use this arrangement. The Lamborghini Miura used a transverse, mid-mounted 4 and this has also allowed for improved safety in a frontal impact, due to more front to back engine compartment space being created. The result is a front crumple zone. Transverse engines have also widely used in buses. In the United States they were offered in the early 1930s by Twin Coach and they were also used in the British Leyland Atlantean and in many transit buses and nearly all modern double decker buses. They have also widely used by Scania, MAN, Volvo. Motorcycles with a V-twin engine mounted with its crankshaft mounted in line with the frame, most Ducatis since the 1970s and most Harley-Davidsons, are said to have longitudinal engines. This convention uses the longest horizontal dimension of the engine as its axis instead of the line of the crankshaft, modern Motorcycle Technology, How Every Part of Your Motorcycle Works
Transverse engine
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Transversely mounted engine in
Toyota Corolla EE80
Transverse engine
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Transversely mounted engine in Mini Cooper
Transverse engine
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The engine in this Moto Guzzi motorcycle is described as "transverse" even though the crankshaft is in line with the frame.
8.
Front-engine design
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era
Front-engine design
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Front-engine position
9.
Front-wheel drive
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Front-wheel drive is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature an engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel-drive. Rear-engined layouts are possible, but rare, according to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the worlds first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, in 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front-wheel-drive system for motorising horse-drawn carts. In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination and it was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering and it also known as the Eureka. By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall, in October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/h. In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres non-stop at 29 km/h, when production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs each. J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car and he promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, the next successful application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28,1925, however, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside of the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton, neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a commercial model of the Alvis 12/50 in 1928. The first successful consumer application came in 1929, the BSA produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available, in 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes, other German car producers followed, Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France, the Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, another result of this design is a lengthened chassis
Front-wheel drive
–
A classic front-wheel-drive car, the
Citroën Traction Avant
Front-wheel drive
–
1898-1901 Victoria Combination
Front-wheel drive
Front-wheel drive
–
1925 Miller 122 Indianapolis 500 front-wheel-drive racer
10.
Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)
–
Quattro is the sub-brand used by the car brand Audi AG to indicate that all-wheel drive technologies or systems are used on specific models of its Audi automobiles. It is also Audis actual performance division alongside S and RS The word quattro is a trademark of Audi AG. Quattro was first introduced in 1980 on the permanent four wheel drive Audi Quattro model, the term quattro has since been applied to all subsequent Audi AWD models. Due to the rights derived from the trademark, the word quattro is now always spelled with a lower case q. Other companies in the Volkswagen Group have used different trademarks for their 4WD vehicles, while Audi has always used the term quattro, Volkswagen-branded cars initially used syncro, but more recently, VW uses 4motion. Škoda simply uses the nomenclature 4x4 after the name, whereas SEAT uses merely 4. None of the above trademarks or nomenclatures defines the operation or type of 4WD system, Volkswagen Group has been developing four-wheel drive systems almost since its inception during the Second World War. Their military, and four wheel drive experiences later aided them in designing the Volkswagen Iltis for the German military in the 1970s, the Iltis utilized an early form of 4WD, which would later become synonymous with quattro. In that original system, later found in road-going passenger cars. Torque is sent through the transmission to a centre differential which apportions the torque between front and rear driven axles. After 1987, Audi replaced a manually locking centre differential with the Torsen Type 1 centre differential and this allowed engine torque to be automatically directed to individual axles as driving conditions, and grip warranted. Under normal conditions, torque is split between front and rear with a default 50,50 distribution in many, though not all, in adverse conditions, a maximum of 67-80% of the engines torque can be directed to the front or rear axles. This method of operation can be described as proactive, the Torsen-based quattro system also offers an advantage, in the opposite function of distributing torque to the road wheels, namely engine braking. This allows the spreading of the braking effect to all four wheels. The Torsen-based quattro-equipped vehicle is able to execute a more stable high-speed turn under deceleration and this allows for a better weight distribution of 55,45. Hence by nature the Torsen is limited in the amount of torque that can be supplied to the axle with the most grip by the available at the axle with the least amount of grip. Therefore, if one axle has no grip, regardless of the TBR, in the extreme, for a centre differential implementation, complete loss of traction on a single wheel will result in very limited torque to the other three wheels. EDL was implemented across both front and rear differentials to operate at speeds <80 km/h and this has the effect of increasing torque from a single low-traction wheel hence allowing more torque to be passed by the Torsen to the remaining high-traction wheels
Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)
–
"quattro"
logo badge on the front
grille of an
Audi car
Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)
–
Audi quattro
Torsen centre
differential
Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)
–
Audi quattro Crown Gear centre
differential
11.
Four-wheel drive
–
Four-wheel drive, 4×4, and 4WD, is a form of drivetrain capable of providing power to all wheel ends of a two-axled vehicle simultaneously. It may be full-time, or on-demand, and is linked via a transfer case which provides an additional output drive-shaft. When a four-wheeled vehicle has power supplied to axles, this is described as all-wheel drive. However, four-wheel drive typically refers to a set of components and functions, and/or intended offroad application. 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures, the terms used by various manufactures often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. Four-by-four refers to the class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels, and the second, syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine power to only two axle-ends, the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which power to two wheel ends each. Four wheel drive refers to vehicles with two axles providing power to four wheel ends, in the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term 4WD is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All wheel drive historically was synonymous with four-wheel drive on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use, some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, individual-wheel drive was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available power to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and this can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners. The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels, for example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD. Two wheels fixed to the same turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves
Four-wheel drive
–
The
Jeep Wrangler is a 4WD vehicle with a transfer case to select low range or high range four-wheel drive
Four-wheel drive
–
The
Lamborghini Murciélago is an AWD that powers the front via a
viscous coupling unit if the rear slips.
