1.
Recorder (musical instrument)
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The recorder is a woodwind musical instrument in the group known as internal duct flutes—flutes with a whistle mouthpiece. It is distinguished from other duct flutes by having a thumb-hole for the hand and seven finger-holes. It is the most prominent duct flute in the classical tradition. Recorders are made in different sizes with compasses corresponding to different vocal ranges, the sizes most commonly in use today are the soprano, alto, tenor and bass. Recorders are traditionally constructed from wood and ivory, although the use of plastics is now common, other characteristics of their construction, such as bore profile and fingering systems, have varied over time and between instruments. The recorder is first documented in the Middle Ages, and continued to enjoy popularity in the renaissance and baroque periods. It was revived in the 20th century as part of the historically informed performance movement, today, there are many professional recorder players who demonstrate the instruments full solo range and a large community of amateurs. The sound of the recorder is described as clear and sweet. It is notable for its response and its corresponding ability to produce a wide variety of articulations. This ability, coupled with its open finger holes, allow it to produce a variety of tone colors. Acoustically, its tone is relatively pure and odd harmonics predominate in its sound, the instrument has been known by its modern English name at least since the 14th century. David Lasocki reports the earliest use of recorder in the accounts of the Earl of Derby in 1388. By the 15th century, the name had appeared in English literature, the instrument name recorder derives from the Latin recordārī, by way of Middle French recorder and MFr recordeur, itself derived from MFr recorder. Thus, the recorder cannot have been named after the sound of birds, the name of the instrument is also uniquely English, in Middle French there is no equivalent noun sense of recorder referring to a musical instrument. Partridge indicates that the use of the instrument by jongleurs led to its association with the verb, recorder the minstrels action, the reason we know this instrument as the recorder and not one of the other instruments played by the jongleurs is uncertain. Until about 1695, the recorder and flute overlapped, but from 1673 to the late 1720s in England. Until at least 1765, some still used flute to mean recorder. Until the mid 18th century, musical scores written in Italian refer to the instrument as flauto and this distinction, like the English switch from recorder to flute, has caused confusion among modern editors, writers and performers
2.
Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
3.
Double reed
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A double reed is a type of reed used to produce sound in various wind instruments. The term double reed comes from the fact there are two pieces of cane vibrating against each other. A single reed consists of one piece of cane which vibrates against a mouthpiece made of metal, hardened rubber, resin, the term double reeds can also refer collectively to the class of instruments which use double reeds. There are several differences, the most obvious being size, between various types of reeds, for example between that for a bassoon and that for an oboe or a cor anglais. Typically, Arundo donax cane is used for the making of double reeds, for bassoon reeds, tubes of this cane are first split lengthwise then gouged to a certain thickness. The chosen piece of cane is cut to shape and the centre portion is thinned. The cane is folded end to end to form the two blades of the reed, the unprofiled end of the cane is shaped into a tube with the aid of a mandrel and bound with three strategically placed wires. A turban made out of thread is added on the third wire and it provides a hand hold for the reed that isnt a sharp wire. The folded tip is cut off to allow the blades to vibrate and final adjustments to the interior of the using a reamer. The reed is then ready to fit to the bocal of the bassoon, note that there are many schools of thought and processes for making reeds. However, because the oboe does not have a bocal, the cane must be fastened to a metal tube, the staple is then inserted into the farrow at the upper end of the oboe. There are many different methods of making reeds and many variations of design have been developed, players can buy reeds either ready-made, or in various stages of formation, such as part-scraped, reed blanks, or buy the staples and cane separately. Cane is sold in forms, as tubes, gouged, gouged and shaped. Bassoon cane has the option of being profiled before purchase. Cane from several different regions is used in reed making, traditionally from southern France, there are also many options with regard to staples, shaping equipment, and so forth, which all have a subtle effect on the tone quality a reed will produce. While cane is by far the most common material for double reeds, reeds made out of synthetic materials may be used, these reeds often last longer and are less sensitive to temperature and humidity flucutations. Most reeds produced from synthetic materials have a quality that is dissimilar to that of a cane reed and are not favored by musicians. However, some recent manufacturers produce synthetic reeds that are used in a professional setting, oboe double reeds are about 7 mm in width
4.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
5.
