1.
Audi
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Audi is a German automobile manufacturer that designs, engineers, produces, markets and distributes luxury vehicles. Audi is a member of the Volkswagen Group and has its roots at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, audi-branded vehicles are produced in nine production facilities worldwide. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz. After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, the company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. Horch, meaning listen in German, becomes audi in Latin, the four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audis predecessor company, Auto Union. Audis slogan is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning Advancement through Technology, however, since 2007 Audi USA has used the slogan Truth in Engineering. Audi, along with BMW and Mercedes are among the luxury automobile brands in the world. Originally in 1885, automobile company Wanderer was established, later becoming a branch of Audi AG, another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimlers four-wheeler. On 14 November 1899, August Horch established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne, three years later in 1902 he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On May, 10th,1904 he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, after troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement, the German Reichsgericht in Leipzig, eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. Since August Horch was prohibited from using Horch as a name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company, during this meeting, Franzs son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Horch. in German means Hark. or hear, which is Audi in the imperative form of audire – to listen – in Latin. The idea was accepted by everyone attending the meeting. On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau was entered in the register of Zwickau registration court. The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/22 hp Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year, followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year. Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model and these cars were successful even in sporting events
2.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
3.
Compact executive car
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Compact executive car is a car classification term applied to premium cars smaller than executive cars. In European classification, compact cars are part of the D-segment. In North American terms, close equivalents are compact premium car, compact car, entry-level luxury car. Compact executive cars are available in saloon, estate, coupé. During the late-1960s, buyer preferences fragmented the market, moving to intermediates, personal/specialty, increasing fuel prices and competition pushed AMC to exploit special market segments left untended by the giants. In 1978, AMC introduced its new Concord luxury compact represent an upgraded, more luxurious, more comfortable, more silent, more opulent automobile. On March 31st,2016, Tesla revealed a prototype of the Model 3, an electric compact premium car. Cadillac continued its sales leadership in the market by making changes with the market and introduced the 1982 Cadillac Cimarron. Today, automakers are responding to changes in the marketplace and in the mind-set of consumers looking for status on a budget. Traditional luxury car makers are gearing up to small models that will test whether affluent U. S. car buyers are ready to concede that bigger isnt always better. Facing higher fuel costs and traffic, changes are sweeping through the car market. Two of the earliest European compact executives were created by the Nuffield Organization and introduced in 1952 under the MG, the badge engineered Magnette and 4/44 twins had monocoque construction. Another monocoque compact executive was the Austin Cambridge which was brought to the market in 1954, BMC offered larger Battista Farina designed saloons in 1959, which included the all-new Austin Cambridge Mk. III, Morris Oxford Series V, Riley 4/68-4/72 and Wolseley 15/60-16/60 derivatives, other British compact executive contenders included the 1955 Hillman Minx, Singer Gazelle and sportier Sunbeam Rapier triplets from the Rootes Group. After Leyland bought the Standard-Triumph company, the Standard name was discontinued in 1963 in favour of the more saleable Triumph brand, in 1965 Leyland introduced the Triumph 1300 which was their first front-wheel drive vehicle. This evolved into the Triumph 1500 before being re-engineered for rear-wheel drive for the 1970 Triumph Toledo, the latter was fitted with a 16v, SOHC engine and is considered the worlds first mass-produced multi-valve car. By the time the Austin-Rover group formed in 1983, the Austin Montego - which was available in sporting MG Montego guise - was about to be launched. Like the later Rover 600, Austin marketed the Montego as both a family and a car and correspondingly made it available with luxurious Vanden Plas trim
4.
C-segment
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C-segment is a Euro Car Segment, a car classification loosely defined by the European Commission as the third smallest segment in the European market. Although the definition is vague, there is overlap between segments A-F based on mass and area parameters. In 2011, the C-segment had an EU market share of 23%, the tiny A-segment cars include the Chevy Spark and Smart Fortwo. Theyre extremely short and very light, slightly larger are B-segment cars like the Ford Fiesta and Chevy Sonic. The A- and B-cars are known as subcompacts, in the C-segment — typically called compacts — are the largest of the small cars
5.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
6.
Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era
7.
Front-engine, four-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an F4, or Front-engine, Four-wheel drive layout places the internal combustion engine at the front of the vehicle and drives all four roadwheels. This layout is chosen for better control on many surfaces. Most four-wheel-drive layouts are front-engined and are derivatives of earlier front-engined and this layout is also the drive train of choice for off-road pickup trucks and SUVs. It allows these vehicles to get the most traction without sacrificing precious cargo or passenger room, the center differential is often not present in these vehicles, meaning the 4WD system does not allow any difference in front and rear axle speeds. For normal road driving, these vehicles are shifted into 2WD mode, preventing damage to the transfer case, though full-time systems cannot go to 2WD mode
8.
Quattro (four-wheel-drive system)
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Quattro is the sub-brand used by the car brand Audi AG to indicate that all-wheel drive technologies or systems are used on specific models of its Audi automobiles. It is also Audis actual performance division alongside S and RS The word quattro is a trademark of Audi AG. Quattro was first introduced in 1980 on the permanent four wheel drive Audi Quattro model, the term quattro has since been applied to all subsequent Audi AWD models. Due to the rights derived from the trademark, the word quattro is now always spelled with a lower case q. Other companies in the Volkswagen Group have used different trademarks for their 4WD vehicles, while Audi has always used the term quattro, Volkswagen-branded cars initially used syncro, but more recently, VW uses 4motion. Škoda simply uses the nomenclature 4x4 after the name, whereas SEAT uses merely 4. None of the above trademarks or nomenclatures defines the operation or type of 4WD system, Volkswagen Group has been developing four-wheel drive systems almost since its inception during the Second World War. Their military, and four wheel drive experiences later aided them in designing the Volkswagen Iltis for the German military in the 1970s, the Iltis utilized an early form of 4WD, which would later become synonymous with quattro. In that original system, later found in road-going passenger cars. Torque is sent through the transmission to a centre differential which apportions the torque between front and rear driven axles. After 1987, Audi replaced a manually locking centre differential with the Torsen Type 1 centre differential and this allowed engine torque to be automatically directed to individual axles as driving conditions, and grip warranted. Under normal conditions, torque is split between front and rear with a default 50,50 distribution in many, though not all, in adverse conditions, a maximum of 67-80% of the engines torque can be directed to the front or rear axles. This method of operation can be described as proactive, the Torsen-based quattro system also offers an advantage, in the opposite function of distributing torque to the road wheels, namely engine braking. This allows the spreading of the braking effect to all four wheels. The Torsen-based quattro-equipped vehicle is able to execute a more stable high-speed turn under deceleration and this allows for a better weight distribution of 55,45. Hence by nature the Torsen is limited in the amount of torque that can be supplied to the axle with the most grip by the available at the axle with the least amount of grip. Therefore, if one axle has no grip, regardless of the TBR, in the extreme, for a centre differential implementation, complete loss of traction on a single wheel will result in very limited torque to the other three wheels. EDL was implemented across both front and rear differentials to operate at speeds <80 km/h and this has the effect of increasing torque from a single low-traction wheel hence allowing more torque to be passed by the Torsen to the remaining high-traction wheels
9.
Car platform
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It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias
10.
Volkswagen Group A platform
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The Volkswagen Group A platform is an automobile platform shared among compact and mid-size cars of the Volkswagen Group. It was originally based on the concept of the Volkswagen Golf Mk1. Volkswagens based on this platform have been referred to by generation number, often Mk* is substituted for A*, but this can be misleading, For example, the Mk1 and Mk2 Sciroccos are both based on the A1 platform. Under Volkswagens revised platform naming system, the A4 platform is now known as the PQ34 platform, for the first time, a fully independent suspension front and rear will be present in all A platform vehicles. There is also a version of this platform for B-class cars called PQ46. PQ35 is intended for vehicles, and PQ46 is an enlarged version for mid-size vehicles. A common misconception is that the PQ46 generation of the Passat is based on the B6 platform, however, this transverse engined Passat has little in common with the longitudinal engined B6 Audi A4
11.