Four-wheel drive
–
The
HMMWV is a 4WD/AWD that powers all wheels evenly (continuously) via a manually lockable center differential, with
Torsen differentials for both front and rear.
Four-wheel drive
–
The 1903 Spyker 60 H.P. 4WD
12.
Automobile platform
–
It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias
Automobile platform
–
Identical platform 2007 model year 4-door sedans: Toyota Camry and Lexus ES
Automobile platform
Automobile platform
–
Ford Ka
Automobile platform
–
Fiat Panda
13.
Volkswagen Group A platform
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The Volkswagen Group A platform is an automobile platform shared among compact and mid-size cars of the Volkswagen Group. It was originally based on the concept of the Volkswagen Golf Mk1. Volkswagens based on this platform have been referred to by generation number, often Mk* is substituted for A*, but this can be misleading, For example, the Mk1 and Mk2 Sciroccos are both based on the A1 platform. Under Volkswagens revised platform naming system, the A4 platform is now known as the PQ34 platform, for the first time, a fully independent suspension front and rear will be present in all A platform vehicles. There is also a version of this platform for B-class cars called PQ46. PQ35 is intended for vehicles, and PQ46 is an enlarged version for mid-size vehicles. A common misconception is that the PQ46 generation of the Passat is based on the B6 platform, however, this transverse engined Passat has little in common with the longitudinal engined B6 Audi A4
Volkswagen Group A platform
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Ownership
14.
Volkswagen Group MQB platform
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The Volkswagen Group MQB platform is the companys strategy for shared modular construction of its transverse, front-engined, front-wheel drive automobiles. Volkswagen spent roughly $60bn developing this new platform and cars built upon it, the platform underpins a wide range of cars from the supermini class to the full size SUV class. MQB allows Volkswagen to assemble any of its cars based on this platform across all of its MQB ready factories and this allows the Volkswagen group flexibility to shift production as needed between its different factories. MQB is one strategy within VWs overall MB program which includes the similar MLB strategy for vehicles with longitudinal engine orientation. Thus MQB uses a matrix of components across a wide variety of platforms — for example. As well as reducing weight, the concept allows diverse models, including those from the various brands, to be manufactured at the same plant. Ulrich Hackenberg, chief of Volkswagen’s Research and Development, called MB a strategic weapon, british magazine Car said the idea heralds a return to basic principles of mass production in an industry where over the last 100 years, complexity has spiralled out of control. By creating a standardised, interchangeable set of parts from which to build a variety of cars, around 60% of the development costs occur between gas pedal and front wheels, including the engine. MQB models may range from superminis to large cars, replacing the current generations of models. The MQB architecture replaces the PQ25, PQ35 and PQ46 platforms, all MQB cars will share the same front axle, pedal box and engine positioning, despite varying wheelbase, track and external dimensions. Body styles, 3-door hatchback 4-door saloon 5-door hatchback 5-door coupe/liftback 5-door station wagon convertible roadster 5-door MPV 5-door SUV/Crossover Panel van
Volkswagen Group MQB platform
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"MQB Bodengruppe" Volkswagen MQB floor assembly on display at the 2012
Hannover Messe.
15.
Audi TT
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This changed with the third generation model that uses parts made entirely by the Hungarian factory. For each of its three generations, the TT has been available as a 2+2 Coupé and as a two-seater roadster employing consecutive generations of the Volkswagen Group A platform, the styling of the Audi TT began in the spring of 1994 at the Volkswagen Group Design Center in California. The TT was first shown as a car at the 1995 Frankfurt Motor Show. The design is credited to J Mays and Freeman Thomas, with Hartmut Warkuss, Peter Schreyer, Martin Smith, a previously unused laser beam welding adaptation, which enabled seamless design features on the first-generation TT, delayed its introduction. Audi did not initially offer any type of automatic transmission option for the TT, the Audi TT takes its name from the successful motor racing tradition of NSU in the British Isle of Man TT motorcycle race. NSU began competing in the TT in 1911, and later merged into the now known as Audi. The Audi TT also follows the NSU 1000TT, 1200TT and TTS cars of the 1960s in taking their names from the race, the TT name has also been attributed to the phrase Technology & Tradition. The production model was launched as a Coupé in September 1998 and it is based on the Volkswagen Group A4 platform as used for the Volkswagen Golf Mk4, the original Audi A3, the Škoda Octavia, and others. The styling differed little from the concept, except for slightly reprofiled bumpers, both the Coupé and Roadster models were recalled in late 1999/early 2000, to improve predictability of the cars handling at very high speeds. Audis Electronic Stability Programme, or Anti Slip Regulation and rear spoiler were added, all changes were subsequently incorporated into future series production versions of the car. The original generation Audi TT was nominated for the North American Car of the Year award for 2000 and it was also on Car and Driver magazines Ten Best list for 2000 and 2001. By 2003 Audi had provided a face-lift to the TT, with a number of small styling, factory production of this generation ended in June 2006. Mechanically, the TT shares an identical powertrain layout with its related Volkswagen Group platform-mates, the TT uses a transversely mounted internal combustion engine, with either front-wheel drive, or quattro on-demand four-wheel drive. It was first available with a 1. 8-litre inline four-cylinder 20-valve turbocharged engine in two states of DIN-rated power outputs,180 PS and 225 PS. Haldex Traction enabled four-wheel drive, branded as Quattro was optional on the 180 engine, the original four-cylinder engine range was complemented with a 250 PS3. 2-litre VR6 engine in early 2003, which came as standard with the quattro four-wheel-drive system. In July 2003, a new six-speed dual clutch transmission – dubbed the Direct-Shift Gearbox, in 2005, Audi released the Coupé-only limited edition Audi TT quattro Sport. Built by AUDI AG high-performance specialist subsidiary quattro GmbH, it had increased power from its 1.9 seconds, and this weight reduction was achieved by removing the spare wheel, rear counterweight, rear parcel shelf and rear seats, and the standard fitment air conditioning. The main battery was relocated to the rear of the vehicle in order to maintain weight distribution as much as possible
Audi TT
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Audi TT Coupé
Audi TT
Audi TT
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Audi TT (8N)
Audi TT
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Facelift Audi TT 1.8 T coupe, Australia
16.