Launeddas
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The launeddas is a typical Sardinian woodwind instrument made of three pipes. It is an instrument, with one of the pipes functioning as a drone. Predecessors of the launeddas can be traced back to approximately 2700 BCE in Egypt, during the Old Kingdom in Egypt, memets were depicted on the reliefs of seven tombs at Saqqarra, six tombs at Giza, and the pyramids of Queen Khentkaus. The launeddas itself dates back to at least the eighth century BCE and are played today during religious ceremonies and dances. Distinctively, they are played using extensive variations on a few phrases. Launeddas are used to play a style of music by circular breathing that has achieved some international attention, especially Efisio Melis, Antonio Lara, Dionigi Burranca. Melis and Lara were the biggest stars of the 1930s golden age of launedda, Launeddas consist of three reed pipes, two five-holed chanters of different lengths and one drone. They are played using circular breathing, since the late 20th century the launeddas has also been used in non-traditional contexts. In 1990, the American jazz saxophonist Dave Liebman released a CD called The Blessing of the Old, long Sound, on which he collaborates with the launeddas players Alberto Mariani, Carlo Mariani, and Dionigi Burranca. The CD was recorded in Milan in November 1989, triple pipes F. W. Bentzon, The Launeddas. A Sardinian folk music instrument, Akademisk Forlag, Copenhagen,1969, P. Mercurio, La Cultura delle Launeddas. I Suoni del Maestro Giovanni Casu, Solinas, Nuoro,2011, F. W. Bentzon, Launeddas, Cagliari,2002 ISBN 88-88998-00-4. (Dansk Musik-tidsskrift, Copenhagen, May,1961, No, theory and Bricolage, Attilio Cannargius Temperament, Yearbook for Traditional Music, Vol.14, pp. 45–54. Strumento dellIdentità Musicale Sarda, collana “Ethnomusica & Istruzione”, Milano,2015 ISBN9786050345346 Efisio Melis and Antonio Lara - Launeddas, the Rough Guide to Sardinia, p.335
6.
Sorna
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The sornā or Sarnā is an ancient Iranian woodwind instrument. The word sorna is a Pahlavi derivative of sūrnāy, which is a compand of sūr-, possibly it was called strong flute due to its double-reed-construction rather than usual nāy, which was made of a single tube of cane. Also it is suggested that the first part of word of sorna, is from sūr- again from Pahlavi and New-Persian, meaning the banquet, meal and feast and it is also suggested that Sorna is a cognate of Horn, as Sorna simply means horn. This is a result of the Centum-Satem isogloss, and later Grimms Law, even in Persian there is another wind instrument whose name appears to be a cognate of both Sorna and Horn, called Karna, this may stem from a re-borrowing from another language. The instruments history dates back to the Achaemenid Dynasty, and was used to play at the end of the day from the city gate or from the administration building. This custom persisted in England until the 19th century, the town waits playing shawms to mark the hours, the instrument was mainly played in outdoors in regional music of Iran in the festive ceremonies. According to the Shahnameh, it was King Jamshid who devised the Sornā, except the literary evidences, there are also number of artefacts from Sasanian dynasty, depicting Sorna, such a silver dish, currently in Hermitage Museum. A small amount of air is forced under pressure through a metal tube called the staple which serves to hold the reed. This requires the player to make sure, as in oboe playing, often sornas were played in pairs, with a melody and a drone player. This drone may move to different notes during a piece of music, several other names, such as dohol, davul, tavel, and so on have been applied to the sorna. Since dohol is a double-faced drum sometimes it is called do-rūyeh in Persian language, in contrast to ghaval and daf, the Sorna is mostly played in Loristan, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Kurdistan, Sistan and Baluchestan Province and Iranian Azerbaijan. In Loristan, Sorna is used as an instrument during wedding ceremonies. Sorna almost always is accompanied with dohol in this region, in the region of Sistan and Baluchestan, sorna is mostly used in wedding ceremonies and other celebration. The instrument is accompanied by dohol and sometimes may include traditional dance by forming a circle
7.
Rhaita
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The rhaita or ghaita is a double reed instrument from North Africa. It is nearly identical in construction to the Arabic mizmar and the Turkish zurna, the distinctive name owes to a medieval Gothic-Iberian influence. In southern Iberia, various sorts of instruments, including the related shawm, are known as gaitas. The rhaita was featured in The Lord of the Rings soundtracks by Howard Shore, in 1981 while composing the soundtrack to Altered States Corigliano again called for oboists to mimic the rhaita sound during Three Hallucinations
8.
