1.
ACT Policing
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ACT Policing is the portfolio of the Australian Federal Police responsible for providing policing services to the Australian Capital Territory. The Australian Capital Territory Police was an independent police force responsible for policing the ACT until 19 October 1979, in 1911, the ACT was proclaimed as the seat of Australian government, then the Federal Capital Territory under Commonwealth Government administration. Until 1927, the New South Wales Police patrolled what was mostly rural bushland, except for a small, by the mid-1920s plans were well underway to move Parliament and several Commonwealth Government departments to Canberra and many public buildings were on the verge of being constructed. In 1926, the Commonwealth Attorney-General determined that policing in the Territory should be performed by a local force, the force soon changed its name to the Commonwealth Police, until 1957 when it formally adopted the name, Australian Capital Territory Police Force. The AFP assumed responsibility for policing the ACT, retaining the role to this day, ACT Policing currently consists of around 923 people of which just over 690 are sworn police. ACT Policing consists of five stations located in the Canberra town centres of Belconnen, City, Woden, Tuggeranong. Police Constables based at these stations provide general duties community policing for the ACT, uniformed traffic operations members work from the Traffic Operations Centre in Belconnen and primarily focus on road safety and traffic law enforcement within the ACT. The Winchester Police Centre, Benjamin Way, Belconnen, is the ACT Policing Headquarters, the Complex houses ACT Policings Executive, administrative and support sections and elements of the Criminal Investigations area. The complex is named in memory of the former Assistant Commissioner Colin Winchester APM, Assistant Commissioner Winchester was murdered outside his house in early 1989. Criminal Investigations provides a function for the ACT, and is located at each of the main police stations. Specialist Response Group provide a tactical response capability in addition to search and rescue, public order management, police dogs. Members with a Detective designation who assume other roles do not use the title when not attached to investigative or Criminal Investigations function, the title Chief Officer was first used by Lieutenant Colonel Harold Edward Jones from 1927 until his retirement in 1943. During his tenure, Jones also held the positions of Director of the Commonwealth Investigation Bureau, Jones successor, Robert Reid, was appointed solely to head the ACT Police Force. Subsequent commanders of the ACT Police Force used the title Commissioner until the force was amalgamated with the Commonwealth Police in 1979 to form the AFP, whilst remaining within the AFP command structure, the CPO also became accountable to the ACT Government for policing outcomes in the ACT. The first incumbent, between 2001 and 2002, was Assistant Commissioner Denis McDermott APM, followed by Assistant Commissioner Andrew Hughes APM between 2002 and 2003, since 2003, the title of Deputy Chief Police Officer has been used by both Commander rank deputies of the ACT Policing Executive. List of Australian Federal Police killed in the line of duty ACT Policing Australian Federal Police ACT Chief Police Officer found deceased ACT Police Traffic vehicle photos
2.
Australian Protective Service
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The Australian Protective Service was an Australian Commonwealth agency which existed between 1984 and 2004. Close Personal Protection, or bodyguard, functions were never provided by the APS, where this has been a Commonwealth responsibility, the staff and functions of the APS were reintegrated into the AFP in 2004 as part of Australian Government efforts to better coordinate the response to terrorism. The Australian Protective Service was established in 1984 when 420 Constables transferred from the Australian Federal Police, what follows is a brief history of the Commonwealth Law Enforcement and Security Service which led up to the inception of the Australian Protective Service. The early 1930s saw the formation of the Peace Officer Guard with the aim of protecting Commonwealth property, the Peace Officer Guard operated at such establishments as munitions factories, research facilities and certain Commonwealth Government departments. The Australian Security Intelligence Organisation came into existence in 1949, absorbing some of the functions of the Commonwealth Investigations Service, the Commonwealth Police was re-formed in 1960, absorbing both Peace Officer Guards and Commonwealth Investigations Service officers. In 1975 the most ambitious plan to restructure Australias national police service was attempted by the Commonwealth Government, however, the amalgamation was abandoned later the same year following a change of Government. The Australian Federal Police was initially established as a two component force, with General Policing and Protective components, as previously mentioned, prior to 1960, Federal Law Enforcement was carried out by two organisations, the Commonwealth Investigative Service and Peace Officer Guard. The primary function of the Protective Service Component of the AFP was to continue the duties which were laid down for the POG. On 14 December 1983 the federal government decided that the Protective Service Component of the AFP should be abolished, subsequently the Australian Federal Police Act 1984 was passed by Federal Parliament and came into force on 19 October 1984. The first Director of the APS was Peter Dawson, previously an Assistant Secretary of the Purchasing Division within the Department of Administrative Services, the Australian Protective Service was the Commonwealth Governments specialist custodial, protective security and Counter Terrorist law enforcement agency. Plain clothed operations were restricted to members of the NSW Region Escort Response Group. However, Protective Service members in such as Darwin deployed regularly in the mid to late 90s to escort Immigration detainees. The APS also operated some functions in the private sector area. With the sale of Australian airport facilities the APS contracted for the provision of Counter Terrorism First Response role to the airport operators, following the September 11 terror attacks the Commonwealth Government conducted a review of counter terrorism arrangements. As a result it was decided to combine the Australian Federal Police, the merger occurred on 1 July 2004 when the Australian Protective Service, with 1327 employees, became an operating division of AFP. Protective Service Officers are still employed within the AFP, PSOs, whilst not sworn police, have powers of arrest under the Australian Federal Police Act 1979 for specific Commonwealth offences. Perform security and escort protection for Commonwealth VIPs, conduct protective security risk reviews for other Commonwealth agencies, and broader organisations dealing with Commonwealth interests. Security and escorting of sensitive and/or high value items in which the Commonwealth Government had an interest, Security and later also fire alarm monitoring for Commonwealth agencies and other entities
3.
Australian dollar
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Within Australia, it is almost always abbreviated with the dollar sign, with A$ or AU$ sometimes used to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies. It is subdivided into 100 cents, in 2011, the Australian dollar was the fifth most traded currency in the world, accounting for 7. 6% of the worlds daily share. It trades in the foreign exchange markets behind the US dollar, the euro, the yen. The currency is referred to by foreign-exchange traders as the Aussie dollar. With pounds, shillings and pence to be replaced by decimal currency on 14 February 1966, in 1963, the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Menzies, a monarchist, wished to name the currency the royal. Other proposed names included more exotic suggestions such as the austral, the oz, the boomer, the roo, the kanga, the emu, the digger, the quid, the dinkum and the ming. Menzies influence resulted in the selection of the royal, and trial designs were prepared and printed by the Reserve Bank of Australia, the Treasurer, Harold Holt, announced the decision in Parliament on 5 June 1963. The royal would be subdivided into 100 cents, but the existing names shilling, florin, the name royal for the currency proved very unpopular, with Holt and his wife even receiving death threats. On 24 July Holt told the Cabinet the decision had been a terrible mistake, on 18 September Holt advised Parliament that the name was to be the dollar, of 100 cents. The Australian pound, introduced in 1910 and officially distinct in value from the pound sterling since devaluation in 1931, was replaced by the dollar on 14 February 1966. The rate of conversion for the new currency was two dollars per Australian pound, or ten Australian shillings per dollar. The exchange rate was pegged to the pound sterling at a rate of $1 =8 shillings, in 1967, Australia effectively left the sterling area, when the pound sterling was devalued against the US dollar and the Australian dollar did not follow. It maintained its peg to the US dollar at the rate of A$1 = US$1.12, on 27 September 2012, the Reserve Bank of Australia stated that they had ordered work on a project to upgrade the current banknotes. The upgraded banknotes will incorporate a number of new features so that they remain secure into the future, the first new banknotes were issued from the 1st of September 2016, with the remaining denominations to be issued in the coming years. In 1966, coins were introduced in denominations of 1,2,5,10,20 and 50 cents. The initial 50-cent coins contained high silver content and were withdrawn after a year after the value of the silver content was found to exceed the face value of the coins. One-dollar coins were introduced in 1984, followed by two-dollar coins in 1988, the one- and two-cent coins were discontinued in 1991 and withdrawn from circulation. In commemoration of the 40th anniversary of decimal currency, the 2006 mint proof and uncirculated sets included one-, in early 2013, Australias first triangular coin was introduced, to mark the 25th anniversary of the opening of Parliament House
4.
Law enforcement agency
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A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities
5.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
6.