Volkswagen Golf
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The original Golf Mk1 was a front-wheel drive, front-engined replacement for the air-cooled, rear-engined, rear-wheel drive Volkswagen Beetle. Historically, the Golf is Volkswagens best-selling model and the worlds second best-selling model, initially, most Golf production was in the 3-door hatchback style. Other variants include a 5-door hatchback, station wagon, convertible, the cars have filled many market segments, from basic a personal car, to high-performance hot hatches. The Volkswagen Golf has won awards throughout its history. The Volkswagen Golf won the World Car of the Year in 2009, with the Volkswagen Golf Mk6 and in 2013 with the Volkswagen Golf Mk7. The Golf is one of three cars, the others being the Renault Clio and Opel/Vauxhall Astra, to have been voted European Car of the Year twice. The Volkswagen Golf has made the Car and Driver annual 10 Best list multiple times, later Golf variations included the Golf GTI hot hatch, a diesel-powered version, the Jetta notchback saloon version, the Volkswagen Golf Cabriolet and a Golf-based pickup, the Volkswagen Caddy. The Golf Mk1 was sold as the Volkswagen Rabbit in the United States and Canada, a facelifted version of the Golf Mk1 was produced in South Africa as the Citi Golf from 1984 to 2009. Although it was available on the market and indeed most other left-hand drive markets by the end of 1983. The Mk2 GTI featured a 1. 8-litre 8-valve fuel-injected engine from its launch, a Mk2-based second generation Jetta was unveiled in January 1984. There was no Mk2-based cabriolet model, instead, the Mk1 Cabriolet was continued over the Mk2s entire production run, the third-generation Golf made its home-market début in August 1991 and again grew slightly in comparison with its immediate predecessor, while its wheelbase remained unchanged. New engines included the first Turbocharged Direct Injection diesel engine in a Golf, US Environmental Protection Agency fuel consumption estimates are 9.0 L/100 km and 7.4 L/100 km, with 420 km per tank and 584 km per tank. For the first time ever, a Golf estate joined the line-up in September 1993, at the same time, a completely new Mk3-derived Cabriolet was introduced, replacing the 13-year-old Mk1-based version with a body style similar to that of the Mk3 Golf from 1994 to early 1999. The Mk3 Golf Cabrio received a Mk4-style facelift for the late 1999 model and was continued until 2002, the notchback version, called VW Vento, was presented in January 1992. It was European Car of the Year for 1992, ahead of the new Citroën ZX, the Mk3 continued to be sold until 1999 in the United States, Canada and parts of South America, also in Mexico as a special edition called Mi. The i in Mi is coloured red, which designates that multi-point fuel injection was equipped and the 1. 8-litre engine was upgraded to 2. 0-litres. Mk2 badges included, GL, CL, GLI, GTI, G60, VR6, 8V, the Golf Mk4 was first introduced in August 1997, followed by a notchback version in August 1998 and a new Golf Variant in March 1999. There was no Mk4-derived Cabriolet, although the Mk3 Cabriolet received a facelift in late 1999 that consisted of bumpers, grill, as with the earlier three versions of the Golf, the UK market received each version several months later than the rest of Europe
Volkswagen Golf
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Volkswagen Golf
Volkswagen Golf
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Volkswagen Golf Mk1 (17)
Volkswagen Golf
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Volkswagen Golf 2-door (Europe)
Volkswagen Golf
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Volkswagen Golf Mk2 (1G)
17.