Suona
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The suona, also called laba or haidi, is a Chinese sorna. It has a loud and high-pitched sound, and is used frequently in Chinese traditional music ensembles. It is an important instrument in the music of northern China, particularly the provinces of Shandong and Henan. It is still used, in combination with sheng mouth organs, gongs, drums, such wind and percussion ensembles are called chuida or guchui. Stephen Jones has written extensively on its use in music of Shanxi province. It is also common in the music of Southeast China. In Taiwan, it forms an element of ritual music that accompanies Daoist performances of both auspicious and inauspicious rites, i. e. those for both the living and the dead. The double-reed gives the instrument a sound similar to that of the modern oboe, the instrument is made in several sizes. There is now a family of instruments, including the zhongyin suona, cizhongyin suona. It has been used in modern music arrangements as well, including in the works of Chinese rock musician Cui Jian, the highest varieties are not normally keyed. Other sources state the origins of the suona to be Arabia, the European Shawm is also derived from this ancient instrument. It was not mentioned in Chinese literature until the Ming Dynasty, in Korea, a similar instrument is called taepyeongso, and in Vietnam similar oboes are called kèn. In Japan, an instrument is called charumera. This instruments name is derived from charamela, the Portuguese word for shawm and its sound is well known throughout Japan, as it is often used by street vendors selling ramen. A similar instrument, the zurna, is played during occasions and folk music in the Balkans, India, Iran. The suona is also used as an instrument in Cuba. It is known there as trompeta china and is used in forms of son. The American jazz saxophonist Dewey Redman often played the suona in his performances, bassist and saxophonist, the late Mick Karn used the instrument crediting it as a dida
9.
Sopila
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The sopile is an ancient traditional woodwind instrument of Croatia, similar to the oboe or shawm. It is used in the regions of Kvarner, Kastav, Vinodol, Island Krk, Sopile are always played in pairs so there are great and small or thin and fat sopila. Sopile are musical instrument of sound very interesting possibilities and very piercing special sound and this is replicated in more modern examples of Kvarner music through use of modified double reed clarinet or soprano Dulzaina. Sopile are, by mih and šurle, today very popular in folk tradition of Istria, Kvarner, Roženice are ancient traditional musical instruments which continue to be used today in the region of Istria. Roženice are very similar to sopile from Island Krk, Roženice are always played in pairs so there are great and small or thin and fat rozenica. Roženice have a very piercing special sound, and have the possibility of producing a variety of sounds, Roženice are, by mih and šurle, today very popular in folk tradition of Istra. The sopila is a wooden horn originating from Istria and some of the islands along the Adriatic Coast of Croatia. Like oboes, sopilas have double reeds, but are played in pairs. Both have six finger holes, being equally spaced on the smaller one, often used to accompany dancing, the voice of the sopila is that of the Istrian scale. Rhaita Suona Shawm Zurna Roženice Sopile Sopile
10.
Shawm
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The shawm is a conical bore, double-reed woodwind instrument made in Europe from the 12th century to the present day. It achieved its peak of popularity during the medieval and Renaissance periods and it is likely to have come to Western Europe from the Eastern Mediterranean around the time of the Crusades. Double reed instruments similar to the shawm were long present in Southern Europe and the East, for instance the Ancient Greek, and later Byzantine, aulos, the Persian sorna, and the Armenian duduk. The body of the shawm is usually turned from a piece of wood. Beginning in the 16th century, shawms were made in sizes, from sopranino to great bass. All later shawms have at least one key allowing an extension of the compass. The pirouette, a small wooden attachment with a cavity in the center resembling a thimble, surrounds the lower part of the reed—this provides support for the lips and embouchure. Since only a portion of the reed protrudes past the pirouette, the player has only limited contact with the reed. In English the name only first appears in the 14th century, the early plural forms were often mistaken for a singular, and new plurals were formed from them. The later reduction in the 15th and 16th centuries to a syllable in forms such as schalme, shaume, shawme. In Portugal there is an instrument called charamela, and the name of the Italian shawm is ciaramella, Instruments resembling the medieval shawm can still be heard in many countries today, played by street musicians or military bands. The latter use would have been familiar to crusaders, who often had to face massed bands of Saracen shawms and nakers and it must have had a profound effect, as the shawm was quickly adopted by Europeans, for dancing as well as for military purposes. The standard outdoor dance band in the century consisted of a slide trumpet playing popular melodies. In many Asian countries, shawm technique includes circular breathing allowing continuous playing without pauses for air, by the early 16th century, the shawm had undergone considerable development. The harsh tonality of the shawm had been modulated somewhat by a narrowing of the bore. This also extended the range, enabling the performer to play the notes in the second octave. Larger sizes of shawm were built, down to the bass in Bb, two octaves and a major third below the soprano in D. However, the larger sizes were unwieldy. The shawm became standard equipment for bands, or waits
11.