Volkswagen Group MQB platform
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The Volkswagen Group MQB platform is the companys strategy for shared modular construction of its transverse, front-engined, front-wheel drive automobiles. Volkswagen spent roughly $60bn developing this new platform and cars built upon it, the platform underpins a wide range of cars from the supermini class to the full size SUV class. MQB allows Volkswagen to assemble any of its cars based on this platform across all of its MQB ready factories and this allows the Volkswagen group flexibility to shift production as needed between its different factories. MQB is one strategy within VWs overall MB program which includes the similar MLB strategy for vehicles with longitudinal engine orientation. Thus MQB uses a matrix of components across a wide variety of platforms — for example. As well as reducing weight, the concept allows diverse models, including those from the various brands, to be manufactured at the same plant. Ulrich Hackenberg, chief of Volkswagen’s Research and Development, called MB a strategic weapon, british magazine Car said the idea heralds a return to basic principles of mass production in an industry where over the last 100 years, complexity has spiralled out of control. By creating a standardised, interchangeable set of parts from which to build a variety of cars, around 60% of the development costs occur between gas pedal and front wheels, including the engine. MQB models may range from superminis to large cars, replacing the current generations of models. The MQB architecture replaces the PQ25, PQ35 and PQ46 platforms, all MQB cars will share the same front axle, pedal box and engine positioning, despite varying wheelbase, track and external dimensions. Body styles, 3-door hatchback 4-door saloon 5-door hatchback 5-door coupe/liftback 5-door station wagon convertible roadster 5-door MPV 5-door SUV/Crossover Panel van
12.
Compact car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
13.
Audi TT
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This changed with the third generation model that uses parts made entirely by the Hungarian factory. For each of its three generations, the TT has been available as a 2+2 Coupé and as a two-seater roadster employing consecutive generations of the Volkswagen Group A platform, the styling of the Audi TT began in the spring of 1994 at the Volkswagen Group Design Center in California. The TT was first shown as a car at the 1995 Frankfurt Motor Show. The design is credited to J Mays and Freeman Thomas, with Hartmut Warkuss, Peter Schreyer, Martin Smith, a previously unused laser beam welding adaptation, which enabled seamless design features on the first-generation TT, delayed its introduction. Audi did not initially offer any type of automatic transmission option for the TT, the Audi TT takes its name from the successful motor racing tradition of NSU in the British Isle of Man TT motorcycle race. NSU began competing in the TT in 1911, and later merged into the now known as Audi. The Audi TT also follows the NSU 1000TT, 1200TT and TTS cars of the 1960s in taking their names from the race, the TT name has also been attributed to the phrase Technology & Tradition. The production model was launched as a Coupé in September 1998 and it is based on the Volkswagen Group A4 platform as used for the Volkswagen Golf Mk4, the original Audi A3, the Škoda Octavia, and others. The styling differed little from the concept, except for slightly reprofiled bumpers, both the Coupé and Roadster models were recalled in late 1999/early 2000, to improve predictability of the cars handling at very high speeds. Audis Electronic Stability Programme, or Anti Slip Regulation and rear spoiler were added, all changes were subsequently incorporated into future series production versions of the car. The original generation Audi TT was nominated for the North American Car of the Year award for 2000 and it was also on Car and Driver magazines Ten Best list for 2000 and 2001. By 2003 Audi had provided a face-lift to the TT, with a number of small styling, factory production of this generation ended in June 2006. Mechanically, the TT shares an identical powertrain layout with its related Volkswagen Group platform-mates, the TT uses a transversely mounted internal combustion engine, with either front-wheel drive, or quattro on-demand four-wheel drive. It was first available with a 1. 8-litre inline four-cylinder 20-valve turbocharged engine in two states of DIN-rated power outputs,180 PS and 225 PS. Haldex Traction enabled four-wheel drive, branded as Quattro was optional on the 180 engine, the original four-cylinder engine range was complemented with a 250 PS3. 2-litre VR6 engine in early 2003, which came as standard with the quattro four-wheel-drive system. In July 2003, a new six-speed dual clutch transmission – dubbed the Direct-Shift Gearbox, in 2005, Audi released the Coupé-only limited edition Audi TT quattro Sport. Built by AUDI AG high-performance specialist subsidiary quattro GmbH, it had increased power from its 1.9 seconds, and this weight reduction was achieved by removing the spare wheel, rear counterweight, rear parcel shelf and rear seats, and the standard fitment air conditioning. The main battery was relocated to the rear of the vehicle in order to maintain weight distribution as much as possible
14.
Volkswagen Golf
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The original Golf Mk1 was a front-wheel drive, front-engined replacement for the air-cooled, rear-engined, rear-wheel drive Volkswagen Beetle. Historically, the Golf is Volkswagens best-selling model and the worlds second best-selling model, initially, most Golf production was in the 3-door hatchback style. Other variants include a 5-door hatchback, station wagon, convertible, the cars have filled many market segments, from basic a personal car, to high-performance hot hatches. The Volkswagen Golf has won awards throughout its history. The Volkswagen Golf won the World Car of the Year in 2009, with the Volkswagen Golf Mk6 and in 2013 with the Volkswagen Golf Mk7. The Golf is one of three cars, the others being the Renault Clio and Opel/Vauxhall Astra, to have been voted European Car of the Year twice. The Volkswagen Golf has made the Car and Driver annual 10 Best list multiple times, later Golf variations included the Golf GTI hot hatch, a diesel-powered version, the Jetta notchback saloon version, the Volkswagen Golf Cabriolet and a Golf-based pickup, the Volkswagen Caddy. The Golf Mk1 was sold as the Volkswagen Rabbit in the United States and Canada, a facelifted version of the Golf Mk1 was produced in South Africa as the Citi Golf from 1984 to 2009. Although it was available on the market and indeed most other left-hand drive markets by the end of 1983. The Mk2 GTI featured a 1. 8-litre 8-valve fuel-injected engine from its launch, a Mk2-based second generation Jetta was unveiled in January 1984. There was no Mk2-based cabriolet model, instead, the Mk1 Cabriolet was continued over the Mk2s entire production run, the third-generation Golf made its home-market début in August 1991 and again grew slightly in comparison with its immediate predecessor, while its wheelbase remained unchanged. New engines included the first Turbocharged Direct Injection diesel engine in a Golf, US Environmental Protection Agency fuel consumption estimates are 9.0 L/100 km and 7.4 L/100 km, with 420 km per tank and 584 km per tank. For the first time ever, a Golf estate joined the line-up in September 1993, at the same time, a completely new Mk3-derived Cabriolet was introduced, replacing the 13-year-old Mk1-based version with a body style similar to that of the Mk3 Golf from 1994 to early 1999. The Mk3 Golf Cabrio received a Mk4-style facelift for the late 1999 model and was continued until 2002, the notchback version, called VW Vento, was presented in January 1992. It was European Car of the Year for 1992, ahead of the new Citroën ZX, the Mk3 continued to be sold until 1999 in the United States, Canada and parts of South America, also in Mexico as a special edition called Mi. The i in Mi is coloured red, which designates that multi-point fuel injection was equipped and the 1. 8-litre engine was upgraded to 2. 0-litres. Mk2 badges included, GL, CL, GLI, GTI, G60, VR6, 8V, the Golf Mk4 was first introduced in August 1997, followed by a notchback version in August 1998 and a new Golf Variant in March 1999. There was no Mk4-derived Cabriolet, although the Mk3 Cabriolet received a facelift in late 1999 that consisted of bumpers, grill, as with the earlier three versions of the Golf, the UK market received each version several months later than the rest of Europe
15.
Volkswagen Caddy
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The Volkswagen Caddy is a leisure activity vehicle produced by the Volkswagen Group since 1980. It is sold in Europe and in markets around the world. The Volkswagen Caddy was first introduced in North America in 1980, the second generation also had a pick-up variant. The following vehicles are related to the Volkswagen Caddy and are manufactured by the Volkswagen Group. Volkswagen Typ is,147 = LHD148 = RHD The Caddy came into fruition when Volkswagen was experimenting with Golf derivatives, an estate, trim levels such as LX and Sportruck were available. In North America the Caddy came with 2 engine choices, the 1. 5L diesel and the 1. 7L petrol. One unique feature of the diesel was that it came with a 5 speed gearbox, the Caddy actually wasnt called Caddy until 1982 when it was released in Europe. The Volkswagen Rabbit Pickup competed with other utilities such as the Ford Courier. The Caddy nameplate was never used in North America and its first use was in Europe in 1982, when the Caddy came to Europe. European Caddys were built in Volkswagens plant TAS in Sarajevo, Bosnia, the original Caddy was produced in South Africa until 2007, alongside the first generation Golf itself. The stamping equipment was shipped from the plant in Westmoreland for both models. It was built in Spain, at the Martorell factory of SEAT and its twin, the SEAT Inca, was quickly phased out when the SEAT marque was re-aligned as the sporty branch of the Volkswagen Group. It is still in production in Argentina for the Latin American market and it received a cosmetic facelift in 2005, similar to the post-1999 Volkswagen Polo Mk3. Features length 4.2 m loading area 2.6 m2 loading volume of 2, sensors monitor wheel speeds, and if one is rotating substantially faster than the other, the EDL system momentarily brakes it. This effectively transfers all the power to the other wheel, 1996–2003 MY Engines Released in 1996 to complement the Typ 9K Caddy range, the rebadged Škoda Felicia Utility was the entry level light commercial vehicle for the VWCV range. The Typ 9U Caddy was built in Škoda Autos Kvasiny, Czech Republic plant, the third generation of Volkswagen Caddy debuted In late 2004 at the RAI Commercial Vehicle Show in Amsterdam, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles debuted the Typ 2K Caddy panel van. The Typ 2K shares 50% of its modules with the Volkswagen Golf Mk5, the new model Caddy has a more aerodynamic design, the angle of the windscreen and A-pillar is more horizontal, making the dashboard bigger and the bonnet smaller. The full Caddy line-up is pretty versatile, there are two body sizes, normal and Maxi
16.