Volkswagen Caddy
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The Volkswagen Caddy is a leisure activity vehicle produced by the Volkswagen Group since 1980. It is sold in Europe and in markets around the world. The Volkswagen Caddy was first introduced in North America in 1980, the second generation also had a pick-up variant. The following vehicles are related to the Volkswagen Caddy and are manufactured by the Volkswagen Group. Volkswagen Typ is,147 = LHD148 = RHD The Caddy came into fruition when Volkswagen was experimenting with Golf derivatives, an estate, trim levels such as LX and Sportruck were available. In North America the Caddy came with 2 engine choices, the 1. 5L diesel and the 1. 7L petrol. One unique feature of the diesel was that it came with a 5 speed gearbox, the Caddy actually wasnt called Caddy until 1982 when it was released in Europe. The Volkswagen Rabbit Pickup competed with other utilities such as the Ford Courier. The Caddy nameplate was never used in North America and its first use was in Europe in 1982, when the Caddy came to Europe. European Caddys were built in Volkswagens plant TAS in Sarajevo, Bosnia, the original Caddy was produced in South Africa until 2007, alongside the first generation Golf itself. The stamping equipment was shipped from the plant in Westmoreland for both models. It was built in Spain, at the Martorell factory of SEAT and its twin, the SEAT Inca, was quickly phased out when the SEAT marque was re-aligned as the sporty branch of the Volkswagen Group. It is still in production in Argentina for the Latin American market and it received a cosmetic facelift in 2005, similar to the post-1999 Volkswagen Polo Mk3. Features length 4.2 m loading area 2.6 m2 loading volume of 2, sensors monitor wheel speeds, and if one is rotating substantially faster than the other, the EDL system momentarily brakes it. This effectively transfers all the power to the other wheel, 1996–2003 MY Engines Released in 1996 to complement the Typ 9K Caddy range, the rebadged Škoda Felicia Utility was the entry level light commercial vehicle for the VWCV range. The Typ 9U Caddy was built in Škoda Autos Kvasiny, Czech Republic plant, the third generation of Volkswagen Caddy debuted In late 2004 at the RAI Commercial Vehicle Show in Amsterdam, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles debuted the Typ 2K Caddy panel van. The Typ 2K shares 50% of its modules with the Volkswagen Golf Mk5, the new model Caddy has a more aerodynamic design, the angle of the windscreen and A-pillar is more horizontal, making the dashboard bigger and the bonnet smaller. The full Caddy line-up is pretty versatile, there are two body sizes, normal and Maxi
Volkswagen Caddy
–
A Caddy Typ 2K with 2010 facelift
Volkswagen Caddy
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First generation
Volkswagen Caddy
Volkswagen Caddy
18.
Volkswagen Touran
–
The Volkswagen Touran is a compact MPV based on a vertically stretched fifth generation Volkswagen Golf Mk5, and sold in Europe and other select markets. It was launched in 2003 to fill a gap in Volkswagens model lineup, the vehicle is delivered in five- or seven-seat versions. It can be considered a version of the Golf Plus, since their front ends are similar in size. In some regions, such as Japan, the car is called Golf Touran, the name Touran derives from the combination of Tour and Sharan, the bigger MPV by VW. Despite the similarity of their names, the Touran is not related to the North American-market Volkswagen Routan, the Touran, launched in 2003, is the first Volkswagen MPV based on a Golf platform. It joined Volkswagens existing MPV line-up that included the Sharan and Caravelle, the Touran introduced electro-mechanical steering, a first in its class and for Volkswagen. It is able to vary the weight of the steering depending on the road speed, due to the lack of energy consumption in idle it also improves the overall efficiency of the vehicle. The Touran was the first vehicle to use Volkswagens 2.0 TDI engine, the engines available at the launch included a 1.6 FSI and two diesel engines, the 1.9 TDI with 74 kW and the 2.0 TDI103 kW. The engines are EURO4 compliant, except the 1.9 TDi when paired with the DSG, the Touran launched with a six-speed manual gearbox as standard and a DSG for the 1.9 TDI Engines. The initial test of the Touran in 2003 resulted in a rating for adult protection. Volkswagen made slight changes to the Touran from November 2003, adding an intelligent reminder for the driver, the 2007 model year Touran was the first production vehicle in the Volkswagen Group to be released with the new Park Assist technology. Park Assist helps the driver parallel park the vehicle, firstly, after having activated the feature and whilst travelling up to 30 km/h Park Assist uses sensors to attempt to identify a suitable parking spot. At the December 2006 Bologna Motor Show, Volkswagen released the third Cross vehicle designed by Volkswagen Individual GmbH, all CrossTouran engines are EU4 compliant. The aerodynamics of the car were also improved, the Cw improved from 0, at the end of 2010 Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive released the new Touran in China. Though its front was updated to the German style, the keeps the design of the phase II model. The electronic systems of this domestically produced car were upgraded as its relative in Europe, a 1.4 TSI which can output 93 kW was added to the new model. New engines were available following the trend, a 1.2 with 77 kW. They replaced the 1.6 and 1.9 TDI from the previous model, the 1.2,77 kW and 1.6 TDI77 kW were also available as BlueMotion, Volkswagens low fuel consumption vehicle program
Volkswagen Touran
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Volkswagen Touran
Volkswagen Touran
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Front
Volkswagen Touran
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Rear
Volkswagen Touran
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VW Touran Facelift front
19.