Zampogna
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The tradition is now mostly associated with Christmas, and the most famous Italian carol, Tu scendi dalle stelle is derived from traditional zampogna music. However, there is a resurgence of the instrument in secular use seen with the increasing number of folk music festivals. All chanters and drones are fixed into a single stock that the bag is attached to. Each chanter is tuned differently, according to the tradition it represents, the single reed versions consist of the surdullina types of the Province of Cosenza and Catanzaro, and the ciaramella or ciaramedda of Messina and Catania in Sicily, as well as in Southern Calabria. The traditional reeds are made from stalks of the Giant Reed Arundo donax, the double reed versions may also be made from plastic. The single reeds are made from a section of the cane. The typical round stock into which both chanters and drones are fixed goes into the neck of the skin, the hair is left on, and is contained in the inside of the bag. Today, however, some pipers are substituting the traditional goat and this practice of using the synthetic bag is particularly popular among the pipers from Scapoli in the Molise region, and those of Atina in Latium. This double reed tradition would include the Ciociaria, that of southern Basilicata and nearby areas of Calabria, single reed versions are played solo in the Calabrian tradition of the surdullina, and a version with a plugged chanter called the surdullina Albanese, and the Sicilian ciaramedda or ciaramèddha. The chanters and drones vary, according to the tradition, from a few inches long to nearly two meters in length, such as used in the cathedral of Monreale and nearly every size in between. The pipes are related to the Sardinian launeddas, a single reed triple clarinet comprising two chanters and a drone and played in the mouth by circular breathing. The word zampogna is etymologically related to the Greek sumfōnia, meaning concord or unison of sound and it cognates to tsampouna, the word for the Greek island bagpipe, itself a reborrowing of zampogna. Its Romanian counterpart is cimpoi, which means symphony or many sounds played together, there is a bagpipe museum, the Museo della Zampogna in Scapoli, Molise. suonidellaterra. com http, //web. archive. org/web/20090116183633/http, //www. zampognari. org, 80/ Zampogna page
12.
Zurna
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The zurna, is a wind instrument played in central Eurasia, ranging from the Balkans to Central Asia. It is usually accompanied by a davul in Anatolian folk music, the zurna, like the duduk and kaval, is a woodwind instrument used to play Anatolian, Middle Eastern and Central Asian folk music. The zurna is an oboe, made from the apricot fruit tree. Thus, it has historically been played outdoors during festive events such as weddings and it has eight holes on the front, seven of which are used while playing, and one thumbhole which provides a range of one octave. It is similar to the mizmar, in the Slavic nations of the Balkans it is typically called zurla. The zurna is most likely the predecessor of the European shawm. The Japanese charumera, or charamera, traditionally associated with itinerant noodle vendors is a small zurna, few, if any, noodle vendors continue this tradition, and those who do would use a loudspeaker playing a recorded charumera. There are several different types of zurnas and they all share one and the same sound inductor—the so-called kalem—which is actually a very tight double reed, sometimes made out of wheat leaves. The longest is the Kaba zurna, used in northern Turkey, as a rule of thumb, a zurna is conical and made of wood. Turkish lore says that Adam, who was moulded from clay, had no soul and it is said only the melodious tuiduk-playing of Archangel Gabriel could breathe life into Adam. According to a Turkmen legend, the played the main role in tuiduk invention. The name is derived from Persian سرنای surnāy, composed of سور sūr “banquet, feast” and نای nāy “reed, memo G. Schachiner, MusicalConfrontations. com Zurna FAQ
13.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
14.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
15.