Edmund Barton Building
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The Edmund Barton Building is a large Canberra office building positioned prominently on the Parliamentary Triangle in the suburb of Barton, Australian Capital Territory. It was designed by the major Australian architect Harry Seidler and it is named after Sir Edmund Barton, first Prime Minister of Australia and one of the founding judges of the High Court of Australia. The building was designed and built for the Commonwealth government over the period 1970 to 1974, the building is of a precast, prestressed concrete construction.5 metre column elements. It contains a total of 50000 square metres of space in seven wings. In December 2008 was sold to Real IS AG for A$186 million, planning for the refurbishment was undertaken by HBO+EMTB. The refurbishment caused some concern about the preservation of heritage values of the building, the building was originally designed as office space for Australian federal trade agencies. In the 1990s the building was occupied by the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries, a range of other agencies have occupied parts of the building, including the Australian Public Service Commission and the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. The Australian Federal Police undertook to occupy the building from mid-2009, the Edmund Barton Building is regarded as one of Harry Seidlers most important Australian buildings. The Edmund Barton Building site is the location of significant pieces of sculpture. Black Widow is the free standing black painted steel form standing 4. 8m high in the west courtyard, concrete Form is the 7. 3m high precast concrete sculpture in the east courtyard. These two important works were installed in 1975, in addition to these works, a memorial sculpture of Sir Edmund Barton stands at the south-west corner of the building, facing Kings Avenue. Virtualglobetrotter image, showing satellite view of the layout of the Edmund Barton Building, including the six cores, seven wings
7.
Peter Dutton
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Dutton was the Minister for Health and the Minister for Sport from 18 September 2013 and Minister for Immigration and Border Protection from 21 December 2014 in the Abbott Government. Dutton retained his portfolio in the Turnbull Government and he has also worked in the Sex Offenders Squad and The National Crime Authority. On leaving the police in 1999 he became a businessman and completed a Bachelor of Business at the Queensland University of Technology, Dutton is married to Kirilly and has two sons and a daughter. Dutton was elected to the Division of Dickson at the 2001 election, after the 2004 federal election Dutton was appointed to the ministry. He was Minister for Workforce Participation from 2004 to 2006, in January 2006 he was appointed Assistant Treasurer and Minister for Revenue. Dutton successfully retained Dickson in the 2007 federal election, following the 2007 election, Dutton was promoted by Brendan Nelson to the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Minister for Finance, Competition Policy and Deregulation. Dutton was appointed as Shadow Minister for Health and Ageing by Malcolm Turnbull in September 2008, in June 2010, Dutton released the Coalition’s mental health policy, The Coalition’s Real Action Plan for Better Mental Health. Dutton contested and won Dickson at the 2010 federal election, achieving a swing of 5. 45% to easily overcome a 2009 redistribution and this resulted in a two-party-preferred vote of 54. 69% as of 23 August 2010. Following the 2010 election, he was appointed as Shadow Minister for Health, Dutton’s election commitments were strongly endorsed by key health stakeholders. The Cancer Council said that “Mr Dutton’s promise to finalise the bowel cancer screening program by 2020 would save an additional 35,000 lives over the next 40 years. ”The Australian Medical Association said “the Coalition has delivered a package of practical, affordable health policies that would strengthen general practice. ”Medicines Australia “welcomed the Coalition’s commitment to restore transparency, predictability. Dutton retained his seat at the 2013 election and he was appointed to the Ministry by former Prime Minister Tony Abbott, and served as Minister for Health and Minister for Sport. As Health Minister, Dutton announced the world-leading $20 billion Medical Research Future Fund, as announced, the capital and any ongoing capital gains of the Medical Research Future Fund will be preserved in perpetuity. Projected expenditure on Medicare increased over 9.5 percent from $18.5 billion in 2012-13 under Labor to a projected $20.32 billion in 2014-15 under Dutton. In a 2015 poll by Australian Doctor magazine, Dutton was voted the worst health minister in the last 35 years, on 23 December 2014, Dutton was sworn in as the Minister for Immigration and Border Protection after a cabinet reshuffle. The Migration Act 1958 gives the minister the power to impose a character test on people requesting visas to enter Australia. Https, //www. youtube. com/channel/UC7jepoaWUMUqqn5C10spSDg In 2015, Dutton cancelled the visa of anti-abortion activist Troy Newman, in November 2016, Dutton said that it was a mistake of a previous administration to have brought out Lebanese Muslim immigrants. Foreign Minister Julie Bishop said Dutton was making a point about those charged with terrorism offences. He made it clear that he respects and appreciates the contribution that the Lebanese community make in Australia
8.
Andrew Colvin
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Andrew Colvin is an Australian police officer and the current Commissioner of the Australian Federal Police and a Member of the Order of Australia. From July 2009 and May 2010 he studied for and received a Masters in Public Administration from Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy School of Government, Andrew Colvin is married with two children. He joined the Australian Federal Police in 1990 and he has worked in policing narcotics, money laundering, politically motivated crime, illegal pornography and terrorism financing. He oversaw Australias policing response to the 2002 Bali bombings, for which he was awarded the Order of Australia Medal in 2003, in 2008 Andrew Colvin was awarded the Australian Police Medal. He replaced Commissioner Tony Negus as head of the AFP in September 2014
9.
Law enforcement
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Most law enforcement is conducted by some type of law enforcement agency, with the most typical agency fulfilling this role being the police. Law enforcement agencies tend to be limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction, various specialized segments of society may have their own internal law enforcement arrangements. For example, military organizations may have military police, outline of law enforcement – structured list of topics related to law enforcement, organized by subject area Criminal law Biosecurity Commons
10.
Government of Australia
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The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia is the government of the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 as a result of an agreement among six self-governing British colonies, the terms of this contract are embodied in the Australian Constitution, which was drawn up at a Constitutional Convention and ratified by the people of the colonies at referendums. Separation of powers is implied by the structure of the Constitution, the Australian system of government combines elements of the Westminster and Washington systems with unique Australian characteristics, and has been characterised as a Washminster mutation. Section 51 of the Constitution provides for the Commonwealth Governments legislative powers and allocates certain powers, all remaining responsibilities are retained by the six States. Further, each State has its own constitution, so that Australia has seven sovereign Parliaments, the High Court of Australia arbitrates on any disputes which arise between the Commonwealth and the States, or among the States, concerning their respective functions. The Commonwealth Parliament can propose changes to the Constitution, the Commonwealth Constitution also provides that the States can agree to refer any of their powers to the Commonwealth. This may be achieved by way of an amendment to the Constitution via referendum, more commonly powers may be transferred by passing other acts of legislation which authorise the transfer and such acts require the legislative agreement of all the state governments involved. This transfer legislation may have a clause, a legislative provision that nullifies the transfer of power after a specified period. In addition, Australia has several territories, two of which are self-governing, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, Australian citizens in these territories are represented by members of both houses of the Commonwealth Parliament. The territory of Norfolk Island was self-governing from 1979 until 2016, the other territories that are regularly inhabited—Jervis Bay, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands—have never been self-governing. The federal nature of the Commonwealth and the structure of the Parliament of Australia were the subject of protracted negotiations among the colonies during the drafting of the Constitution, the House of Representatives is elected on a basis that reflects the differing populations of the States. Thus New South Wales has 48 members while Tasmania has only five, but the Senate is elected on a basis of equality among the States, all States elect 12 Senators, regardless of population. This was intended to allow the Senators of the smaller States to form a majority, the ACT and the NT each elect two Senators. The third level of government after Commonwealth and State/Territory is Local government, in the form of shires, towns, the Councils of these areas are composed of elected representatives, usually serving part-time. Their powers are devolved to them by the State or Territory in which they are located, with this act, Australian law was made unequivocally sovereign, and the High Court of Australia was confirmed as the highest court of appeal. The theoretical possibility of the British Parliament enacting laws to override the Australian Constitution was also removed, the Legislature makes the laws, and supervises the activities of the other two arms with a view to changing the laws when appropriate. The Australian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the Queen of Australia, a 76-member Senate, twelve Senators from each state are elected for six-year terms, using proportional representation and the single transferable vote, with half elected every three years. In addition to the state Senators, two senators are elected by voters from the Northern Territory, while another two senators are elected by the voters of the Australian Capital Territory
11.