Volkswagen Touran
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The Volkswagen Touran is a compact MPV based on a vertically stretched fifth generation Volkswagen Golf Mk5, and sold in Europe and other select markets. It was launched in 2003 to fill a gap in Volkswagens model lineup, the vehicle is delivered in five- or seven-seat versions. It can be considered a version of the Golf Plus, since their front ends are similar in size. In some regions, such as Japan, the car is called Golf Touran, the name Touran derives from the combination of Tour and Sharan, the bigger MPV by VW. Despite the similarity of their names, the Touran is not related to the North American-market Volkswagen Routan, the Touran, launched in 2003, is the first Volkswagen MPV based on a Golf platform. It joined Volkswagens existing MPV line-up that included the Sharan and Caravelle, the Touran introduced electro-mechanical steering, a first in its class and for Volkswagen. It is able to vary the weight of the steering depending on the road speed, due to the lack of energy consumption in idle it also improves the overall efficiency of the vehicle. The Touran was the first vehicle to use Volkswagens 2.0 TDI engine, the engines available at the launch included a 1.6 FSI and two diesel engines, the 1.9 TDI with 74 kW and the 2.0 TDI103 kW. The engines are EURO4 compliant, except the 1.9 TDi when paired with the DSG, the Touran launched with a six-speed manual gearbox as standard and a DSG for the 1.9 TDI Engines. The initial test of the Touran in 2003 resulted in a rating for adult protection. Volkswagen made slight changes to the Touran from November 2003, adding an intelligent reminder for the driver, the 2007 model year Touran was the first production vehicle in the Volkswagen Group to be released with the new Park Assist technology. Park Assist helps the driver parallel park the vehicle, firstly, after having activated the feature and whilst travelling up to 30 km/h Park Assist uses sensors to attempt to identify a suitable parking spot. At the December 2006 Bologna Motor Show, Volkswagen released the third Cross vehicle designed by Volkswagen Individual GmbH, all CrossTouran engines are EU4 compliant. The aerodynamics of the car were also improved, the Cw improved from 0, at the end of 2010 Shanghai Volkswagen Automotive released the new Touran in China. Though its front was updated to the German style, the keeps the design of the phase II model. The electronic systems of this domestically produced car were upgraded as its relative in Europe, a 1.4 TSI which can output 93 kW was added to the new model. New engines were available following the trend, a 1.2 with 77 kW. They replaced the 1.6 and 1.9 TDI from the previous model, the 1.2,77 kW and 1.6 TDI77 kW were also available as BlueMotion, Volkswagens low fuel consumption vehicle program
17.
SEAT Toledo
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The SEAT Toledo is a small family car produced by the Spanish manufacturer SEAT, part of Volkswagen Group. The Toledo name was first introduced to the SEAT line-up in May 1991, with the fourth, the initial version of the SEAT Toledo was launched as a five-door hatchback saloon, and its sales career lasted from 1991 to early 1999. It went on sale in most of Europe in May 1991, though it did not arrive on the British market until October 1991. The Toledo initially featured underpowered engines compared to the Ibiza and Málagas System Porsche units, such as a base 1.6 L75 PS petrol engine, and this model later received a mild facelift in 1996. Sales were not strong however, as has been the case for all the generations of the Toledo, Chery acquired the chassis of the 1993 Toledo from a Mexican dealership after authorisation from SEAT. Chery Cowin, which is based on the SEAT Toledo, already has an authorisation to market it in Europe, along with Russia and South America. Apart from the Chery rebadged models, the first generation Toledo is also built by the Russian car maker TagAZ. Carro do Ano award in 1992, in Portugal The second generation Toledo was introduced in 1998, in Britain, the Toledo may not be considered a notchback saloon. It went on there in March 1999. It shared components with both its Volkswagen and Škoda PQ34 platform-mates - the Volkswagen Bora and the Škoda Octavia - yet is the sportiest of the three, in the interior, the dashboard was derived from that of the first-generation Audi A3. It was built on the Volkswagen Golf Mk4 platform, which meant stiff springs to support the load of the large 500-litre boot increased to 830 litres when folding rear seats. One of the features most associated with the Spanish model, the tailgate was removed in favour of a more traditional 4-door saloon boot opening, the following year, the Toledo would be used as the base for a proper hatchback, the SEAT León Mk1. Base model was now a crossflow 1. 6-litre 100 PS petrol engine, followed by a 1. 8-litre 20-valve 125 PS unit, while the top of the line was represented by the 2. 3-litre 150 PS VR5 engine. Diesel engined versions used the 1.9 Turbocharged Direct Injection engine, with a variable geometry turbocharger, in 2001, the V5 engine was uprated with a 20v head, boosting power to 170 PS. Later in the series, the 1. 8-litre 20-valve Toledo received a turbocharger, capable of delivering 180 PS, and these three versions all featured a six-speed manual transmission. The 130 PS TDI also featured white dials instead of the standard black dials on the 110 and 150 PS TDI models, as in 2005 the ETCC became the World Touring Car Championship, the SEAT Toledo Cupra Mk2 competed in the WTCC from 2005 to 2006. Peter Terting replaced the German Diefenbacher, while Jason Plato also joined the team for four rounds and Marc Carol for one round. Initially the SEAT Sport UK cars were campaigned by RML Group although at the end of the year the partnership was dissolved as RML entered the WTCC, at the wheel were Jason Plato, Rob Huff, James Pickford and Luke Hines
18.
Ingolstadt
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Ingolstadt is a city in the Free State of Bavaria, in the Federal Republic of Germany. It is located along the banks of the River Danube, in the centre of Bavaria, as of 31 December 2014, Ingolstadt had 131,002 citizens. It is part of the Munich Metropolitan Area, which has a population of more than 5 million. The Illuminati, a Bavarian secret society, was founded in Ingolstadt in the late 18th century, Ingolstadt is a setting in the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, where the scientist Victor Frankenstein creates his monster. It is the site of the headquarters of the German automobile manufacturer Audi, defence aircraft manufacturer Airbus, Ingolstadt Central Station has been connected to Nuremberg by a high-speed rail link since May 2006. Ingolstadt also has a passenger station at Ingolstadt Nord. Covering an urban area of 133.35 square kilometres, Ingolstadt is geographically Bavarias fourth-largest city after Munich, at its largest point the city is about 18 km from east to west and from north to south about 15 km. The city boundary has a length of 70 km, the city boundary is about 14 km away from the geographic centre of Bavaria in Kipfenberg. The old town is approximately 374 metres above sea level and the highest point, the lowest point of the Schutter confluence with the Danube is at 362 m above sea level. Ingolstadt uses Central European Time as throughout Germany, the time lag is 14 minutes. The city is expanding at the northern and southern banks of the Danube in a flat bowl. The Ingolstadt basin borders the Jura foothills, located south and is to the north of the Donau-Isar-Hügelland, in the southwest is the Donaumoos while in the east the lowland forests of the Danube reach into the urban area. It is the second largest hardwood floodplain on the Danube, the Sandrach, the former Southern main branch of the Danube, partly forms the Southern city border. In the north, the Schutter flows through from the west reaching the Danube near to the Altstadt, Ingolstadt was first mentioned in a document of Charlemagne on 6 February 806 as Ingoldes stat, the place of Ingold. Circa 1250, Ingolstadt was granted city status, Ingolstadt was the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt between 1392 and 1447. Ingolstadt was then united with Bavaria-Landshut, Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria ordered the building of the New Castle, whose form was strongly influenced by French Gothic architecture. In 1472 Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria founded the University of Ingolstadt which became the Ludwig-Maximilians-University, in 1800 it was moved to Landshut and eventually to Munich. The University of Ingolstadt was an important defender of the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation era, Ingolstadt is where William IV, Duke of Bavaria wrote and signed the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot in 1516
19.