SEAT Toledo
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The SEAT Toledo is a small family car produced by the Spanish manufacturer SEAT, part of Volkswagen Group. The Toledo name was first introduced to the SEAT line-up in May 1991, with the fourth, the initial version of the SEAT Toledo was launched as a five-door hatchback saloon, and its sales career lasted from 1991 to early 1999. It went on sale in most of Europe in May 1991, though it did not arrive on the British market until October 1991. The Toledo initially featured underpowered engines compared to the Ibiza and Málagas System Porsche units, such as a base 1.6 L75 PS petrol engine, and this model later received a mild facelift in 1996. Sales were not strong however, as has been the case for all the generations of the Toledo, Chery acquired the chassis of the 1993 Toledo from a Mexican dealership after authorisation from SEAT. Chery Cowin, which is based on the SEAT Toledo, already has an authorisation to market it in Europe, along with Russia and South America. Apart from the Chery rebadged models, the first generation Toledo is also built by the Russian car maker TagAZ. Carro do Ano award in 1992, in Portugal The second generation Toledo was introduced in 1998, in Britain, the Toledo may not be considered a notchback saloon. It went on there in March 1999. It shared components with both its Volkswagen and Škoda PQ34 platform-mates - the Volkswagen Bora and the Škoda Octavia - yet is the sportiest of the three, in the interior, the dashboard was derived from that of the first-generation Audi A3. It was built on the Volkswagen Golf Mk4 platform, which meant stiff springs to support the load of the large 500-litre boot increased to 830 litres when folding rear seats. One of the features most associated with the Spanish model, the tailgate was removed in favour of a more traditional 4-door saloon boot opening, the following year, the Toledo would be used as the base for a proper hatchback, the SEAT León Mk1. Base model was now a crossflow 1. 6-litre 100 PS petrol engine, followed by a 1. 8-litre 20-valve 125 PS unit, while the top of the line was represented by the 2. 3-litre 150 PS VR5 engine. Diesel engined versions used the 1.9 Turbocharged Direct Injection engine, with a variable geometry turbocharger, in 2001, the V5 engine was uprated with a 20v head, boosting power to 170 PS. Later in the series, the 1. 8-litre 20-valve Toledo received a turbocharger, capable of delivering 180 PS, and these three versions all featured a six-speed manual transmission. The 130 PS TDI also featured white dials instead of the standard black dials on the 110 and 150 PS TDI models, as in 2005 the ETCC became the World Touring Car Championship, the SEAT Toledo Cupra Mk2 competed in the WTCC from 2005 to 2006. Peter Terting replaced the German Diefenbacher, while Jason Plato also joined the team for four rounds and Marc Carol for one round. Initially the SEAT Sport UK cars were campaigned by RML Group although at the end of the year the partnership was dissolved as RML entered the WTCC, at the wheel were Jason Plato, Rob Huff, James Pickford and Luke Hines
SEAT Toledo
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SEAT Toledo
SEAT Toledo
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SEAT Toledo Mk1 (1L)
SEAT Toledo
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Rear view
SEAT Toledo
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1992 SEAT Toledo Sport
20.
Ingolstadt
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Ingolstadt is a city in the Free State of Bavaria, in the Federal Republic of Germany. It is located along the banks of the River Danube, in the centre of Bavaria, as of 31 December 2014, Ingolstadt had 131,002 citizens. It is part of the Munich Metropolitan Area, which has a population of more than 5 million. The Illuminati, a Bavarian secret society, was founded in Ingolstadt in the late 18th century, Ingolstadt is a setting in the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, where the scientist Victor Frankenstein creates his monster. It is the site of the headquarters of the German automobile manufacturer Audi, defence aircraft manufacturer Airbus, Ingolstadt Central Station has been connected to Nuremberg by a high-speed rail link since May 2006. Ingolstadt also has a passenger station at Ingolstadt Nord. Covering an urban area of 133.35 square kilometres, Ingolstadt is geographically Bavarias fourth-largest city after Munich, at its largest point the city is about 18 km from east to west and from north to south about 15 km. The city boundary has a length of 70 km, the city boundary is about 14 km away from the geographic centre of Bavaria in Kipfenberg. The old town is approximately 374 metres above sea level and the highest point, the lowest point of the Schutter confluence with the Danube is at 362 m above sea level. Ingolstadt uses Central European Time as throughout Germany, the time lag is 14 minutes. The city is expanding at the northern and southern banks of the Danube in a flat bowl. The Ingolstadt basin borders the Jura foothills, located south and is to the north of the Donau-Isar-Hügelland, in the southwest is the Donaumoos while in the east the lowland forests of the Danube reach into the urban area. It is the second largest hardwood floodplain on the Danube, the Sandrach, the former Southern main branch of the Danube, partly forms the Southern city border. In the north, the Schutter flows through from the west reaching the Danube near to the Altstadt, Ingolstadt was first mentioned in a document of Charlemagne on 6 February 806 as Ingoldes stat, the place of Ingold. Circa 1250, Ingolstadt was granted city status, Ingolstadt was the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt between 1392 and 1447. Ingolstadt was then united with Bavaria-Landshut, Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria ordered the building of the New Castle, whose form was strongly influenced by French Gothic architecture. In 1472 Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria founded the University of Ingolstadt which became the Ludwig-Maximilians-University, in 1800 it was moved to Landshut and eventually to Munich. The University of Ingolstadt was an important defender of the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation era, Ingolstadt is where William IV, Duke of Bavaria wrote and signed the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot in 1516
Ingolstadt
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Ingolstadt
Ingolstadt
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Old City Hall
Ingolstadt
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Church of Our Lady
Ingolstadt
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The Kreuztor
21.
Curitiba
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Curitiba is the capital and largest city of the Brazilian state of Paraná. The citys population numbered approximately 1,879,355 people as of 2015, making it the eighth most populous city in the country, and the largest in Brazils South Region. The Curitiba Metropolitan area comprises 26 municipalities with a population of over 3.2 million. Curitiba is an important cultural, political, and economic centre in Latin America, the city sits on a plateau at 932 metres above sea level. It is located 105 kilometres west of the seaport of Paranaguá and is served by the Afonso Pena International, the city hosts the Federal University of Paraná, established in 1912. In the 1700s Curitiba possessed a favorable location between cattle-breeding country and marketplaces, leading to a successful trade and the citys first major expansion. Later, between 1850 and 1950, it grew due to logging and agricultural expansion in the Paraná State, in the 1850s waves of European immigrants arrived in Curitiba, mainly Germans, Italians, Poles and Ukrainians, contributing to the citys economic and cultural development. Nowadays, only numbers of foreign immigrants arrive, primarily from Middle Eastern. The biggest expansion occurred after the 1960s, with urban planning that changed the population size from some hundreds of thousands to more than a million people. Curitibas economy is based on industry and services and is the fourth largest in Brazil, economic growth occurred in parallel to a substantial inward flow of Brazilians from other cities of the country, as approximately half of the citys population was not born in Curitiba. According to US magazine Readers Digest, Curitiba is the best Brazilian Big City in which to live. One theory is that the name Curitiba comes from the Tupi words kurí tyba, another version, also using words from the Tupi language, is that it originates in the combination of kurit and yba. The Portuguese who founded a settlement on the site in 1693 named it Vila da Nossa Senhora da Luz dos Pinhais, the name was changed to Curitiba in 1721. Curitiba officially became a town in 1812, spelling its name as Curityba and this was used in press and state documents. A state decree in 1919 settled the dispute by adopting Curitiba, as of 2013 the mayor was Gustavo Fruet, who replaced Luciano Ducci. The City Council of Curitiba has 38 councillors elected since 2004, Curitiba is divided into nine regional governments, who manage the municipalitys 75 districts. The Rua da Cidadania is the symbol of administrative decentralization, it is a reference point, several units are annexed to public transport terminals. Their nuclei offer services in the local, state and federal areas, Jaime Lerner is perhaps Curitibas best-known mayor
Curitiba
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From the top, clokside: Curitiba skyline from Barigui Park; 24 Hours Street; Paço da Liberdade;
The Botanical Garden of Curitiba, Oscar Niemeyer Museum; Palace Avenue building.