National security
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The concept developed all in the United States after World War II. Accordingly, in order to possess national security, a nation needs to possess economic security, energy security, environmental security, the variety of definitions provide an overview of the many usages of this concept. National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, in 1990, Harvard University history professor Charles Maier defined national security through the lens of national power, National security. The variety of definitions provide an overview of the usages of this concept. National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, in 1990, Harvard University history professor Charles Maier defined national security through the lens of national power, National security. To be truly secure, a nation needs other forms of security, authorities differ in their choice of nation security elements. Besides the military aspect of security, the aspects of diplomacy or politics, society, environment, energy and natural resources, the elements of national security correlate closely to the concept of the elements of national power. Romm lists security from narcotic cartels, economic security, environmental security, military security is traditionally the earliest recognised form of national security. Military security implies the capability of a nation to defend itself, alternatively, military security implies the capability of a nation to enforce its policy choices by use of military force. The term military security is considered synonymous with security in much of its usage, diplomacy, negotiation and other interactions form the means of interaction between the objects. Historically, conquest of nations has made conquerors rich through plunder, access to new resources, economic security today forms, arguably, as important a part of national security as military security. The creation and protection of jobs that supply defense and non-defense needs are vital to national security, third world countries are less secure due to lack of employment for their citizens. Environmental security deals with issues which threaten the national security of a nation in any manner. The scope and nature of environmental threats to security and strategies to engage them are a subject of debate. While all environmental events are not considered significant of being categorised as threats, many transnational issues, romm classifies these as, Transnational environmental problems that threaten a nations security, in its broad defined sense. These include global environmental problems such as climate change due to warming, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Environmental or resource problems that threaten a nations security, traditionally defined and these would be problems whose outcomes would result in conventional threats to national security as first or higher order outcomes. Environmentally threatening outcomes of warfare, e. g. Prabhakaran Paleris 2008 definition of a resource is. a support inventory, biotic or abiotic, renewable or expendable. for sustaining life at a heightened level of well-being
12.
Police commissioner
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Police commissioner is a senior rank in many police forces. The holder is usually a police officer, though some are politically appointed. In such a case, there is usually a chief of police in charge of day-to-day operations. In either event, the commissioner is the head of the organization. In police services of the UK, Commonwealth and USA, the title of commissioner typically designates the head of a police force. A police commissioner should not be confused with a police commissary, in France, Spain and some Latin American countries commissary denotes the head of a single police station. However titles such as commissaire in French and comisario in Spanish can mean either commissioner or commissary in English, the Australian Federal Police and the autonomous Australian state and territory police forces are each presided over by a commissioner, who is accountable to constituents through a minister of state. The state of Victoria at one time appointed commissioners for both the area and the goldfields. Outranking both was a chief commissioner—a title which has survived the disappearance of the earlier junior commissioners, in Victoria, as elsewhere, the second-highest rank is deputy commissioner. In all other forces, the insignia is a crown over crossed and wreathed tipstaves. In Canada, the officer of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. In the province of Alberta, the Police Act requires the municipality to appoint police commissioners that are required to provide oversight of the police. The commissioners appoint and oversee a chief of police, to whom is delegated the management of the force. The head of the Hong Kong Police force has used this title since 1938, in reference to the police of France and other French-speaking countries, the word commissioner might be used to translate commissaire, which also translates as commissary. It is a rank equating approximately to the British police rank of chief superintendent, the rank above is called divisional commissary. A former intermediate rank of principal commissary was abolished in 2006, the second-highest career bracket in German law enforcement leads to the rank of police commissioner or Kommissar. Training encompasses 3 years in a police academy, the highest possible rank within this career bracket is that of Erster Polizeihauptkommissar or Erster Kriminalhauptkommissar. The work of a Kommissar, in general, centers on investigation of felonies, depending on the branch of police, roughly equivalent to a British commissioner would be Polizeipräsident or Inspekteur der Polizei, titles that differ between police forces in Germany
13.
Transnational crime
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Transnational crimes are crimes that have actual or potential effect across national borders and crimes that are intrastate but offend fundamental values of the international community. The term is used in the law enforcement and academic communities. Transnational organized crime refers specifically to transnational crime carried out by crime organizations, the word transnational describes crimes that are not only international, but crimes that by their nature involve cross-border transference as an essential part of the criminal activity. Transnational crimes also include crimes that take place in one country, transnational crimes may also be crimes of customary international law or international crimes when committed in certain circumstances. For example, they may in certain situations constitute crimes against humanity, the international community is confronted with an increasing level of transnational crime in which criminal conduct in one country has an impact in another or even several others. Moreover, problems of weakened states and transnational crime create an unholy confluence that is uniquely challenging, nonetheless, in situations in which a government is unable to cooperate in the arrest or prosecution of a criminal, the offended state has few options for recourse. Given the limits on the exercise of extraterritorial enforcement jurisdiction, states have developed mechanisms to cooperate in criminal matters. The primary mechanisms used in this regard are extradition, lawful removal, extradition is the mechanism by which one sovereign requests and obtains custody of a fugitive located within the jurisdiction and control of another sovereign. It is an ancient mechanism, dating back to at least the thirteenth century BCE, through the extradition process, a sovereign typically makes a formal request to another sovereign. If the fugitive is found within the territory of the state, then the requested state may arrest the fugitive. The extradition procedures to which the fugitive will be subjected are dependent on the law, aside from mechanisms for the return of fugitives, states have also developed mechanisms for requesting and obtaining evidence for criminal investigations and prosecutions. Many countries are able to provide a range of mutual legal assistance to other countries even in the absence of a treaty. There can be few issues on international legal opinion is more clear than on the condemnation of torture
14.
Crime
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In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition. The most popular view is that crime is a created by law, in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act not only to some individual. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law, the notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is an offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, the state has the power to severely restrict ones liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere, usually, to be classified as a crime, the act of doing something criminal must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the intention to do something criminal. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime, breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate certain behaviors in general. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system, Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity, they may include incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments, legal mutilation, usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. Conversely, at least under U. S. law, nonpersons such as animals cannot commit crimes, the sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states crime is a phenomenon he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning I decide, originally the Latin word crīmen meant charge or cry of distress. The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to a mistake or an offense against the community. In 13th century English crime meant sinfulness, according to etymonline. com and it was probably brought to England as Old French crimne, from Latin crimen. In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following, charge, indictment, accusation, crime, fault, the word may derive from the Latin cernere – to decide, to sift
15.
Organized crime
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Some criminal organizations, such as terrorist groups, are politically motivated. Sometimes criminal organizations force people to do business with them, such as when a gang extorts money from shopkeepers for so-called protection, gangs may become disciplined enough to be considered organized. A criminal organization or gang can also be referred to as a mafia, mob, or crime syndicate, European sociologists define the mafia as a type of organized crime group that specializes in the supply of extra-legal protection and quasi law enforcement. There is a tendency to distinguish organized crime from other forms of crime, such as crime, financial crimes, political crimes, war crime, state crimes. This distinction is not always apparent and academics continue to debate the matter, for example, in failed states that can no longer perform basic functions such as education, security, or governance, organised crime, governance and war sometimes complement each other. The term Oligarchy has been used to describe democratic countries whose political, social and economic institutions come under the control of a few families, in the United States, the Organized Crime Control Act defines organized crime as he unlawful activities of a highly organized, disciplined association. Criminal activity as a process is referred to as racketeering. In the UK, police estimate that organized crime involves up to 38,000 people operating in 6,000 various groups, bureaucratic/corporate organized crime groups are defined by the general rigidity of their internal structures. An estimate on youth street gangs nationwide provided by Hannigan, et al. marked an increase of 35% between 2002 and 2010, the term “street gang” is commonly used interchangeably with “youth gang, ” referring to neighborhood or street-based youth groups that meet “gang” criteria. Some reasons youth join gangs include to feel accepted, attain status, a sense of unity brings together many of the youth gangs that lack the family aspect at home. Zones of transition are deteriorating neighborhoods with shifting populations, in such areas, conflict between groups, fighting, turf wars, and theft promote solidarity and cohesion. Participation in gang-related events during adolescence perpetuate a pattern of maltreatment on their own children years later, klein like Spergel studied the effects on members of social workers’ interventions. More interventions actually lead to greater participation and solidarity and bonds between members. Downes and Rock on Parker’s analysis, strain theory applies, labeling theory, control theory and these may also be defined by age or peer group influences, and the permanence or consistency of their criminal activity. These groups also form their own identity or public representation which are recognizable by the community at large. Some studied street gangs involved in drug dealing - finding that their structure, members saw themselves as organized criminals, gangs were formal-rational organizations, Strong organizational structures, well defined roles and rules that guided members’ behavior. Also a specified and regular means of income, padilla agreed with the two above. However some have found these to be rather than well-defined and lacking persistent focus, there was relatively low cohesion, few shared goals
16.