Music of ancient Greece
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It thus played an integral role in the lives of ancient Greeks. Even archaeological remains reveal an abundance of depictions on ceramics, for example, the word music comes from the Muses, the daughters of Zeus and patron goddesses of creative and intellectual endeavours. Music played a role in ancient Greek society. Pericles teacher Damon said, according to Plato in the Republic, when fundamental modes of music change, Music and gymnastics comprised the main divisions in ones schooling. Or Apollos musical victories over Marsyas and Pan. It may be that the sounds of the music heard at rituals, games, dramas. Indeed, one reads of the revolution in Greek culture, and Platos lament that the new music. used high musical talent, showmanship, the lyre was used to accompany others or even oneself for recitation and song. It was associated with an aristocratic upbringing and the cult of Apollo, the kithara, also a strummed string instrument, more complicated than the lyre. It had a frame with strings stretched from the cross-bar at the top to the sounding box at the bottom, it was held upright. The strings were tunable by adjusting wooden wedges along the cross-bar and it is one possible origin of the contemporary guitar. The barbitos, a taller lyre considered to be the least complicated, the aulos, usually double, consisting of two double-reed pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band to hold both pipes steadily between the players lips. Modern reconstructions indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound, there is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument, alternate descriptions indicate single-reeds instead of double reeds. It was associated with the cult of Dionysus, sound is produced by blowing across the top of the open pipe. The hydraulis, an instrument, the forerunner of the modern organ. As the name indicates, the instrument used water to supply a constant flow of pressure to the pipes, Two detailed descriptions have survived, that of Vitruvius and Heron of Alexandria. These descriptions deal primarily with the mechanism and with the device by which the instrument was supplied with air. A well-preserved model in pottery was found at Carthage in 1885, the salpinx was a brass trumpet used for military calls, and even contested in the Olympics. A number of sources mention this metal instrument with a bone mouthpiece, the lyre, kithara, aulos, hydraulis and salpinx all found their way into the music of ancient Rome
16.
Wind instrument
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The pitch of the vibration is determined by the length of the tube and by manual modifications of the effective length of the vibrating column of air. In the case of wind instruments, sound is produced by blowing through a reed. Using different air columns for different tones, such as in the pan flute and this method is used on nearly all brass instruments. Changing the length of the air column by lengthening and/or shortening the tube using a sliding mechanism. This method is used on the trombone and the slide whistle, changing the frequency of vibration through opening or closing holes in the side of the tube. This can be done by covering the holes with fingers or pressing a key which then closes the hole and this method is used in nearly all woodwind instruments. Making the column of air vibrate at different harmonics without changing the length of the column of air, almost all wind instruments use the last method, often in combination with one of the others, to extend their register. A more accurate way to determine whether an instrument is brass or woodwind is to examine how the player produces sound, in brass instruments, the players lips vibrate, causing the air within the instrument to vibrate. For example, the saxophone is typically made of brass, but is classified as an instrument because it produces sound with a vibrating reed. In the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, wind instruments are classed as aerophones, sound production in all wind instruments depends on the entry of air into a flow-control valve attached to a resonant chamber. The resonator is typically a long cylindrical or conical tube, open at the far end, a pulse of high pressure from the valve will travel down the tube at the speed of sound. It will be reflected from the end as a return pulse of low pressure. Under suitable conditions, the valve will reflect the pulse back, with increased energy, Reed instruments such as the clarinet or oboe have a flexible reed or reeds at the mouthpiece, forming a pressure-controlled valve. Standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, the reed vibrates at a rate determined by the resonator. For Lip Reed instruments, the controls the tension in their lips so that they vibrate under the influence of the air flow through them. They adjust the vibration so that the lips are most closed, and the air flow is lowest, standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, and a pressure node at the open end. For Air Reed instruments, the thin grazing air sheet flowing across an opening in the pipe interacts with an edge to generate sound. The jet is generated by the player, when blowing through a thin slit, for recorders and flue organ pipes this slit is manufactured by the instrument maker and has a fixed geometry
17.