Curitiba
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Curitiba is the capital and largest city of the Brazilian state of Paraná. The citys population numbered approximately 1,879,355 people as of 2015, making it the eighth most populous city in the country, and the largest in Brazils South Region. The Curitiba Metropolitan area comprises 26 municipalities with a population of over 3.2 million. Curitiba is an important cultural, political, and economic centre in Latin America, the city sits on a plateau at 932 metres above sea level. It is located 105 kilometres west of the seaport of Paranaguá and is served by the Afonso Pena International, the city hosts the Federal University of Paraná, established in 1912. In the 1700s Curitiba possessed a favorable location between cattle-breeding country and marketplaces, leading to a successful trade and the citys first major expansion. Later, between 1850 and 1950, it grew due to logging and agricultural expansion in the Paraná State, in the 1850s waves of European immigrants arrived in Curitiba, mainly Germans, Italians, Poles and Ukrainians, contributing to the citys economic and cultural development. Nowadays, only numbers of foreign immigrants arrive, primarily from Middle Eastern. The biggest expansion occurred after the 1960s, with urban planning that changed the population size from some hundreds of thousands to more than a million people. Curitibas economy is based on industry and services and is the fourth largest in Brazil, economic growth occurred in parallel to a substantial inward flow of Brazilians from other cities of the country, as approximately half of the citys population was not born in Curitiba. According to US magazine Readers Digest, Curitiba is the best Brazilian Big City in which to live. One theory is that the name Curitiba comes from the Tupi words kurí tyba, another version, also using words from the Tupi language, is that it originates in the combination of kurit and yba. The Portuguese who founded a settlement on the site in 1693 named it Vila da Nossa Senhora da Luz dos Pinhais, the name was changed to Curitiba in 1721. Curitiba officially became a town in 1812, spelling its name as Curityba and this was used in press and state documents. A state decree in 1919 settled the dispute by adopting Curitiba, as of 2013 the mayor was Gustavo Fruet, who replaced Luciano Ducci. The City Council of Curitiba has 38 councillors elected since 2004, Curitiba is divided into nine regional governments, who manage the municipalitys 75 districts. The Rua da Cidadania is the symbol of administrative decentralization, it is a reference point, several units are annexed to public transport terminals. Their nuclei offer services in the local, state and federal areas, Jaime Lerner is perhaps Curitibas best-known mayor
20.
Audi Senna
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The Audi Senna Ltda. is a joint venture of the German Audi AG with the Brazilian company Senna Import Participações Ltda. The plant is known as Audi do Brasil and is an official part of Volkswagen do Brasil Ltda. since March 2005. The joint venture was founded on 18 November 1993 in Ingolstadt, ayrton Senna was one of the negotiators. Since March 2005 the company is a subsidiary of the Audi concern, official website of Audi Senna Ltda. and Audi Brasil Distribuidora de Veículos Ltda
21.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
22.
Dirk van Braeckel
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Dirk van Braeckel, is a Belgian car designer. He is known for the designing of various models for Volkswagen Group, born in Deinze, after leaving school, van Braeckel studied electrical engineering, before joining Ford as an apprentice car designer in Cologne, West Germany. Ford then agreed to sponsor him undertake a degree in car design at the Royal College of Art, on graduation, he joined Audi in 1984, working on external design including the Audi A8 concept and Audi A3. After Volkswagen purchased Bentley in 1998 from Vickers plc, van Braeckel joined the British-based company in August 1999 as Director of Design & Styling and his brief was to create a second-car line that could sell in higher volumes than the $240,000 Bentley Arnage car. Van Braeckel created the Bentley Continental GT, which in 2004 sold 5,983 units, exceeding forecasts by 62%, in 2008, van Braeckel was awarded the European Automotive Design Award by Designers
23.
Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger vs. cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design, while early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970. The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, Hatchbacks may be described as three-door or five-door cars. A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2001–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon, the models typically share a platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. Hatchbacks may have a rigid parcel shelf, liftable with the tailgate. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically feature a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers, further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C pillars, station wagons more likely also feature a D pillar. Cargo volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume, with alongside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks have one or two rows of seats. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons also have numerous tailgate configurations. Typically, a hatch or liftgate does not extend down to the bumper. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a liftback is a broad marketing term for a hatchback where the rear cargo door is more horizontal than vertical, with a sharply raked or fastback profile. In comparison with the hatchback the back opening area is sloped and longer and is lifted up to open. Liftback and fastback are often misused, a fastback is described as a hatchback where the rear cargo door flows down continuously from the roof of the car and most of the time is not as raked as the liftback. In 1946, DeSoto marketed the Suburban as a station wagon, in 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. Although these were styled much like the typical 1940s sedan, they incorporated an innovative split rear tailgate, folding rear seats, the design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, 8-foot long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have described as America’s First Hatchback. In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a rear tailgate
24.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
25.
Multi-valve
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In automotive engineering a multi-valve or multivalve engine is one where each cylinder has more than two valves. A multi-valve engine has better breathing and may be able to operate at higher revolutions per minute than a two-valve engine, a multi-valve engine design typically has three, four, or five valves per cylinder to achieve improved performance. Any four-stroke internal combustion engine needs at least two valves per cylinder, one for intake of air and fuel, and another for exhaust of combustion gases. Adding more valves increases valve area and improves the flow of intake and exhaust gases, thereby enhancing combustion, volumetric efficiency, multi-valve geometry allows the spark plug to be ideally located within the combustion chamber for optimal flame propagation. Multi-valve engines tend to have smaller valves that have lower reciprocating mass, which can wear on each cam lobe. Some engines are designed to each intake valve at a slightly different time. More valves also provide additional cooling to the cylinder head, the disadvantages of multi-valve engines are an increase in manufacturing cost and a potential increase in oil consumption due to the greater number of valve stem seals. Some SOHC multi-valve engines use a single fork-shaped rocker arm to drive two valves so that fewer cam lobes will be needed in order to reduce manufacturing costs, three-valve cylinder head This has a single large exhaust valve and two smaller intake valves. A three-valve layout allows better breathing than a head. The manufacturing cost for this design can be lower than for a four-valve design, the three-valve design was common in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and from 2004 the main valve arrangement used in Ford F-Series trucks, and Ford SUVs. Four-valve cylinder head This is the most common type of multi-valve head and this design allows similar breathing as compared to a three-valve head, and as the small exhaust valves allow high RPM, this design is very suitable for high power outputs. Five-valve cylinder head Less common is the head, with two exhaust valves and three inlet valves. All five valves are similar in size and this design allows excellent breathing, and, as every valve is small, high RPM and very high power outputs are theoretically available. After making five-valve Genesis engines for several years, Yamaha has reverted to the cheaper four-valve design, beyond five valves For a cylindrical bore and equal-area sized valves, increasing the number of valves beyond five decreases the total valve area. The following table shows the areas of differing valve quantities as proportion of cylinder bore. These percentages are based on geometry and do not take into account orifices for spark plugs or injectors. Also, in practice, exhaust valves are larger than intake in heads with an even number of valves-per-cylinder. The same applies to variable valve timing and variable intake manifolds, rotary valves also offer improved engine breathing and high rev performance but these were never very successful
26.