Terrorism
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
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Violent extremism
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Violent extremism refers to the beliefs and actions of people who support or use ideologically motivated violence to achieve radical ideological, religious or political views. Violent extremist views can be exhibited along a range of issues, including politics, religion, no society, religious community or worldview is immune to violent extremism. Radical thought that does not condone the exercise of violence to further political goals may be seen as normal and acceptable and it is often used as a code name for Islamic terrorism. There is no profile or pathway for radicalization, or even speed at which it happens. Nor does the level of education seem to be a predictor of vulnerability to radicalization. It is however established that there are socio-economic, psychological and institutional factors that lead to violent extremism, specialists group these factors into three main categories, push factors, pull factors and contextual factors. Groups can also lure new members by providing outlets for grievances and promise of adventure, furthermore, these groups appear to offer spiritual comfort, “a place to belong” and a supportive social network. Contextual factors that provide a terrain to the emergence of violent extremist groups, such as, fragile states. The following behaviours in combination have been identified as signs of radicalization, Sudden break with the family. Sudden drop-out of school and conflicts with the school, change in behaviour relating to food, clothing, language or finances. Changes in attitudes and behaviour towards others, antisocial comments, rejection of authority, refusal to interact socially, signs of withdrawal, regular viewing of internet sites and participation in social media networks that condone radical or extremist views. Reference to apocalyptic and conspiracy theories, the role of education in preventing violent extremism and de-radicalizing young people has only recently gained global acceptance. Developing critical thinking to investigate claims, verify rumours and question the legitimacy, fostering critically informed citizens able to constructively engage in peaceful collective action. Terrorism Religious terrorism Religious fanaticism Boko Haram Al Qaeda The Taliban ISIL Islamic extremism Christian terrorism
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Cybercrime
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Cybercrime, or computer related crime, is crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer may have used in the commission of a crime. Debarati Halder and K. Cybercrime may threaten a person or a nations security, there are also problems of privacy when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. Debarati Halder and K. Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes, activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare. Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to online credit and debit card fraud in the US, in 2016, a study by Juniper Research estimated that the costs of cybercrime could be as high as 2.1 trillion by 2019. Computer crime encompasses a range of activities. Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss, in this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by, Altering in an unauthorized way. A variety of scams, many based on phishing and social engineering, target consumers. Government officials and information technology security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems, cyberterrorism in general can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources. As such, a propaganda piece in the Internet that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to or threatened with repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers and these hackers demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and to offer protection. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI, perpetrators typically use a distributed denial-of-service attack. An example of cyberextortion was the attack on Sony Pictures of 2014, the U. S. Department of Defense notes that the cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geo-strategic significance. Among those are included, the attack on Estonias infrastructure in 2007, in August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyberattacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia. Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states and these crimes are committed by a selected group of criminals. Unlike crimes using the computer as a tool, these require the technical knowledge of the perpetrators. As such, as technology evolves, so too does the nature of the crime and these crimes are relatively new, having been in existence for only as long as computers have—which explains how unprepared society and the world in general is towards combating these crimes. These crimes generally involve less technical expertise, the damage dealt is largely psychological and intangible, making legal action against the variants more difficult
19.
Child exploitation
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Child sexual abuse or child molestation is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent uses a child for sexual stimulation. Forms of child sexual abuse include engaging in activities with a child, indecent exposure, child grooming. Child sexual abuse can occur in a variety of settings, including home, school, Child marriage is one of the main forms of child sexual abuse, UNICEF has stated that child marriage represents perhaps the most prevalent form of sexual abuse and exploitation of girls. Sexual abuse by a member is a form of incest and can result in more serious and long-term psychological trauma. The global prevalence of sexual abuse has been estimated at 19. 7% for females and 7. 9% for males. Most child sexual abuse is committed by men, studies on female child molesters show that women commit 14% to 40% of offenses reported against boys, Child sexual abuse can result in both short-term and long-term harm, including psychopathology in later life. While children may exhibit regressive behaviours such as thumb sucking or bedwetting, teenage pregnancy and risky sexual behaviors may appear in adolescence. Child sexual abuse victims report almost four times as many incidences of self-inflicted harm, a well-documented, long-term negative effect is the repeated or additional victimization in adolescence and adulthood. A causal relationship has been found between childhood sexual abuse and various adult psychopathologies, including crime and suicide, in addition to alcoholism, males who were sexually abused as children more frequently appear in the criminal justice system than in a clinical mental health setting. A study comparing middle-aged women who were abused as children with non-abused counterparts found significantly higher health costs for the former. Intergenerational effects have been noted, with the children of victims of sexual abuse exhibiting more conduct problems, peer problems. A specific characteristic pattern of symptoms has not been identified, studies have found that 51% to 79% of sexually abused children exhibit psychological symptoms. The risk of harm is if the abuser is a relative, if the abuse involves intercourse or attempted intercourse. The level of harm may also be affected by factors such as penetration, duration and frequency of abuse. The social stigma of child abuse may compound the psychological harm to children. When severe sexual abuse had occurred, dissociative symptoms were more prominent. Besides dissociative identity disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder, child sexual abuse survivors may present borderline personality disorder, other studies have found an independent association of child sexual abuse with adverse psychological outcomes. A1998 meta-analysis by Bruce Rind et al, the study was criticized for flawed methodology and conclusions
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Illegal drug trade
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The illegal drug trade is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of drugs that are subject to drug prohibition laws. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of types of drugs through the use of drug prohibition laws. A UN report has stated that the drug trade generated an estimated US$321.6 billion in 2003. With a world GDP of US$36 trillion in the same year, consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally. Chinese edicts against opium smoking were made in 1729,1796 and 1800, addictive drugs were prohibited in the west in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the early 19th century, a drug trade in China emerged and as a result. The Chinese government responded by enforcing a ban on the import of opium that led to the First Opium War between the United Kingdom and Qing dynasty China, the United Kingdom won and forced China to allow British merchants to trade opium. Trading in opium was lucrative, and smoking opium had become common in the 19th century, the Second Opium War broke out in 1856, with the British joined this time by the French. In 1868, as a result of the use of opium. Between 1920 and 1933, by the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the beginning of the 21st century saw a drug use increase in North America and Europe, with a particularly increased demand for marijuana and cocaine. As a result, international organized crime such as the Sinaloa Cartel. Another illicit drug with increased demand in Europe is hashish, Drug trafficking is widely regarded by lawmakers as a serious offense around the world. Penalties often depend on the type of drug, the quantity trafficked, if the drugs are sold to underage people, then the penalties for trafficking may be harsher than in other circumstances. Drug smuggling carries severe penalties in many countries, sentencing may include lengthy periods of incarceration, flogging and even the death penalty. In December 2005, Van Tuong Nguyen, a 25-year-old Australian drug smuggler, was hanged in Singapore after being convicted in March 2004, in 2010, two people were sentenced to death in Malaysia for trafficking 1 kilogram of cannabis into the country. The countries of production and transit are some of the most affected by the drug trade. For example, Ecuador has absorbed up to 300,000 refugees from Colombia who are running from guerrillas, paramilitaries, while some applied for asylum, others are still illegal immigrants. The drugs that pass from Colombia through Ecuador to other parts of South America create economic, Honduras, through which an estimated 79% of cocaine passes on its way to the United States, has the highest murder rate in the world
21.