Greek art
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Greek art began in the Cycladic and Minoan civilization, and gave birth to Western classical art in the subsequent Geometric, Archaic and Classical periods. Greek art is mainly five forms, architecture, sculpture, painting, artistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt. There are three divisions of the stages of later ancient Greek art that correspond roughly with historical periods of the same names. These are the Archaic, the Classical and the Hellenistic, the Archaic period is usually dated from 1000 BC. Of course, different forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, there was no sharp transition from one artistic period to another. The art of ancient Greece has exercised an influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models, following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Pottery was either red with black designs or black with red designs, Byzantine art is the term created for the Eastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1452. It can also be used for the art of people of the former Byzantine Empire under the rule of Ottoman Empire after 1453, in some respects the Byzantine artistic tradition has continued in Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day. Byzantine art grew from the art of ancient Greece and, at least before 1453, never lost sight of its classical heritage, the most profound of these was that the humanist ethic of ancient Greek art was replaced by the Christian ethic. If the purpose of art was the glorification of man. One of the most important forms of Byzantine art was, and still is, like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first signiand the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D. C. The Heptanese School of painting succeeded the Cretan School as the school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, the school was based in the Ionian Islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century. Modern Greek art, after the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, after centuries of Ottoman rule, few opportunities for an education in the arts existed in the newly independent Greece, so studying abroad was imperative for artists. Munich, as an important international center for the arts at that time, was the place where the majority of the Greek artists of the 19th century chose to study, later on, they would return to Greece and pass on their knowledge. Both academic and personal bonds developed between early Greek painters and Munich artistry giving birth to the Greek Munich School, nikolaos Gysis was an important teacher and artist at the Munich Academy and he soon became a leading figure among Greek artists. Many of these Munich School artists chose subjects such as everyday Greek life, local customs, several important painters emerged at this time
18.
Music of ancient Rome
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The music of ancient Rome was a part of Roman culture from earliest times. Music was customary at funerals, and the tibia, an instrument, was played at sacrifices to ward off ill influences. Song was a part of almost every social occasion. The Secular Ode of Horace, for instance, was commissioned by Augustus, under the influence of ancient Greek theory, music was thought to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos, and was associated particularly with mathematics and knowledge. Etruscan music had an influence on that of the Romans. During the Imperial period, Romans carried their music to the provinces, while traditions of Asia Minor, North Africa, the Romans may have borrowed the Greek method of enchiriadic notation to record their music, if they used any notation at all. Four letters indicated a series of four succeeding tones, rhythm signs, written above the letters, indicated the duration of each note. The Romans may have tuned their instruments to Greek modes, Roman art depicts various woodwinds, brass, percussion and stringed instruments. Roman-style instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, the Roman tuba was a long, straight bronze trumpet with a detachable, conical mouthpiece like that of the modern French horn. In the military, it was used for bugle calls, the tuba is also depicted in art such as mosaics accompanying games and spectacle events. The cornu was a tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musicians body. It had a bore and a conical mouthpiece. It may be hard to distinguish from the buccina, the cornu was used for military signals and on parade. The cornicen was a signal officer who translated orders into calls. Like the tuba, the cornu also appears as accompaniment for public events, the tibia, usually double, had two double-reed pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band capistrum to hold both pipes steadily between the players lips. Modern changes indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound, there is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument, alternate descriptions indicate each pipe having a single reed instead of a double reed. Versions of the flute and panpipes. The lyre was held or cradled in one arm and hand, the strings were tuned by adjusting sticks seen in the engraving
19.
Oboe
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Oboes /ˈoʊboʊ/ OH-boh are a family of double reed woodwind musical instruments. The most common oboe plays in the treble or soprano range, oboes are usually made of wood, but there are also oboes made of synthetic materials. A soprano oboe measures roughly 65 cm long, with keys, a conical bore. Sound is produced by blowing into the reed and vibrating a column of air, the distinctive oboe tone is versatile, and has been described as bright. When the term oboe is used alone, it is taken to mean the standard treble instrument rather than other instruments of the family. In English, prior to 1770, the instrument was called a hautbois, hoboy. The spelling of oboe was adopted into English c.1770 from the Italian oboè, a musician who plays the oboe is called an oboist or simply an oboe player. In comparison to other woodwind instruments, the treble oboe is sometimes referred to as having a clear. The Sprightly Companion, a book published by Henry Playford in 1695, describes the oboe as Majestical and Stately. Humorously, the sound of the oboe is described in the play Angels in America as like that of a if the duck were a songbird. The rich timbre of the oboe is derived from its conical bore, as a result, oboes are readily audible over other instruments in large ensembles. The highest note of the oboe is a lower than the nominally highest note of the B♭ clarinet. Since the clarinet has a range of notes, the lowest note of the B♭ clarinet is significantly deeper than the lowest note of the oboe. Music for the oboe is written in concert pitch. Orchestras normally tune to a concert A played by the oboe, according to the League of American Orchestras, this is done because the pitch of the oboe is secure and its penetrating sound makes it ideal for tuning purposes. The pitch of the oboe is affected by the way in which the reed is made. The reed has a significant effect on the sound of the instrument, Variations in cane and other construction materials, the age of the reed, and differences in scrape and length all affect the pitch of the instrument. German and French reeds, for instance, differ in many ways, weather conditions such as temperature and humidity also affect the pitch
20.