Turbocharged direct injection
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Turbocharged direct injection or TDI is a design of turbodiesel engines featuring turbocharging and cylinder-direct fuel injection that was developed and produced by the Volkswagen Group. These TDI engines are used in all mainstream Volkswagen Group marques of passenger cars. They are also used as marine engines in Volkswagen Marine and Volkswagen Industrial Motor applications, the emissions controls were suppressed otherwise, allowing the TDI engines to exceed legal limits on emissions. VW has admitted to using the device in its TDI diesel cars. In many countries, TDI is a trademark of Volkswagen AG. The TDI designation has also used on vehicles powered by Land Rover-designed diesel engines. These are unrelated to Volkswagen Group engines, similar technology has been used by other automotive companies, but TDI specifically refers to these Volkswagen Group engines. Naturally aspirated direct-injection diesel engines made by Volkswagen Group use the Suction Diesel Injection label, because these engines are relatively low displacement and quite compact, they have a low surface area. The resulting reduced surface area of the direct injection diesel engine reduces heat losses, a direct injection engine is also easier to start when cold, because of more efficient placing and usage of glowplugs. Direct injection turbodiesel engines are frequent winners of prizes in the International Engine of the Year Awards. In 1999 in particular, six out of categories were won by direct injection engines. Notably that year, the Volkswagen Group 1.2 TDI3 L beat the Toyota Prius to win Best Fuel Economy in its class, the TDI engine has won Green Car of the Year award in the years 2009 and 2010 beating other various electric cars. It was also sold in form by Volvo. It used a Bosch VE injection pump, the engine had been launched in naturally aspirated form for commercial vehicles in 1986. There have been a few generations, starting with what are known as VE, and VP engines. In 2000, the Pumpe Düse TDI engine began to appear in Europe, some current PD TDI engines now use piezoelectric unit injectors, allowing far greater control of injection timing and fuel delivery. From the 2009 model year onwards, TDI engines using the common rail technique, again with piezoelectric injectors, are now used in various Volkswagen Group models. The CR engines are available in sizes, including 1.2,1.6,2.0,2.7,3.0,4.2 and 6.0 litres
27.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
28.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
29.
Automatic transmission
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The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well. The most popular form found in automobiles is the automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles. This system uses a coupling in place of a friction clutch. These systems have a set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as forklifts and lawn mowers. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow a number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions, semi-automatics, the obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs, allowing amputees and other disabled individuals to drive, the automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA235757 in 1923. Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid and they were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being battle-tested. However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, zFs origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915, the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early horseless carriage gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston and this unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged, as the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasnt up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the next significant phase in the automatic transmissions development occurred in 1908 with the introduction of Henry Fords remarkable Model T. The pedals actuated the transmissions friction elements to select the desired gear, in 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission, parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chryslers work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use
30.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
31.
Audi 50
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The Audi 50 is a supermini economy car produced by German automaker Audi from 1974 to 1978 and sold only in Europe. Introduced two or three years after the Italian Fiat 127 and the French Renault 5, the model was seen at the time as Germanys first home grown entrant in Europes emerging supermini class. The Audi 50 was built by Audi NSU Auto Union AG at the former NSU factory in Neckarsulm, Germany, the car was rebadged six months later by Volkswagen as the Volkswagen Polo with a wider range of engine and other options. The Volkswagen Polo was launched in the market in September 1974 and appeared in export markets, including the UK. The car was offered as a hatchback with a 1,093 cc petrol engine, producing either 37 kW or 44 kW for the LS and GL models. The model was popular in Europe, both because of its generous specifications for a car of the time, and on account of its low price. The Volkswagen Polo range continued to evolve, with the Volkswagen Derby notchback version, despite being developed by Audi at Ingolstadt, branded as a Volkswagen, subsequently the Volkswagen Polo has evolved through numerous generations to the present day. The Audi 50 had no replacement in the class until the launch of the significantly larger Audi A2 in 1999 which was also discontinued in 2005. In 2010, the Audi 50 was spiritually succeeded by the Audi A1
32.
Volkswagen Group
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Volkswagen Group, or Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft, shortly VW AG, is a German multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. It designs, manufactures and distributes passenger and commercial vehicles, motorcycles, engines, in 2016, it was the largest automaker in the world with sales of 10.3 million units, overtaking Toyota. It has maintained the largest market share in Europe for over two decades and it ranked seventh in the 2016 Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds largest companies. It is divided into two divisions, the Automotive Division and the Financial Services Division, and has approximately 340 subsidiary companies. VW also has two major joint-ventures in China, the company has operations in approximately 150 countries and operates 100 production facilities across 27 countries. Volkswagen was founded in 1937 to manufacture the car which would become known as the Beetle, the companys production grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s, and in 1965 it acquired Auto Union, which subsequently produced the first post-war Audi models. Volkswagen launched a new generation of front-wheel drive vehicles in the 1970s, including the Passat, Polo and Golf, the companys operations in China have grown rapidly in the past decade with the country becoming its largest market. It has been traded in the United States via American depositary receipts since 1988, Volkswagen delisted from the London Stock Exchange in 2013. The state of Lower Saxony holds 12. 7% of the companys shares, Volkswagen held a 19. 9% non-controlling shareholding in Suzuki between 2009 and 2015. An international arbitration court ordered Volkswagen to sell the back to Suzuki. Suzuki paid $3. 8bn to complete the stock buy-back just hours prior to a scandal about emissions violations engulfing Volkswagen. Volkswagen was founded on 28 May 1937 in Berlin as the Gesellschaft zur Vorbereitung des Deutschen Volkswagens mbH by the National Socialist Deutsche Arbeitsfront. The purpose of the company was to manufacture the Volkswagen car, originally referred to as the Porsche Type 60, then the Volkswagen Type 1 and this vehicle was designed by Ferdinand Porsches consulting firm, and the company was backed by the support of Adolf Hitler. On 16 September 1938, Gezuvor was renamed Volkswagenwerk GmbH, only a small number of Type 60 Volkswagens were made during this time. The Fallersleben plant also manufactured the V-1 flying bomb, making the plant a major bombing target for the Allied forces, however, no British car manufacturer was interested, the vehicle does not meet the fundamental technical requirement of a motor-car. It is quite unattractive to the average buyer, to build the car commercially would be a completely uneconomic enterprise. In 1948, the Ford Motor Company of USA was offered Volkswagen, but Ernest Breech, as part of the Industrial plans for Germany, large parts of German industry, including Volkswagen, were to be dismantled. Total German car production was set at a maximum of 10% of the 1936 car production numbers
33.
Volkswagen Golf Mk4
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The Volkswagen Golf Mk4 is a compact car, the fourth generation of the Volkswagen Golf and the successor to the Volkswagen Golf Mk3. Launched in October 1997, it was the best selling car in Europe in 2001, the Mk4 was a deliberate attempt to take the Volkswagen Golf series further upmarket, with a high-quality interior and higher equipment levels. It was replaced in 2004 by the Volkswagen Golf Mk5 in European Markets, however, manufacturing continued in South America, Mexico and China for developing markets until 2010. The Golf Mk4 was a significant car in its class, in fact, the quality of the Golf was on a par with its sister Audi A3 from the year before, but cost considerably more than other cars in its class. The latest model remained faithful to the Golf concept but included some of the new arched styling themes first seen on the Mk4 Passat, as with the Mk2 Golf, Volkswagen did not make a convertible version of the Mk4 Golf. Instead, they face-lifted the front bumper, fenders, grille, VW managed to incorporate some non-structural Mk4 parts as well such as fender repeaters, headlights, side mirror caps, rear license tag lights, 3-spoke steering wheel airbag, etc. The rear also received a redesigned bumper with the number plate tub moved from the hatch, there are some technical carryovers, as well, the main one being the immobilizer and engine computer from the Mk4 Golf being used with the older Mk3 engine mechanicals. Although the redesigned Golf Cabriolet looks like a Mk4 Golf, it is based on the Mk3 chassis, VW enthusiasts in mainland Europe call it a Mk4 Golf Cabriolet while VW enthusiasts in the United Kingdom and United States call it a Mk3.5 Cabrio. The Volkswagen Golf Mk4 Variant was introduced in 1999 and it was discontinued in 2006, and succeeded in 2007 by the Volkswagen Golf Mk5 Variant. Unlike the Mk3, it was offered in North America where the Jetta name, Volkswagen produced a saloon version of the Mk4 Golf. As with previous incarnations of the Golf, it had its own identity, unlike its predecessors, the Bora/Jetta featured unique rear doors, front wings and bonnet. The front doors were the body panels it shared with the Golf. The interior, though, was almost identical to the Golf, germany, South Africa, Slovakia, Brazil, Belgium, and China all made the Golf 4. Eastern European locations making the Golf 4 included Bosnia and Herzegovina, in Vogošća, however, although the Bosnian Mk4 was popular it was only available in the local market. Volkswagen made a choice of three and five-door hatchback or a station wagon available. The European Golf wagon was identical to the North American Jetta Wagon. The only difference was the use of the Golf front headlights, bumpers, grille, hood, the Golf 4 was introduced to North America in mid-1999. Available engines for the Golf at its introduction to the American market were a 2.0 L gasoline engine, the latter soon developed a reputation for good low-speed torque and fuel economy, and can operate on alternative biofuels
34.