Human trafficking
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Human trafficking is the trade of humans, most commonly for the purpose of forced labor, sexual slavery, or commercial sexual exploitation for the trafficker or others. This may encompass providing a spouse in the context of forced marriage, or the extraction of organs or tissues, including for surrogacy, Human trafficking can occur within a country or trans-nationally. Human trafficking is a crime against the person because of the violation of the rights of movement through coercion. Human trafficking is the trade in people, and does not necessarily involve the movement of the person from one place to another, according to the International Labour Organization, forced labor alone generates an estimated $150 billion in profits per annum as of 2014. Estimated that 21 million victims are trapped in modern-day slavery, of these,14.2 million were exploited for labor,4.5 million were sexually exploited, and 2.2 million were exploited in state-imposed forced labor. Human trafficking is thought to be one of the activities of trans-national criminal organizations. Human trafficking is condemned as a violation of rights by international conventions. In addition, human trafficking is subject to a directive in the European Union, the protocol is one of three which supplement the CTOC. The Trafficking Protocol is the first global, legally binding instrument on trafficking in over half a century, one of its purposes is to facilitate international cooperation in investigating and prosecuting such trafficking. Another is to protect and assist human traffickings victims with full respect for their rights as established in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in 2014, the International Labour Organization estimated $150 billion in annual profit is generated from forced labor alone. The average cost of a trafficking victim today is USD $90,000 which. The average slave in 1800 America was the equivalent to USD $40,000, though illegal, there may be no deception or coercion involved. After entry into the country and arrival at their ultimate destination, Human trafficking, on the other hand, is a crime against a person because of the violation of the victims rights through coercion and exploitation. Unlike most cases of smuggling, victims of human trafficking are not permitted to leave upon arrival at their destination. While smuggling requires travel, trafficking does not, trafficked people are held against their will through acts of coercion, and forced to work for or provide services to the trafficker or others. The work or services may include anything from bonded or forced labor to commercial sexual exploitation, the arrangement may be structured as a work contract, but with no or low payment, or on terms which are highly exploitative. Sometimes the arrangement is structured as debt bondage, with the not being permitted or able to pay off the debt. Bonded labor, or debt bondage, is probably the least known form of labor trafficking today, generally, the value of their work is greater than the original sum of money borrowed
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Australian Capital Territory
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The Australian Capital Territory is the federal district in the south east of Australia, enclaved within New South Wales. Its only city is Canberra, the city of Australia. The ACT also has a strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula. The need for a territory was flagged by colonial delegates during the Federation conventions of the late 19th century. Section 125 of the Australian Constitution provided that, following Federation in 1901, the territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of New South Wales in 1911, two years prior to the naming of Canberra as the national capital in 1913. The floral emblem of the ACT is the royal bluebell and the emblem is the gang-gang cockatoo. The economic activity of the Australian Capital Territory is heavily concentrated around Canberra and this trend continued into 2016, when the territory was ranked the third best performing out of all of Australias states and territories. There is a proportion of young adults in the region compared with other Australian states or territories. Approximately one-fifth of ACT residents were born outside of Australia, mainly in the United Kingdom, almost one-fifth speak a language other than English at home, the most common being Chinese. The ACT also has a strip of territory around the southern end of the Beecroft Peninsula. Apart from the city of Canberra, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land, small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall. There are a range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers, Canberra is noted for its warm to hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the mountains in the territorys south-west are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 mm, with rainfall highest in spring and summer, the highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 °C at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was −14.6 °C at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971, notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the Canberra Formation, the Pittman Formation, Black Mountain Sandstone and State Circle Shale. In the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon, at the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting, the oldest rocks in the ACT date from the Ordovician around 480 million years ago
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Territories of Australia
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Australia is a federation of six states, together with ten federal territories. The Australian mainland consists of five of the six federated states, the state of Tasmania is an island about 200 kilometers from the mainland. The remaining seven territories are classified for some purposes as external territories, aside from the Australian Antarctic Territory, which is Australias claim to part of Antarctica, Australia is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area. Since 2015, federal control has also extended to the formerly self-governing territory of Norfolk Island. Three of the territories are inhabited, the others are uninhabited. The term geographic Australia is used by the Australian government to describe the area covered by demographic statistics such as national population figures and this area comprises Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands in addition to the six states and three mainland territories. Norfolk Island is the territory with a native population that is not part of geographic Australia. Both territories were reincorporated as the Northern Territory at the end of this period, from 1923 to 1968, the United Nations Trust Territory of Nauru was under Australian administration, until independence as the Republic of Nauru. From 1949 to 1975, the Territory of Papua and New Guinea was a territory of Australia, the states originated as separate British colonies prior to Federation in 1901. Upon Federation, the six colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, the territories, by contrast, are from a constitutional perspective directly subject to the Commonwealth Government, laws for territories are determined by the Australian Parliament. Most of the territories are directly administered by the Commonwealth Government, in the self-governing territories, the Australian Parliament retains the full power to legislate, and can override laws made by the territorial institutions, which it has done on rare occasions. For the purposes of Australian intergovernmental bodies, the Northern Territory, each state has a Governor, appointed by the Queen, which by convention she does on the advice of the state Premier. The Administrator of the Northern Territory, by contrast, is appointed by the Governor-General, Jervis Bay Territory is the only non-self-governing internal territory. Until 1989, it was administered as if it were a part of the ACT, although residents of the Jervis Bay Territory are generally subject to laws made by the ACT Legislative Assembly, they are not represented in the Assembly. They are represented in the Parliament of Australia as part of the Electoral Division of Fraser in the ACT, in other respects, the territory is administered directly by the Federal Government through the Territories portfolio. The external territory of Norfolk Island possessed a degree of self-government from 1979 until 2015, each state has a bicameral parliament except Queensland, which abolished its upper house in 1922. The lower house is called the Legislative Assembly, except in South Australia and Tasmania, Tasmania is the only state to use proportional representation for elections to its lower house, all others elect members from single member constituencies, using preferential voting. The upper house is called the Legislative Council and is elected from multi-member constituencies using proportional representation
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Bodyguard
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The group of personnel who protect a VIP are often referred to as the VIPs security detail. Less-important public figures, or those with lower profiles, may be accompanied by a single bodyguard who doubles as a driver. A number of celebrities and CEOs also use bodyguards. In some countries or regions, wealthy people may have a bodyguard when they travel, in some cases, the security personnel use an armoured vehicle, which protects them and the VIP. The role of a bodyguard depends on several factors, first, it depends on the role of a given bodyguard in a close protection team. Second, the role of a bodyguard depends on the level of risk that the client faces, a bodyguard protecting a client at high risk of assassination will be focusing on very different roles than a bodyguard escorting a celebrity who is being stalked by aggressive tabloid photographers. Some bodyguards specialize in the close protection of children of VIPs. In some cases, bodyguards also drive their clients, if parking services tow away or disable the car, then the bodyguard cannot use the car to escape with the client in case there is a security threat while the client is at their meeting. The driver should be trained in evasive driving techniques, such as executing short-radius turns to change the direction of the vehicle, high-speed cornering, and so on. The car used by the client will typically be a large sedan with a low center of gravity, in some countries, large trucks such as Suburbans are used for VIPs. At a minimum, the vehicle should have glass in the windows, some type of armor reinforcement to protect the client from gunfire. Run-flat tires and armor protection for the driver are also desirable, in Latin American countries many armored cars will come with a siren and lights to use in situations were they need to get out of places quickly. Decoy convoys and vehicles are used to prevent tailing, in the event the convoy holding the client is compromised and ambushed, decoy convoys can also act as a reinforcement force that can ambush a force that is attacking the primary convoy. Some clients rotate between residences in different cities when attending events or meetings to prevent being tailed home or to a private location. Some bodyguards such as those protecting high ranking government officials or those operating in high risk environments such as war zones may carry assault rifles, bin Ladens personal security detail consisted of bodyguards. personally selected by him. Their arsenal included SAM-7 and Stinger missiles, AK-47s, RPGs, Bodyguards that protect high-risk principals may wear body armor such as kevlar or ceramic vests. The bodyguards may also have other ballistic shields, such as kevlar-reinforced briefcases or clipboards which, while appearing innocuous, the principal may also wear body armor in high-risk situations. For a close protection officer, the tactic against sniper attacks is defensive
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Prime Minister of Australia
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The Prime Minister of the Commonwealth of Australia is the head of government of Australia. The individual who holds the office is the most senior Minister of the Crown, the leader of the Cabinet, the office is not mentioned in the Constitution of Australia and exists only through longstanding political convention and tradition. Despite this, in practice it is the most powerful position in Australia. The individual who holds the office is commissioned by the Governor-General of Australia, almost always and according to convention, the Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party or largest party in a coalition of parties in the House of Representatives. However, there is no requirement that the prime minister sit in the House of Representatives. The only case where a member of the Senate was appointed minister was John Gorton. Malcolm Turnbull has held the office of Prime Minister since 15 September 2015, the Prime Minister and Treasurer are traditionally members of the House, but the Constitution does not have such a requirement. Before being sworn in as a Minister of the Crown, a person must first be sworn in as a member of the Federal Executive Council if they are not already a member. Membership of the Federal Executive Council entitles the member to the style of The Honourable for life, the senior members of the Executive Council constitute the Cabinet of Australia. The Prime Minister is, like ministers, normally sworn in by the Governor-General. When defeated in an election, or on resigning, the Prime Minister is said to hand in the commission, in the event of a Prime Minister dying in office, or becoming incapacitated, the Governor-General can terminate the commission. Despite the importance of the office of minister, the Constitution does not mention the office by name. The conventions of the Westminster system were thought to be entrenched in Australia by the authors of the Constitution that it was deemed unnecessary to detail them. The formal title of the portfolio has always been simply Prime Minister, except for the period of the Fourth Deakin Ministry, Page was the leader of the smaller party in the governing coalition, the Country Party. He held the office for three weeks until the UAP elected a new leader, Robert Menzies, in August 1941 Menzies resigned as prime minister. In July 1945 John Curtin died suddenly and his deputy, Frank Forde, was sworn in the next day as prime minister, although the Labor Party had not had an opportunity to meet and elect a new leader. Forde served for eight days until Ben Chifley was elected leader, Chifley was then sworn in, replacing Forde, who became Australias shortest-serving prime minister. Harold Holt disappeared while swimming on 17 December 1967 and was declared presumed dead on 19 December, the governor-general, Lord Casey, commissioned the Leader of the Country Party, John McEwen, to form a government until the Liberal Party elected a new leader
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Asia-Pacific
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Asia-Pacific or Asia Pacific is the part of the world in or near the Western Pacific Ocean. The region varies in size depending on context, but it typically includes much of East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia. On the whole appears to be no clear cut definition of Asia Pacific. Though imprecise, the term has become popular since the late 1980s in commerce, finance, in fact, despite the heterogeneity of the regions economies, most individual nations within the zone are emerging markets experiencing rapid growth
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United Nations
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The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
28.