Curitiba
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Aerial view of Batel and Água Verde neighbourhoods
Curitiba
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The Curitiba City Hall
Curitiba
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Map of Curitiba in 1894 (Portuguese edition).
22.
Audi Senna
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The Audi Senna Ltda. is a joint venture of the German Audi AG with the Brazilian company Senna Import Participações Ltda. The plant is known as Audi do Brasil and is an official part of Volkswagen do Brasil Ltda. since March 2005. The joint venture was founded on 18 November 1993 in Ingolstadt, ayrton Senna was one of the negotiators. Since March 2005 the company is a subsidiary of the Audi concern, official website of Audi Senna Ltda. and Audi Brasil Distribuidora de Veículos Ltda
Audi Senna
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Audi A3 1999–2006
Audi Senna
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Volkswagen Golf 1999–2006
Audi Senna
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Volkswagen Fox since 2003
Audi Senna
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Volkswagen Golf 2006–2009 Export version
23.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
Automotive design
–
Designers at work in 1961. Standing by the scale model's left front fender is
Richard Teague, an automobile designer at
American Motors Corporation (AMC)
Automotive design
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A Bertone Birusa concept car on display at an International Car Show. In the Background are some concept sketches
Automotive design
–
Draft of
OScar design proposal
Automotive design
–
A futuristic original sketch for
Ferrari Modulo 512-S by Paul Martin in 1967. There are already many features of the final concept, including the reduced height, wheels coved for low drag and the characteristic entry system.
24.
Dirk van Braeckel
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Dirk van Braeckel, is a Belgian car designer. He is known for the designing of various models for Volkswagen Group, born in Deinze, after leaving school, van Braeckel studied electrical engineering, before joining Ford as an apprentice car designer in Cologne, West Germany. Ford then agreed to sponsor him undertake a degree in car design at the Royal College of Art, on graduation, he joined Audi in 1984, working on external design including the Audi A8 concept and Audi A3. After Volkswagen purchased Bentley in 1998 from Vickers plc, van Braeckel joined the British-based company in August 1999 as Director of Design & Styling and his brief was to create a second-car line that could sell in higher volumes than the $240,000 Bentley Arnage car. Van Braeckel created the Bentley Continental GT, which in 2004 sold 5,983 units, exceeding forecasts by 62%, in 2008, van Braeckel was awarded the European Automotive Design Award by Designers
Dirk van Braeckel
–
Bentley Continental GT
25.
Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger vs. cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design, while early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970. The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, Hatchbacks may be described as three-door or five-door cars. A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2001–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon, the models typically share a platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. Hatchbacks may have a rigid parcel shelf, liftable with the tailgate. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically feature a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers, further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C pillars, station wagons more likely also feature a D pillar. Cargo volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume, with alongside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks have one or two rows of seats. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons also have numerous tailgate configurations. Typically, a hatch or liftgate does not extend down to the bumper. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a liftback is a broad marketing term for a hatchback where the rear cargo door is more horizontal than vertical, with a sharply raked or fastback profile. In comparison with the hatchback the back opening area is sloped and longer and is lifted up to open. Liftback and fastback are often misused, a fastback is described as a hatchback where the rear cargo door flows down continuously from the roof of the car and most of the time is not as raked as the liftback. In 1946, DeSoto marketed the Suburban as a station wagon, in 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. Although these were styled much like the typical 1940s sedan, they incorporated an innovative split rear tailgate, folding rear seats, the design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, 8-foot long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have described as America’s First Hatchback. In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a rear tailgate
Hatchback
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Volkswagen Polo Mk 1 hatchback
Hatchback
–
Typical
pillar configurations of a sedan or saloon
(three box), station wagon or estate
(two box) and hatchback
(two box) from the same
model range (
Ford Focus)
Hatchback
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Liftback – The 4th generation
Toyota Celica, 2.0 SX (ST162)
Hatchback
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Citroën Traction Avant c. 1954
26.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
Engine
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A V6
internal combustion engine from a
Mercedes car
Engine
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Two 1949 photographs pertaining the
straight-eight engine of a
Rolls-Royce Phantom IV.
Engine
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Boulton & Watt engine of 1788
27.