Front-wheel drive
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Front-wheel drive is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature an engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel-drive. Rear-engined layouts are possible, but rare, according to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the worlds first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, in 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front-wheel-drive system for motorising horse-drawn carts. In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination and it was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering and it also known as the Eureka. By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall, in October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/h. In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres non-stop at 29 km/h, when production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs each. J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car and he promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, the next successful application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28,1925, however, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside of the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton, neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a commercial model of the Alvis 12/50 in 1928. The first successful consumer application came in 1929, the BSA produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available, in 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes, other German car producers followed, Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France, the Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, another result of this design is a lengthened chassis
35.
Four-wheel drive
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Four-wheel drive, 4×4, and 4WD, is a form of drivetrain capable of providing power to all wheel ends of a two-axled vehicle simultaneously. It may be full-time, or on-demand, and is linked via a transfer case which provides an additional output drive-shaft. When a four-wheeled vehicle has power supplied to axles, this is described as all-wheel drive. However, four-wheel drive typically refers to a set of components and functions, and/or intended offroad application. 4×4/4WD/AWD systems were developed in different markets and used in many different vehicle platforms. There is no universally accepted set of terminology to describe the various architectures, the terms used by various manufactures often reflect marketing rather than engineering considerations or significant technical differences between systems. Four-by-four refers to the class of vehicles. The first figure represents the total wheels, and the second, syntactically, 4×2 means a four-wheel vehicle that transmits engine power to only two axle-ends, the front two in front-wheel drive or the rear two in rear-wheel drive. Alternatively, a 6×4 vehicle has three axles, two of which power to two wheel ends each. Four wheel drive refers to vehicles with two axles providing power to four wheel ends, in the North American market the term generally refers to a system that is optimized for off-road driving conditions. The term 4WD is typically designated for vehicles equipped with a transfercase which switches between 2WD and 4WD operating modes, either manually or automatically. All wheel drive historically was synonymous with four-wheel drive on four-wheeled vehicles, and six-wheel drive on 6×6s, today in North America the term is applied to both heavy vehicles as well as light passenger vehicles. Typical AWD systems work well on all surfaces, but are not intended for more extreme off-road use, some all wheel drive electric vehicles solve this challenge using one motor for each axle, thereby eliminating a mechanical differential between the front and rear axles. An example of this is the dual motor variant of the Tesla Model S, individual-wheel drive was coined to identify those electric vehicles whereby each wheel is driven by its own individual electric motor. This system essentially has inherent characteristics that would be attributed to four-wheel drive systems like the distribution of the available power to the wheels. However, because of the inherent characteristics of electric motors, torque can be negative, as seen in the Rimac Concept One and this can have drastic effects, as in better handling in tight corners. The term IWD can refer to a vehicle with any number of wheels, for example, the Mars rovers are 6-wheel IWD. Two wheels fixed to the same turn at the same speed as a vehicle goes around curves
36.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
37.
Transverse engine
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A transverse engine is an engine mounted in a vehicle so that the engines crankshaft axis is perpendicular to the long axis of the vehicle. Many modern front wheel drive vehicles use this engine mounting configuration, the Critchley light car, made by the Daimler Motor Company in 1899, had a transverse engine with belt drive to the rear axle. A1911 front-wheel drive car had an engine with a clutch at each end. The first successful transverse-engine cars were the two-cylinder DKW Front series of cars, after the Second World War, SAAB used the configuration in their first model, the Saab 92, in 1947. The arrangement was used for Borgwards Goliath and Hansa brand cars. However, it was with Alec Issigoniss Mini, introduced by the British Motor Corporation in 1959, Issigonis incorporated the cars gearbox into the engines sump, producing a drivetrain unit narrow enough to install transversely in a car only four feet wide. Coupled to the much greater interior space afforded by the layout this made the Mini a genuine alternative to the small family car. This design reached its ultimate extent starting with Dante Giacosas elaboration of it for Fiat and he connected the engine to its gearbox by a shaft and set the differential off-center so that it could be connected to the gearbox more easily. The axleshafts from the differential to the wheels therefore differed in length, Giacosas lay-out was first used in the Autobianchi Primula in 1964 and later in the wide-selling Fiat 128. With the gearbox mounted separately to the engine cars were by neccesity larger than the Mini. The Giacosa lay-out also provided superior refinement, easier repair and was better-suited to adopting five-speed transmissions than the original Issigonis in-sump design, now most small and small/medium-sized cars built throughout the world use this arrangement. The Lamborghini Miura used a transverse, mid-mounted 4 and this has also allowed for improved safety in a frontal impact, due to more front to back engine compartment space being created. The result is a front crumple zone. Transverse engines have also widely used in buses. In the United States they were offered in the early 1930s by Twin Coach and they were also used in the British Leyland Atlantean and in many transit buses and nearly all modern double decker buses. They have also widely used by Scania, MAN, Volvo. Motorcycles with a V-twin engine mounted with its crankshaft mounted in line with the frame, most Ducatis since the 1970s and most Harley-Davidsons, are said to have longitudinal engines. This convention uses the longest horizontal dimension of the engine as its axis instead of the line of the crankshaft, modern Motorcycle Technology, How Every Part of Your Motorcycle Works
38.
Diesel engine
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Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a degree that it ignites atomised diesel fuel that is injected into the combustion chamber. This contrasts with spark-ignition engines such as an engine or gas engine. In diesel engines, glow plugs may be used to aid starting in cold weather, or when the engine uses a lower compression-ratio, the original diesel engine operates on the constant pressure cycle of gradual combustion and produces no audible knock. Low-speed diesel engines can have an efficiency that exceeds 50%. Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles and they were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s they have used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later, in the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, the use of engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the US increased. According to the British Society of Motor Manufacturing and Traders, the EU average for diesel cars accounts for 50% of the total sold, including 70% in France and 38% in the UK. The worlds largest diesel engine is currently a Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C Common Rail marine diesel, the definition of a Diesel engine to many has become an engine that uses compression ignition. To some it may be an engine that uses heavy fuel oil, to others an engine that does not use spark ignition. However the original cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel in 1892 was a constant temperature cycle which would require higher compression than what is needed for compression ignition. Diesels idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion, to make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres. In later years Diesel realized his original cycle would not work, Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion, now all that is mentioned is the compression must be high enough for ignition. In 1806 Claude and Nicéphore Niépce developed the first known internal combustion engine, the Pyréolophore fuel system used a blast of air provided by a bellows to atomize Lycopodium
39.
Unit injector
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Unit injector is an integrated direct fuel injection system for diesel engines, combining the injector nozzle and the injection pump in a single component. The plunger pump used is usually driven by a shared camshaft, in a unit injector, the device is usually lubricated and cooled by the fuel itself. In 1911, a patent was issued in Great Britain for a unit injector resembling those in use today to Frederick Lamplough, E. W. Ketterings 1951 ASME presentation goes into detail about the development of the modern Unit injector. Also Cummins PT is a form of unit injection where the injectors are on a common rail fed by a low pressure pump. The pressure determines how much fuel the injectors get and the time is determined by the cam, in 1995, Electro-Motive Diesel converted its 710 diesel engines to electronic fuel injection, using an EUI which replaces the MUI. Today, major manufacturers include Robert Bosch GmbH, CAT, Cummins, Delphi, Detroit Diesel, design of the unit injector eliminates the need for high-pressure fuel pipes, and with that their associated failures, as well as allowing for much higher injection pressure to occur. The unit injector system allows accurate injection timing, and amount control as in the rail system. The unit injector is fitted into the cylinder head, where the fuel is supplied via integral ducts machined directly into the cylinder head. Each injector has its own pumping element, and in the case of electronic control, the fuel system is divided into the low pressure fuel supply system, and the high-pressure injection system. The basic operation can be described as a sequence of four phases, the filling phase, the spill phase, the injection phase. Fill phase The constant stroke pump element on the way up draws fuel from the duct in to the chamber. Spill phase The pump element is on the way down, and as long as solenoid valve remains de-energized the fuel line is open, injection phase The pump element is still on the way down, the solenoid is now energized and fuel line is now closed. The solenoid operation is controlled by the engine ECU. In 1993, CAT introduced hydraulically actuated electronic unit injection, where the injectors are no longer camshaft-operated, in North America, the Volkswagen Jetta, Golf, and New Beetle TDI 2004–2006 are Pumpe Düse. Volkswagen Group major-interest truck and diesel engine maker Scania AB also uses the unit injector system, which they call Pumpe-Düse-Einspritzung, or PDE. unit pump
40.