Peacekeeping
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Peacekeeping refers to activities intended to create conditions that favor lasting peace. Research generally finds that peacekeeping reduces civilian and battlefield deaths and reduces the risk of renewed warfare, such assistance may come in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Accordingly, the UN peacekeepers can include soldiers, police officers, the United Nations is not the only organization to implement peacekeeping missions. Non-UN peacekeeping forces include the NATO mission in Kosovo and the Multinational Force, the Nonviolent Peaceforce is one NGO widely considered to have expertise in general peacemaking by non-governmental volunteers or activists. There are a range of types of operations encompassed in peacekeeping. In Page Fortna’s book Does Peacekeeping Work, for instance, she distinguishes four different types of peacekeeping operations, importantly, these types of missions and how they are conducted are heavily influenced by the mandate in which they are authorized. Three of Fortna’s four types are consent-based missions, i. e. Chapter VI missions, Chapter VI missions are consent based, therefore they require the consent of the belligerent factions involved in order to operate. Should they lose that consent, Peacekeepers would be compelled to withdraw, Chapter VII missions, by contrast, do not require consent, though they may have it. If consent is lost at any point, Chapter VII missions would not be required to withdraw, observation Missions which consist of small contingents of military or civilian observers tasked with monitoring cease-fires, troop withdrawals, or other conditions outlined in a ceasefire agreement. They are typically unarmed and are tasked with observing and reporting on what is taking place. Thus, they do not possess the capability or mandate to intervene should either side renege on the agreement, examples of observation missions include UNAVEM II in Angola in 1991 and MINURSO in the Western Sahara. Thus, they serve as a zone between the two sides and can monitor and report on the compliance of either side with regard to parameters established in a given ceasefire agreement. Examples include UNAVEM III in Angola in 1994, and MINUGUA in Guatemala in 1996, multidimensional missions are carried out by military and police personnel in which they attempt to implement robust and comprehensive settlements. Examples include UNTAG in Namibia, ONUSAL in El Salvador, Peace enforcement Missions are Chapter VII missions and unlike the previous Chapter VI missions, they do not require the consent of the belligerent parties. These are multidimensional operations comprising both civilian and military personnel, the military force is substantial in size and fairly well-equipped by UN Peacekeeping standards. They are mandated to use force for purposes beyond just self-defense, examples include ECOMOG and UNAMSIL in West Africa and Sierra Leone in 1999, as well as the NATO operations in Bosnia—IFOR and SFOR. During the Cold War, peacekeeping was primarily interpositional in nature—thus being referred to as traditional peacekeeping, Missions were consent-based, and more often than not observers were unarmed—such was the case with UNTSO in the Middle East and UNCIP in India and Pakistan. Others were armed—such as UNEF-I, established during the Suez Crisis and they were largely successful in this role
29.
Australian Security Intelligence Organisation
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ASIO is comparable with the British Security Service and the American Federal Bureau of Investigation. Generally ASIO operations requiring police powers are co-ordinated with the Australian Federal Police and/or with State, ASIO officers have the right to arrest and detain. ASIO Central Office is in Canberra, with an office being located in each mainland state. A new AUD $630 million Central Office, named the Ben Chifley Building, was opened by the Prime Minister Kevin Rudd on 23 July 2013. ASIO is a body under the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation Act 1979 and is responsible to the Parliament of Australia through the Attorney-General. The Organisation also reports to the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security, the head of ASIO is the Director-General of Security, who oversees the strategic management of ASIO within guidelines issued by the Attorney-General. The current Director-General is Duncan Lewis, who assumed office in September 2014, in 2013, ASIO had a staff of around 1,740 personnel. The identity of ASIO officers, apart from the Director-General, remains an official secret, while ASIO is an equal opportunity employer, there has been some media comment of the Organisations apparent difficulty in attracting people from a Muslim or Middle Eastern background. The Director-General also has the power to issue a warrant should a serious security situation arise. The Director-General is not empowered to issue a warrant in relation to the investigation of terrorism. While The Act does not define any activities specifically to be legal, section 35k defines these activities as not being immune from liability for special intelligence conduct during special intelligence operations. Because of the nature of its work, ASIO does not make details of its activities public, ASIO and the Commonwealth Government say that operational measures ensuring the legality of ASIO operations have been established. ASIO briefs the Attorney General on all issues affecting security. ASIO reports to several governmental and parliamentary committees dealing with security, legislative and this includes the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security. A classified annual report is provided to the government, an unclassified edited version of which is tabled in Federal Parliament. The Office of the Inspector-General of Intelligence and Security was established in 1986 to provide oversight of Australia’s security. The Inspector-General has complete access to all ASIO records and has a range of inquisitorial powers, Australia’s intelligence and security agencies maintain close working relationships with the foreign and domestic intelligence and security agencies of other nations. As of 22 October 2008, ASIO has established relationships with 311 authorities in 120 countries
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Australian Border Force
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The ABF is a law enforcement agency operating under the Australian Border Force Act 2015 with broadened legislative powers including the introduction of sworn officers. A new uniform was introduced and following the transition there was increase in the number of officers authorised to carry firearms, as of 2016, approximately 15% of the Force is firearms trained which will increase by 2020 to less than 25%. Immigration Minister Scott Morrison MP announced the establishment of the Force on 9 May 2014 to be based on a hybrid of the United Kingdom Border Force model, the National Commission of Audit recommended the merger in February 2014. The Australian Border Force Bill 2015 was introduced on 25 February 2015, the ABF is the operational arm of the Department of Immigration and Border Protection. Its mission is to protect Australias border and manage the movement of people, the ABF contributes to three national outcomes including strong national security, a strong economy and a prosperous and cohesive society. The ABF has approximately 5800 employees, with about 1000 in corporate or close operational support roles, to achieve its mission the ABF structures itself into two Groups – the Operations Group and the Support Group. The Operations Group has responsibilities for all operational activity relating to the management of travellers, goods, the Maritime Border Command a multi agency task force with the Australian Defence Force sits within the Operations Group. The Australian Border Force has its own rank structure, uniformed Australian Border Force officers have their rank displayed on their shoulder epaulettes, attached to shirts, jumpers or jacket. The rank and epaulette styling is in line with other border agencies and shares close similarities with its United Kingdom counterpart. The ABF rank insignias have four components placed against an ink navy coloured field and these Officers were generally those that worked in Enforcement Operations, Investigations, and the Marine Unit. Since 1 July 2015, with the creation of the Australian Border Force came a change direction, as a result, the ABF has begun to arm trained officers to carry firearms and PDE at all major Australian international airports. ABF Officers are supplied with current generation Glock 17 9mm semi-automatic pistol, ASP21 inch telescopic baton, SAF-LOK MK5 hinged handcuffs, Oleoresin Capsicum Spray. The Marine Unit is a Coast Guard which operates alongside the Royal Australian Navy in the Maritime Border Command, the Marine Unit officers are equipped with the Glock 17 pistol and Remington Model 870 shotgun. The Marine Unit vessels are equipped similar to RAN vessels with the M2 Browning 12. 7mm machine gun that is on loan from the Australian Defence Force. The ABF also has an aviation Coast Guard component operating a fleet of ten privately contracted Dash 8 aircraft which operate alongside the Royal Australian Air Force in the Maritime Board Command. The Australian Border Force uses a big data analysis ecosystem to monitor people and this includes the use of machine learning capabilities across a range of analytical platforms that draw together multiple data sources to provide insights. CMAL comprises two databases, the Person Alert List and the Document Alert List, the PAL database stores the biographical details of identities of concern and DAL is a list of lost, fraudulent or stolen travel documents. PAL records are categorised according to the reason for listing the identity—the alert reason code, there are 19 ARCs with each being categorised as high, medium or low risk
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Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission
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The ACIC was established on 1 July 2016 following the merger of the Australian Crime Commission and CrimTrac. The ACIC was formed to strengthen the ability to respond to crime affecting Australia, the ACIC Board includes representatives of Commonwealth, State and Territory law enforcement and key national security and regulatory agencies. The Board provides strategic direction to the ACIC and is responsible for determining special operations, the ACIC is established under the Australian Crime Commission Act 2002. The ACIC is an amalgamation of the Australian Crime Commission and the CrimTrac Agency, the ACIC has its historical roots in the National Crime Authority. The role and functions of the ACIC are underpinned by supporting legislation in each state, as a Commonwealth statutory authority, the ACIC also has responsibilities under the Public Service Act 1999 and the Public Governance, Performance and Accountability Act 2013. The ACIC is uniquely equipped as Australia’s national criminal intelligence agency with investigative, research, the agency works closely with a broad range of national and international partners to achieve their purpose. The ACIC undertakes criminological research and communicate the findings through the Australian Institute of Criminology, organised crime is now a part of the every day lives of Australians in ways that are unprecedented. The ACIC conservatively estimates organised crime to cost Australia at least A$36 billion annually and it is essential to have effective and efficient information-sharing systems and criminal intelligence to support the operational law enforcement officers who protect our community. The agency does this by bringing together law enforcement information from around the country and making it accessible to all Australian police. The ACIC also manages the National Police Checking Service, the service enables controlled access to disclosable police history information from all Australian police agencies. These capabilities are designed to equip police with the information they need to investigate, solve. This vital information can improve an officer’s decision-making and contribute to a safer Australia, the ACIC’s coercive powers are used in special operations and special investigations to obtain information where traditional law enforcement methods are unlikely to be or have not been effective. The ACIC’s coercive powers, similar to those of a Royal Commission, examiners are appointed by the Governor General. The coercive powers also authorise examiners to issue notices to be served on persons requiring them to produce documents or things relevant to an operation or investigation. This power is broad, and a notice to produce may be issued to a person, the ACIC also has officers internationally deployed and works closely with law enforcement and criminal intelligence agencies in transnational criminal investigations. Parliamentary Joint Committee on the Australian Crime Commission
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Fraser Government
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The Fraser Government refers to the federal Executive Government of Australia led by Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. It was made up of members of a Liberal Party of Australia-Country Party of Australia coalition in the Australian Parliament from November 1975 to March 1983. Billy Snedden led the Liberal-National Coalition in the 1974 Australian Federal Election which saw Whitlam Labor Government re-elected with a majority in the House of Representatives. Malcolm Fraser unsuccessfully challenged for the leadership of the Liberal Party in November 1974, then on 21 March 1975, defeated Snedden, Prime Minister Whitlam refused to call an election. The deadlock came to an end when Whitlam was dismissed by the Governor General, John Kerr on 11 November 1975 and Fraser was installed as caretaker Prime Minister, at elections held in December 1975, Malcolm Fraser and the Coalition were elected in a landslide victory. The election result placed the Liberal Party in a position to govern in its own right, however, Fraser maintained the Coalition, after winning the 1975 election, Fraser won two subsequent elections, with further substantial majorities in 1977 and 1980. Australia had entered recession and faced high inflation under the period of the Whitlam Government. Fraser persuaded his first Treasurer, Phillip Lynch, to resign in 1977, Howard also replaced Lynch as deputy leader of the party in 1982. Howard served as Frasers Treasurer from November 1977 and presented five federal budgets, during the 1970s Howard shifted from a protectionist to a free trade position – in the new economic rationalist mould. The Fraser Government sought to reduce expenditure and streamline the public service, by 1983, the Australian economy was in recession, amidst the effects of a severe drought. The Fraser Government maintained many of the reforms of the Whitlam era. It passed the Human Rights Commission Act 1981, which established the Human Rights Commission and this government also established the position of Commonwealth Ombudsman in 1977 and introduced Australias first freedom of information law. The Fraser government included the first Aboriginal federal parliamentarian, Neville Bonner, in 1976, Parliament passed the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976, which, while limited to the Northern Territory, affirmed inalienable freehold title to some traditional lands. While prior governments had dismantled the White Australia Policy, it was under the Fraser Government that immigration became multiracial. Some 200,000 Asian migrants came to Australia between 1975 and 1982 – of whom 56,000 were Vietnamese refugees, among them around 2000 boatpeople who arrived without documents via sea voyages. The Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs was created and extensive assistance given to resettlement and multiculturalism, Fraser travelled widely as Prime Minister. Andrew Peacock served as his Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Fraser Government was in office during a period of change for the Commonwealth of Nations. Fraser vocally opposed minority white rule in Apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia, at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in 1977 in Scotland, Fraser urged for widespread condemnation of the apartheid system in South Africa and called for support for African countries
33.
Sydney Hilton Hotel bombing
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The Sydney Hilton bombing occurred on 13 February 1978, when a bomb exploded outside the Hilton Hotel in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The bomb was planted in a bin and exploded when the bin was emptied into a garbage truck outside the hotel at 1,40 a. m. It killed two garbage collectors, Alec Carter and William Favell, a police officer guarding the entrance to the hotel lounge, Paul Birmistriw, died later. Twelve foreign leaders were staying in the hotel at the time, Australian prime minister Malcolm Fraser immediately called out the Australian Army for the remainder of the CHOGRM meeting. The Hilton case has been controversial due to allegations that Australian security forces, such as the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation. This led to the New South Wales parliament unanimously calling for the Commonwealth to hold an inquiry in 1991 and 1995, the federal government refused to hold an inquiry. In June 1978, members of the Ananda Marga organisation were implicated by an informant, Richard John Seary. A member of Ananda Marga, Evan Pederick, claimed in 1989 that he had carried out the Hilton bombing on the orders of another member, both men were given prison sentences, but Anderson was acquitted on appeal in 1991. Pederick served eight years in prison, There were a number of unusual circumstances surrounding the bombing, namely, There was a continuous police presence outside the building since the previous morning. This would have prevented anyone placing a bomb into the rubbish bin while the police were there. The garbage bin had not been searched for bombs, searching bins is normally a high priority, and is specified in New South Wales police permanent circular 135. Army dog handler Keith Burley said that his dogs could smell very small quantities of explosives and he said they were unexpectedly called off a few days prior without explanation. The entire truck and all bomb fragments were dumped immediately afterwards at an unrecorded location and this prevented forensic evidence, such as the type of explosive used, from being gathered. William Reeve-Parker provided a declaration that an army officer had admitted planting the bomb by switching rubbish bins 24 hours earlier. Reeve-Parker denied knowledge of who the officer was, although he had helped his son, Reeve-Parker was never called as a witness at the coronial inquest. The officer-in-charge of police immediately after the bombing, Inspector Ian MacDonald, the bombs were designed not to explode but could do so in a garbage truck compactor. The principal private secretary of a senator was told that the bomb squad was waiting nearby at this early hour of the morning. That would suggest that they knew about the bomb, the government would not permit people from the bomb squad to be called as witnesses to the inquest
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Attorney-General for Australia
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The Attorney-General for Australia is the first law officer of the Crown in right of the Commonwealth of Australia, chief law officer of the Commonwealth of Australia and a minister of the Crown. The Attorney-General is usually a member of the Federal Cabinet, under the Constitution they are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister, and serves at the Governor-Generals pleasure. In practice the Attorney-General is a party politician and their tenure is determined by political factors, by convention, but not constitutional requirement, the Attorney-General is a lawyer by training, either a barrister or solicitor. Since 18 September 2013, the Attorney-General for Australia has been Senator the Hon George Brandis QC, the Attorney-General administers the Attorney-Generals Department, and is the minister responsible for the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation. The Attorney-General also serves as a legal adviser to the Cabinet, and has carriage of legislation dealing with copyright, human rights. The Attorney-General is nearly always a person with legal training, billy Hughes was the longest-serving Attorney-General of Australia, serving for thirteen and a half years over four non-consecutive terms. 2 Hughes took silk in 1909, and became a Kings Counsel,3 Whitlam served as part of a two-man ministry together with Lance Barnard for fourteen days, until the full ministry was commissioned. Kerr served as Attorney-General for 26 days, there was no Attorney-General for the eight days between Duffys commission ending on 24 March 1993 and Kerrs commission commencing on 1 April 1993
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Christmas Island