Multi-valve
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In automotive engineering a multi-valve or multivalve engine is one where each cylinder has more than two valves. A multi-valve engine has better breathing and may be able to operate at higher revolutions per minute than a two-valve engine, a multi-valve engine design typically has three, four, or five valves per cylinder to achieve improved performance. Any four-stroke internal combustion engine needs at least two valves per cylinder, one for intake of air and fuel, and another for exhaust of combustion gases. Adding more valves increases valve area and improves the flow of intake and exhaust gases, thereby enhancing combustion, volumetric efficiency, multi-valve geometry allows the spark plug to be ideally located within the combustion chamber for optimal flame propagation. Multi-valve engines tend to have smaller valves that have lower reciprocating mass, which can wear on each cam lobe. Some engines are designed to each intake valve at a slightly different time. More valves also provide additional cooling to the cylinder head, the disadvantages of multi-valve engines are an increase in manufacturing cost and a potential increase in oil consumption due to the greater number of valve stem seals. Some SOHC multi-valve engines use a single fork-shaped rocker arm to drive two valves so that fewer cam lobes will be needed in order to reduce manufacturing costs, three-valve cylinder head This has a single large exhaust valve and two smaller intake valves. A three-valve layout allows better breathing than a head. The manufacturing cost for this design can be lower than for a four-valve design, the three-valve design was common in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and from 2004 the main valve arrangement used in Ford F-Series trucks, and Ford SUVs. Four-valve cylinder head This is the most common type of multi-valve head and this design allows similar breathing as compared to a three-valve head, and as the small exhaust valves allow high RPM, this design is very suitable for high power outputs. Five-valve cylinder head Less common is the head, with two exhaust valves and three inlet valves. All five valves are similar in size and this design allows excellent breathing, and, as every valve is small, high RPM and very high power outputs are theoretically available. After making five-valve Genesis engines for several years, Yamaha has reverted to the cheaper four-valve design, beyond five valves For a cylindrical bore and equal-area sized valves, increasing the number of valves beyond five decreases the total valve area. The following table shows the areas of differing valve quantities as proportion of cylinder bore. These percentages are based on geometry and do not take into account orifices for spark plugs or injectors. Also, in practice, exhaust valves are larger than intake in heads with an even number of valves-per-cylinder. The same applies to variable valve timing and variable intake manifolds, rotary valves also offer improved engine breathing and high rev performance but these were never very successful
Multi-valve
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A
cylinder head of a four
valve engine. (
Nissan VQ engine)
Multi-valve
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Cutaway model of Subaru's
i-AVLS variable valve timing system on SOHC 4-valve-per-cylinder
EJ25 boxer engine at Tokyo Motor Show 2007.
Multi-valve
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Combustion chamber of a 2009
Ford Ecoboost 3.5-liter turbocharged V6 petrol engine (77.8 kW/liter) showing two intake valves (right), two exhaust valves (left), centrally placed spark plug, and
direct fuel injector (right).
Multi-valve
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A
cylinder head from a 1987
Honda CRX Si showing SOHC, rocker arms, valve springs, and other components. This is a multi-valve configuration with two intake valves and one exhaust valve for each cylinder.
28.
List of Volkswagen Group petrol engines
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List of Volkswagen Group petrol engines. All listed engines operate on the cycle, and unless stated otherwise, use a wet sump lubrication system. Since the Volkswagen Group is European, official internal combustion engine performance ratings are published using the International System of Units, Motor vehicle engines will have been tested by a Deutsches Institut für Normung accredited testing facility, to either the original 80/1269/EEC, or the later 1999/99/EC standards. In case of conflict, the power figure of kilowatts will be stated as the primary figure of reference. For the turning force generated by the engine, the Newton metre will be the figure of torque. The petrol engines which Volkswagen Group previously manufactured and installed are in the list of discontinued Volkswagen Group petrol engines article, the EA111 series of internal combustion engines was introduced in the mid-1970s in the Audi 50, and shortly after in the original Volkswagen Polo. It is a series of water-cooled inline three- and inline four-cylinder petrol and diesel engines and this overhead camshaft engine features a crossflow cylinder head design. The camshaft is driven by a belt from the crankshaft. Other V belt driven accessories are the cooling pump, alternator. The EA211 engines are a completely new four-cylinder turbocharged and direct-injection TSI engines, compared to its predecessor, the EA211 series is significantly more compact, with installation length 50 mm shorter, thus offering more interior space. The installation position of the engines has also been optimised, just as in the diesels, the petrol engines are now mounted with the exhaust side facing backwards and tilted at an angle of 12 degrees. The weight of these engines made of die-cast aluminium is only 97 kg for the 1.2 TSI and 106 kg for the 1.4 TSI. The crankshaft alone became lighter by 20 per cent, the connecting rods lost 30 per cent of their weight, in addition the connecting rod bearing journals are now hollow-drilled and pistons now come with flat bottoms, all of them optimized for lower weight. Regarding thermal management, the EA211 petrol engine is equipped with a modern dual-circuit cooling system and that means that a high temperature circuit with a mechanically driven cooling pump cools the basic engine, while a low temperature circuit flows through the intercooler and the turbo-charger casing. The cylinder-head circuit heats the cabins interior, the exhaust manifold is integrated into the cylinder head, enabling the engine to warm up more quickly, in turn making heat available quickly for the passenger cabin. At high loads, the exhaust is cooled by the coolant, the EA888 engines are a family of four cylinder engines that are currently in use across the Volkswagen Group. The port fuel injection also aids in reducing the carbon deposits that can occur in direct injected engines. As of 2016, the injection system has not been offered in North American markets
List of Volkswagen Group petrol engines
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Volkswagen TSI engine
List of Volkswagen Group petrol engines
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The 4.2 FSI V8 as installed in the
Audi R8
List of Volkswagen Group petrol engines
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Volkswagen Group W12 engine from the
Volkswagen Phaeton
29.