Variable-geometry turbocharger
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Variable-geometry turbochargers, are a family of turbochargers, usually designed to allow the effective aspect ratio of the turbo to be altered as conditions change. This is done because optimum aspect ratio at low speeds is very different from that at high engine speeds. By altering the geometry of the housing as the engine accelerates. Because of this, VGTs have an amount of lag, have a low boost threshold. VGTs do not require a wastegate, VGTs tend to be much more common on diesel engines as the lower exhaust temperatures mean they are less prone to failure. g. The two most common include a ring of aerodynamically-shaped vanes in the turbine housing at the turbine inlet. In general, for light-duty engines, the vanes rotate in unison to vary the gas swirl angle, in general, for heavy-duty engines, the vanes do not rotate, but instead the axial width of the inlet is selectively blocked by an axially sliding wall. Either way, the area between the tips of the changes, leading to a variable aspect ratio. The vanes are controlled by a membrane vacuum actuator, electric servo actuation, 3-phase electric actuation, the invention introducing the VNT was developed under Garrett. Several companies supply the rotating vane type of variable-geometry turbocharger, including Garrett, Borg Warner, the rotating vane design is mostly limited to small engines and/or to light-duty applications. Main supplier of the sliding-vane-type of variable-geometry turbocharger is Cummins Turbo Technologies, in trucks, VG turbochargers are also used to control the ratio of exhaust recirculated back to the engine inlet. Another use for the sliding vane type of turbocharger is as downstream engine exhaust brake, also, the mechanism can be deliberately modified to reduce the turbine efficiency in a predefined position. This mode can be selected to sustain a raised exhaust temperature to promote light-off, actuation of a VG turbocharger for EGR flow control or to implement braking or regeneration modes in general requires hydraulic or electric servo actuation. One of the first production cars to use these turbos was the Japanese 1988 Honda Legend, there was also the limited-production 1989 Shelby CSX-VNT, equipped with a 2. 2-liter Chrysler K engine. The Shelby CSX-VNT utilised a turbo from Garrett, called the VNT-25 because it used the same compressor and this type of turbine is called a variable-nozzle turbine. Turbocharger manufacturer Aerocharger uses the term variable-area turbine nozzle to describe this type of turbine nozzle, other common terms include variable-turbine geometry, variable-geometry turbo and variable-vane turbine. In 1991, Fiat puts a VNT in the Cromas direct-injected turbodiesel, the Peugeot 405 T16, launched in 1992, used a Garrett VAT25 variable-geometry turbocharger on its 2. 0-liter 16-valve turbocharged engine. The 2007 Porsche 911 Turbo has twin VNT turbochargers on its 3. 6-liter horizontally-opposed six cylinder gasoline engine
41.
Audi A3
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The Audi A3 is a Small Family/Compact car produced since 1996. The third-generation A3 uses the Volkswagen Group MQB platform, the original A3 was introduced in the European market in 1996, marking Audis return to the production of smaller cars following the demise of the Audi 50 in 1978. This was the first Volkswagen Group model to use the PQ34 or A4 platform, bearing a resemblance to the contemporary Volkswagen Golf Mk4. Within three years, this platform was used for total of seven cars, the A3 was initially available only with a three-door hatchback body, to present a more sporty image than the Golf, in both front and four-wheel drive. The inline four-cylinder engines were transversely mounted, after the A4, the Audi A3 was the second model in the Audi lineup to use five valves per cylinder. The United Kingdom market first received the Audi A3 in November 1996, the four-wheel-drive A31. 8T quattro used either the 150 PS or 180 PS engine, and the same Haldex Traction-based four-wheel-drive system as the Audi S3 and the Audi TT. Also in 1999, Audi also introduced a five-door body, Audis electronic stability control, traction-control, and brake force distribution computer became standard equipment in some countries. Although the first-generation Audi A3 was replaced in Europe in 2003, production of the first generation model stopped in Brazil in 2006. Euro NCAP rating of 4 out of 5 stars and their evaluation concluded the column lock, adjuster lever and bracket presented hazards in the knee impact area for the driver. These could cause high loads on his legs and damage to his knees. The A3 also provides almost no protection to pedestrians, giving it two out of a possible four. Audi released the A3-derived Audi S3 in 1999, only as a three-door hatchback, the inline-four 20v 1.8 L turbocharged petrol engine came in two versions,210 PS and 225 PS. Later models had variable valve timing and 225 PS, the engine had a maximum of 280 N·m torque. This is the first time a small four-cylinder engine has been used in an Audi S-series car, although dubbed quattro, the S3 uses a different four-wheel drive system. The Haldex Traction coupling adjusts the bias of torque distribution from the front to rear axle as grip requirements change – most of the time it operates as a front-wheel drive. The S3 was sold in the Europe, Japan, Mexico, South Africa, Australia, the S3 was facelifted in 2002, where it was given one-piece headlights/indicator units, different front wings, rear lights clusters, and some minor upgrades to interior trim. These items are standard in export markets. The engines used are the same as those for other cars in the Volkswagen Group
42.
Electronic stability control
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When ESC detects loss of steering control, it automatically applies the brakes to help steer the vehicle where the driver intends to go. Braking is automatically applied to wheels individually, such as the front wheel to counter oversteer or the inner rear wheel to counter understeer. Some ESC systems also reduce power until control is regained. ESC does not improve a vehicles cornering performance, instead, it helps to minimize the loss of control. According to Insurance Institute for Highway Safety and the U. S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, in 1983, a series production Four-wheel electronic anti-skid control is introduced on the Toyota Crown. In 1987, Mercedes-Benz, BMW and Toyota introduced their first traction control systems, Traction control works by applying individual wheel braking and throttle to keep traction while accelerating but, unlike the ESC, it is not designed to aid in steering. In 1990, Mitsubishi released the Diamante in Japan and it featured a new electronically controlled active trace & traction control system that Mitsubishi developed. Simply named TCL in 1990, the system has now evolved into Mitsubishis modern Active Skid, developed to help the driver maintain the intended line through a corner, an onboard computer monitored several vehicle operating parameters through various sensors. Although not a ‘proper’ modern stability control system, trace control monitors steering angle, throttle position, the TCL systems standard wheel slip control function enables better traction on slippery surfaces or during cornering. From 1987 to 1992, Mercedes-Benz and Robert Bosch GmbH co-developed a system called Elektronisches Stabilitätsprogramm to control lateral slippage, in 1995, three automobile manufacturers introduced ESC systems. Mercedes-Benz, supplied by Bosch, was the first to implement ESP with their Mercedes-Benz S600 Coupé and that same year BMW, supplied by Bosch and ITT Automotive introduced the system on the BMW7 Series. Toyotas Vehicle Stability Control system (also in 2004, a system called Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management appeared on the Toyota Crown Majesta in 1995. In 1997, Audi introduced the first series production ESP for all-wheel drive vehicles, in 1998, Volvo Cars began to offer their version of ESC called Dynamic Stability and Traction Control on the new Volvo S80. Meanwhile, others investigated and developed their own systems, during a moose test, which became famous in Germany as the elk test, the Swedish journalist Robert Collin of Teknikens Värld in October 1997 rolled a Mercedes A-Class at 78 km/h. Because Mercedes-Benz promotes a reputation for safety, they recalled and retrofitted 130,000 A-Class cars with ESC and this produced a significant reduction in crashes and the number of vehicles with ESC rose. Today, virtually all premium brands have made ESC standard on all vehicles, the availability of ESC in small cars like the A-Class ignited a market trend thus ESC became available for all models at least as an option. Consequently, the European Union decided in 2009 to make ESC mandatory, since November 1,2011, EU Type Approval is only granted to models equipped with ESC. By November 1,2014, ESC is required on all newly registered cars in the EU, general Motors worked with Delphi Automotive and introduced its version of ESC called StabiliTrak in 1997 for select Cadillac models
43.