Armenia
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Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a sovereign state in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. The Republic of Armenia constitutes only one-tenth of historical Armenia, Armenia is a unitary, multi-party, democratic nation-state with an ancient cultural heritage. Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia, in the 1st century BC the Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great. Armenia became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official religion, in between the late 3rd century to early years of the 4th century, the state became the first Christian nation. The official date of adoption of Christianity is 301 AD. The ancient Armenian kingdom was split between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires around the early 5th century, under the Bagratuni dynasty, the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia was restored in the 9th century. Declining due to the wars against the Byzantines, the fell in 1045. An Armenian principality and later a kingdom Cilician Armenia was located on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea between the 11th and 14th centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, during World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically exterminated in the Armenian Genocide. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, in 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Republic of Armenia recognises the Armenian Apostolic Church, the worlds oldest national church, as the countrys primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD, Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union, the Council of Europe and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which was proclaimed in 1991, the native Armenian name for the country is Հայք. The name in the Middle Ages was extended to Հայաստան, by addition of the Persian suffix -stan, the further origin of the name is uncertain. It is also postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. The exonym Armenia is attested in the Old Persian Behistun Inscription as Armina, the ancient Greek terms Ἀρμενία and Ἀρμένιοι are first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus. Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and he relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians. According to the histories of both Moses of Chorene and Michael Chamchian, Armenia derives from the name of Aram, a descendant of Hayk
21.
Duduk
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The duduk is an ancient double-reed woodwind flute made of apricot wood. It is commonly played in pairs, while the first player plays the song, the plays a steady drone. The unflattened reed and cylindrical body produce a closer to the English horn than to more commonly known double-reeds. Unlike other double reed instruments like the oboe or shawm, the duduk has a large reed proportional to its size. UNESCO proclaimed the Armenian duduk and its music as a Masterpiece of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2005, Duduk music has been used in a number of films, most notably in The Russia House and Gladiator. Variations of the duduk exist in Eastern Europe, the Middle East and Central Asia, the word duduk is derived from Turkish düdük which means whistle. The word dudka in Slavic languages is a diminutive of duda and is of native Proto-Slavic origin and this instrument is not to be confused with the northwestern Bulgarian folk instrument of the same name. The earliest instruments similar to the present form are made of bone or entirely of cane. Today, the duduk is exclusively made of wood with a double reed. The particular tuning depends heavily on the region in which it is played, in the twentieth century, the Armenian duduk began to be standardized diatonic in scale and single-octave in range. Accidentals, or chromatics are achieved using fingering techniques, the instruments body also has different lengths depending upon the range of the instrument and region. The reed, is made one or two pieces of cane in a duck-bill type assembly. Unlike other double-reed instruments, the reed is quite wide, helping to give the duduk both its unique, mournful sound, as well as its remarkable breath requirements, the duduk player is called dudukahar in Armenian. The performer uses air stored in his cheeks to keep playing the instrument while he inhales air into his lungs and this circular breathing technique is commonly used with all the double-reed instruments in the Middle East. Duduk is invariably played with the accompaniment of a second dum duduk, Armenian musicologists cite evidence of the duduks use as early as 1200 BC, though Western scholars suggest it is 1,500 years old. Variants of the duduk can be found in Armenia and the Caucasus, the history of the Armenian duduk music is dated to the reign of the Armenian king Tigran the Great, who reigned from 95–55 B. C. The most important quality of the duduk is its ability to express the language dialectic and mood of the Armenian language, which is often the most challenging quality to a duduk player. While duduk most commonly refers to the reed instrument described on this page
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aulos". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