List of Volkswagen Group diesel engines
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List of Volkswagen Group diesel engines. All listed engines operate on the cycle, and unless stated otherwise, use a wet sump lubrication system. Since the Volkswagen Group is European, official internal combustion engine performance ratings are published using the International System of Units, Motor vehicle engines will have been tested by a Deutsches Institut für Normung accredited testing facility, to either the original 80/1269/EEC, or the later 1999/99/EC standards. In case of conflict, the power figure of kilowatts will be stated as the primary figure of reference. For the turning force generated by the engine, the Newton metre will be the figure of torque. Engines shall be listed in the ascending order. Number of cylinders, Engine displacement, Engine configuration, and Rated motive power output, the Diesel engines which Volkswagen Group previously manufactured and installed are in the list of discontinued Volkswagen Group diesel engines article. The EA111 series of internal combustion engines was introduced in the mid-1970s in the Audi 50 and it is a series of water-cooled inline three- and inline four-cylinder petrol and Diesel engines, in a variety of displacement sizes. This overhead camshaft engine features a cylinder head design. The exhaust side is in driving direction, closest to the front of the vehicle, EA288 engine family is based on EA189 engine family. EA288 diesel shares displacement, cylinder spacing, stroke and bore ratio with the EA189, euro 6 and US Tier 2 emission compliance is achieved via NOx adsorber-based system for smaller size vehicles or urea-SCR system for larger vehicles. Other features included low-friction bearings for the camshaft and balancer shafts, piston rings that have less pre-tension, the engines displacement was between 1. 6L and 2. 0L, with power output between 66 and 140 kW. The engine was to be first used in 2015 model years of Volkswagen Golf, Volkswagen Beetle, Volkswagen Beetle Convertible, Volkswagen Passat, and Volkswagen Jetta. Origins Motor type, EA189 / All R31199 ccm three cylinder engines are derived from the R41598 ccm 4 cylinder engine, VW just cut off one 399,5 ccm cylinder, retrieved 26 January 2010. was winner of the 1. 0-litre to 1. Essentially, this engine has the same bottom end as the earlier 1.9 R4 TDI which uses a VP37 VerteilerPumpe distributor injection pump. However, a new head is fitted to this PD engine. Origins Motor type, EA188 / All R41968 ccm four cylinder engines are derived from the R52461 ccm 5 cylinder Audi- engine, VW just cut off one 492,1 ccm cylinder. The new TDI2.0 Industrial Engines, mi-uk. com, Volkswagen AG, April 2007, according to Audi TDV stands for Technology Development Vehicle
List of Volkswagen Group diesel engines
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Volkswagen Marine 3.0-litre V6 TDI 265-6
marine engine. This is a
marine-modified version of the 3.0 V6 24v TDI CR automobile engine.
List of Volkswagen Group diesel engines
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Scania V8 16-litre marine engine with reverse.
List of Volkswagen Group diesel engines
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Front view of the installed V12 TDI engine in the
Audi Q7 V12 TDI quattro
30.
Turbocharged Direct Injection
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Turbocharged direct injection or TDI is a design of turbodiesel engines featuring turbocharging and cylinder-direct fuel injection that was developed and produced by the Volkswagen Group. These TDI engines are used in all mainstream Volkswagen Group marques of passenger cars. They are also used as marine engines in Volkswagen Marine and Volkswagen Industrial Motor applications, the emissions controls were suppressed otherwise, allowing the TDI engines to exceed legal limits on emissions. VW has admitted to using the device in its TDI diesel cars. In many countries, TDI is a trademark of Volkswagen AG. The TDI designation has also used on vehicles powered by Land Rover-designed diesel engines. These are unrelated to Volkswagen Group engines, similar technology has been used by other automotive companies, but TDI specifically refers to these Volkswagen Group engines. Naturally aspirated direct-injection diesel engines made by Volkswagen Group use the Suction Diesel Injection label, because these engines are relatively low displacement and quite compact, they have a low surface area. The resulting reduced surface area of the direct injection diesel engine reduces heat losses, a direct injection engine is also easier to start when cold, because of more efficient placing and usage of glowplugs. Direct injection turbodiesel engines are frequent winners of prizes in the International Engine of the Year Awards. In 1999 in particular, six out of categories were won by direct injection engines. Notably that year, the Volkswagen Group 1.2 TDI3 L beat the Toyota Prius to win Best Fuel Economy in its class, the TDI engine has won Green Car of the Year award in the years 2009 and 2010 beating other various electric cars. It was also sold in form by Volvo. It used a Bosch VE injection pump, the engine had been launched in naturally aspirated form for commercial vehicles in 1986. There have been a few generations, starting with what are known as VE, and VP engines. In 2000, the Pumpe Düse TDI engine began to appear in Europe, some current PD TDI engines now use piezoelectric unit injectors, allowing far greater control of injection timing and fuel delivery. From the 2009 model year onwards, TDI engines using the common rail technique, again with piezoelectric injectors, are now used in various Volkswagen Group models. The CR engines are available in sizes, including 1.2,1.6,2.0,2.7,3.0,4.2 and 6.0 litres
Turbocharged Direct Injection
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TDI badge
Turbocharged Direct Injection
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TDI embossed on the engine cover
Turbocharged Direct Injection
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Volkswagen Marine 3.0 litre V6 TDI 265-6 marine engine
Turbocharged Direct Injection
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Volkswagen Group products which feature a TDI engine display a TDI badge
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