Euro NCAP
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The programme is modelled after the New Car Assessment Program, introduced 1979 by the U. S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Other areas with similar programmes include Australia and New Zealand with ANCAP, Latin America with Latin NCAP, the top overall rating is five stars. The frontal tests are performed at 64 km/h into an offset deformable barrier and this is designed to represent an impact with a vehicle of similar mass and structure as the car itself. The side impact tests are performed at 50 km/h, but the side pole test is performed at 32 km/h. The pedestrian safety tests are performed at 40 km/h, from January 1,2009 they adopted the rear-impact test as part of its new crash-test regime. Results of the first cars to be tested under the new scheme were released in February 2009, over the years, European automakers cars have become much safer, partly as a result of the Euro NCAP standards. Test results are presented by motor press, and in turn greatly influence consumer demand for a vehicle. One notable example of this is the Rover 100, which after receiving a one-star Adult Occupant Rating in the tests in 1997, bMWs 2007 MINI, for example, had its bonnet and headlamp fixture changed to meet the latest pedestrian safety requirements. Testing is not mandatory, with vehicle models either being independently chosen by Euro NCAP or voluntarily tested by the manufacturers, in Europe, new cars are certified as legal for sale under the Whole Vehicle Type Approval regimen that differs from Euro NCAP. According to Euro NCAP, The frontal and side crash tests used by Euro NCAP are based on those used in European legislation. However, much higher performance requirements are used by Euro NCAP, the frontal impact speed used by Euro NCAP is 64 km/h compared 56 km/h for legislation. Euro NCAP also states that Legislation sets a minimum compulsory standard whilst Euro NCAP is concerned with best possible current practice, progress with vehicle safety legislation can be slow, particularly as all EU Member States’ views have to be taken into account. The Euro NCAP frontal impact tests simulates crashing a car into another of similar mass and this means that the ratings can only be meaningfully compared between cars of the same type and size. The following structural categories are used, Passenger car MPV Off-roader Roadster Pickup In each category, Euro NCAP Advanced is a reward system launched in 2010 for advanced safety technologies, complementing Euro NCAP’s existing star rating scheme. Euro NCAP rewards and recognizes car manufacturers who make available new safety technologies which demonstrate a scientifically proven safety benefit for consumers, by rewarding technologies, Euro NCAP provides an incentive to manufacturers to accelerate the standard fitment of important safety equipment across their model ranges
44.
Turbocharger
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Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
45.
Petrol engine
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A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark-ignition, designed to run on petrol and similar volatile fuels. In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually pre-mixed before compression, the process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed, and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites. The first practical petrol engine was built in 1876 in Germany by Nikolaus August Otto, although there had been attempts by Étienne Lenoir, Siegfried Marcus, Julius Hock. The first petrol engine was prototyped in 1882 in Italy by Enrico Bernardi. British engineer Edward Butler constructed the first petrol combustion engine. Butler invented the spark plug, ignition magneto, coil ignition and spray jet carburetor, with both air and fuel in a closed cylinder, compressing the mixture too much poses the danger of auto-ignition — or behaving like a diesel engine. Spark plugs are typically set statically or at idle at a minimum of 10 degrees or so of crankshaft rotation before the piston reaches T. D, higher octane petrol burns slower, therefore it has a lower propensity to auto-ignite and its rate of expansion is lower. Thus, engines designed to run high-octane fuel exclusively can achieve higher compression ratios, Petrol engines run at higher rotation speeds than diesels, partially due to their lighter pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft and due to petrol burning more quickly than diesel. However the lower compression ratios of petrol engines give petrol engines lower efficiency than diesel engines, examples, Bedford OB bus Bedford M series lorry GE 57-ton gas-electric boxcab locomotive Petrol engines may run on the four-stroke cycle or the two-stroke cycle. For details of working cycles see, Four-stroke cycle Two-stroke cycle Wankel engine Common cylinder arrangements are from 1 to 6 cylinders in-line or from 2 to 16 cylinders in V-formation. Flat engines – like a V design flattened out – are common in airplanes and motorcycles and were a hallmark of Volkswagen automobiles into the 1990s. Flat 6s are still used in many modern Porsches, as well as Subarus, less common, but notable in vehicles designed for high speeds is the W formation, similar to having 2 V engines side by side. Alternatives include rotary and radial engines the latter typically have 7 or 9 cylinders in a single ring, Petrol engines may be air-cooled, with fins, or liquid-cooled, by a water jacket and radiator. The coolant was formerly water, but is now usually a mixture of water and either ethylene glycol or propylene glycol, the cooling system is usually slightly pressurized to further raise the boiling point of the coolant. Petrol engines use spark ignition and high current for the spark may be provided by a magneto or an ignition coil. In modern car engines the ignition timing is managed by an electronic Engine Control Unit, the most common way of engine rating is what is known as the brake power, measured at the flywheel, and given in kilowatts or horsepower. This is the mechanical power output of the engine in a usable
46.
Variable valve timing
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In internal combustion engines, variable valve timing is the process of altering the timing of a valve lift event, and is often used to improve performance, fuel economy or emissions. It is increasingly being used in combination with variable valve lift systems, there are many ways in which this can be achieved, ranging from mechanical devices to electro-hydraulic and camless systems. Increasingly strict emissions regulations are causing many automotive manufacturers to use VVT systems, two-stroke engines use a power valve system to get similar results to VVT. The valves within a combustion engine are used to control the flow of the intake and exhaust gases into. The timing, duration and lift of these events has a significant impact on engine performance. Without variable valve timing or variable valve lift, the timing must be the same for all engine speeds and conditions. An engine equipped with a valve timing actuation system is freed from this constraint. Piston engines normally use valves which are driven by camshafts, the cams open the valves for a certain amount of time during each intake and exhaust cycle. The timing of the opening and closing is also important. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing belts, gears or chains, an engine requires large amounts of air when operating at high speeds. However, the valves may close before enough air has entered each combustion chamber. On the other hand, if the camshaft keeps the open for longer periods of time, as with a racing cam. This will cause unburnt fuel to exit the engine since the valves are still open and this leads to lower engine performance and increased emissions. Early variable valve timing systems used discrete adjustment, for example, one timing would be used below 3500 rpm and another used above 3500 rpm. More advanced continuous variable valve timing systems offer continuous adjustment of the valve timing, therefore, the timing can be optimized to suit all engine speeds and conditions. The simplest form of VVT is cam-phasing, whereby the angle of a camshaft is rotated forwards or backwards, thus the valves open and close earlier or later, however, the camshaft lift and duration cannot be altered with a cam-phasing system. Achieving variable duration on a VVT system requires a complex system. Late intake valve closing The first variation of continuous variable valve timing involves holding the valve open slightly longer than a traditional engine
47.
Audi S and RS models
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Audi S and RS models are a range of high performance versions of certain car models of the German automotive company AUDI AG. These cars primarily focus on enhanced sport performance, production of Audi S cars began in 1990 with the S2 Coupé, whilst the first RS car appeared four years later with the Audi RS2 Avant. Numerous S models, from most of Audis mainstream model ranges have been produced over the years and these cars are recognisable by their S badges, and unique emphasis lines on their front grills. All Audi S models are equipped with Audis trademark quattro four-wheel drive system as standard, in the past, some Audi S models competed directly with BMW M and Mercedes-AMG models, such as the B6 Audi S44.2 FSI versus the BMW M3 and Mercedes-Benz C32 AMG. Since 2010 however, Audi S models have been positioned more as optional engine trims. For instance the base Audi A4 engine is the 2.0 TFSI turbo four-cylinder, and with the discontinuation of the 3.2 FSI V6, that makes the Audi S4s 3.0 TFSI V6 the performance option. The Audi A6 no longer has a V8 engine upgrade in the range, with the discontinuation of the C6 Audi A64.2 FSI that was offered from 2004–11. Audi S models should not be confused with the Audi S line models, Audi Sport GmbH, AUDI AGs high performance private subsidiary, creates even higher performance versions, known by their RS badging. The RS initials are taken from the German, RennSport - literally translated as racing sport, RS is Audis highest performance top-tier trim level, positioned distinctly above the S specification level of Audis regular model range. All RS cars pioneer some of Audis latest and most advanced technology and engineering prowess, therefore, Audi RS cars are some of the most powerful vehicles ever offered by Audi. The Audi RS65.0 TFSI quattro, for instance, is more powerful than the physically larger Audi S85.2 FSI quattro. Audi RS models are considered direct competitors to similar-sized hardcore sport models from BMW M and Mercedes-AMG, whereas the Audi S models have been positioned more as engine upgrades. However the Audi RS6 was never exported to the United States due to emissions regulations and this is merely a trim specification which allows customers to effect a sporty appearance in their mainstream Audi model. Audi international - Audi S and RS models - full model range from Audi MediaServices & Audi UK - RS models Audi S models microsite & Audi Sport Audi Sport® USA Audi RS models and the Audi R8
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