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Christmas Island, officially the Territory of Christmas Island, is an Australian external territory comprising the island of the same name. Christmas Island is located in the Indian Ocean, around 350 kilometres south of Java and Sumatra and it has an area of 135 square kilometres. Christmas Island has a population of just over 2,000 residents, the main settlement is Flying Fish Cove. Around two-thirds of the population are Malaysian Chinese, with significant numbers of Malays. Several languages are in use, including English, Malay, and various Chinese dialects, while Buddhism is the primary religion, the first European to sight the island was Richard Rowe of the Thomas in 1615. The island was named on Christmas Day 1643 by Captain William Mynors. Its geographic isolation and history of human disturbance has led to a high level of endemism among its flora and fauna. The majority of the island is included in the Christmas Island National Park, Phosphate, deposited originally as guano, has been mined on the island since 1899. Located at 10°30′S 105°40′E, the island is about 19 kilometres in greatest length and 14.5 km in breadth, the total land area is 135 square kilometres, with 138.9 km of coastline. The island is the summit of an underwater mountain more than 4,500 metres high. The mountain was originally a volcano, and some basalt is exposed in places such as The Dales and Dolly Beach, the karst terrain supports numerous anchialine caves. Steep cliffs along much of the coast rise abruptly to a central plateau, elevation ranges from sea level to 361 m at Murray Hill. The island is tropical rainforest, 63% of which is national park land. The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island poses a maritime hazard, Christmas Island lies 2,600 kilometres northwest of Perth, Western Australia,500 km south of Indonesia,975 km ENE of the Cocos Islands, and 2,748 km west of Darwin, Northern Territory. Its closest point to the Australian mainland is 1,560 km from the town of Exmouth, Christmas Island has 80 kilometres of shoreline but only small parts of the shoreline are easily accessible. The islands perimeter is embodied by sharp cliff faces, making many of the beaches difficult to get to. As Christmas Island is located towards the edge of the equatorial region, climate is tropical. The highest temperature is usually around 29 °C in March and April, while the lowest temperature is 23 °C, there is a dry season from July to November with only occasional showers
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Cocos (Keeling) Islands
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The territory consists of two atolls and 27 coral islands, of which two, West Island and Home Island, are inhabited with a total population of approximately 600. The islands have been called the Cocos Islands, the Keeling Islands, the Cocos–Keeling Islands, Cocos refers to the abundant coconut trees, while Keeling is William Keeling, reputedly the first European to sight the islands, in 1609. John Clunies-Ross, who sailed there in the Borneo in 1825, called the group the Borneo Coral Isles, restricting Keeling to North Keeling, the form Cocos Islands, attested from 1916, was made official by the Cocos Islands Act 1955. The climate is pleasant, moderated by the southeast trade winds for about nine months of the year, tropical cyclones may occur in the early months of the year. North Keeling Island is an atoll consisting of just one C-shaped island, the island measures 1.1 square kilometres in land area and is uninhabited. The lagoon is about 0.5 square kilometres, North Keeling Island and the surrounding sea to 1.5 km from shore form the Pulu Keeling National Park, established on 12 December 1995. It is home to the surviving population of the endemic. South Keeling Islands is an atoll consisting of 24 individual islets forming an incomplete atoll ring, only Home Island and West Island are populated. The Cocos Malays maintain weekend shacks, referred to as pondoks, there are no rivers or lakes on either atoll. Fresh water resources are limited to water lenses on the larger islands and these lenses are accessed through shallow bores or wells. Cocos Islands experiences tropical climate according to Köppen climate classification as the archipelago lies approximately in the midway between the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. The archipelago has two distinct precipitation totals between the wet season and the dry season, the wettest month is April with precipitation total 250.0 millimetres, while the driest month is October with precipitation total 50.9 millimetres. The temperature varies a little as its away from the Equator. The hottest month is March with average high temperature 29.8 °C, in 2010, the population of the islands is estimated at just over 600. The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split between the ethnic Europeans on West Island and the ethnic Malays on Home Island. A Cocos dialect of Malay and English are the languages spoken, and 80% of Cocos Islanders are Sunni Muslim. In 1609, Captain William Keeling was the first European to see the islands, while serving in the East India Company, but they remained uninhabited until the 19th century. Hare had previously served as resident of Banjarmasin, a town in Borneo, Clunies-Ross returned two years later with his wife, children and mother-in-law, and found Hare already established on the island and living with a private harem
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Norfolk Island
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The island is part of the Commonwealth of Australia. Together with two neighbouring islands, it one of Australias external territories. It has 1,796 inhabitants living on an area of about 35 km2. Norfolk Island was first settled by East Polynesians but was long unpopulated when it was also settled by Great Britain as part of its settlement of Australia from 1788. The island served as a penal settlement from 6 March 1788 until 5 May 1855. On 8 June 1856, permanent civilian residence on the island began when it was settled from Pitcairn Island, in 1914 the UK handed Norfolk Island over to Australia to administer as an external territory. The evergreen Norfolk Island pine is a symbol of the island, native to the island, the pine is a key export for Norfolk Island, being a popular ornamental tree on mainland Australia, where two related species grow, and also worldwide. Norfolk Island was settled by East Polynesian seafarers either from the Kermadec Islands north of New Zealand or from the North Island of New Zealand and they arrived in the thirteenth or fourteenth century, and survived for several generations before disappearing. The first European known to have sighted and landed on the island was Captain James Cook, on 10 October 1774 and he named it after Mary Howard, Duchess of Norfolk. Sir John Call argued the advantages of Norfolk Island in that it was uninhabited, in 1786 the British government included Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by John Call, in its plan for colonisation of New South Wales. The decision to settle Norfolk Island was taken due to Empress Catherine II of Russias decision to restrict sales of hemp, practically all the hemp and flax required by the Royal Navy for cordage and sailcloth was imported from Russia. They arrived on 6 March 1788, during the first year of the settlement, which was also called Sydney like its parent, more convicts and soldiers were sent to the island from New South Wales. As early as 1794, Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose suggested its closure as a settlement, as it was too remote and difficult for shipping. The first group of left in February 1805, and by 1808 only about 200 remained. A small party remained to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings, so there would be no inducement for anyone, especially from other European powers, to visit. From 15 February 1814 to 6 June 1825 the island was abandoned, in 1824 the British government instructed the Governor of New South Wales, Thomas Brisbane, to occupy Norfolk Island as a place to send the worst description of convicts. Its remoteness, previously seen as a disadvantage, was now viewed as an asset for the detention of recalcitrant male prisoners, furthermore, the overwhelming majority of convicts sent to Norfolk Island had committed non-violent property sentences, and the average length of detention was three years. The second penal settlement began to be wound down by the British government after 1847, the island was abandoned because transportation from the United Kingdom to Van Diemens Land had ceased in 1853, to be replaced by penal servitude in the UK
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Jervis Bay Territory
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The Jervis Bay Territory is a territory of the Commonwealth of Australia. It was surrendered by the state of New South Wales to the Commonwealth Government in 1915 so the capital at Canberra would have access to the sea. It was administered by the Department of the Interior as if it were part of the Australian Capital Territory, although it has always been a separate Commonwealth territory. The perception that it is part of the ACT stems from the fact that under the terms of the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act, the bay was sighted by Lieutenant James Cook aboard HMS Endeavour on 25 April 1770 and he named the southern headland Cape St George. In August 1791 the bay was entered and named by Lieutenant Richard Bowen aboard the transport ship Atlantic of the Third Fleet in honour of Admiral John Jervis. In November 1791 Master Matthew Weatherhead aboard the Matilda entered the bay to undertake repairs, survivors of the Sydney Cove shipwreck in 1797 reached the area by foot, heading to Port Jackson. Explorer George Bass entered the bay on 10 December 1797, John Oxley, an English explorer and surveyor, travelled from Sydney by sea to explore the bay in 1819. Jervis Bay was selected to be that federal port, the crown land in the area was granted by New South Wales to the Commonwealth in 1909 at the same time that the ACT was surrendered to the Commonwealth. In 1915 the jurisdiction over the Jervis Bay Territory was also surrendered to the Commonwealth, NSW also granted to Commonwealth permission to build a rail corridor linking the two territories but this was never implemented. At the 2011 census, an estimated 377 people lived in the territory, the area of land and water owned by the Wreck Bay Aboriginal Community Council in the JBT is approximately 68 km2, which is about 90% of the land. The remaining land in the JBT is managed by the Department of Infrastructure, There is an Aboriginal community at Wreck Bay in the Booderee National Park. Vincentia is the nearest town, roughly 3 km north of the border, Jervis Bay Territory is administered by the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development. However, it is counted as part of the ACT for the purpose of the ACTs representation in the Senate, residents have access to the courts of the ACT, but are not separately represented in the ACT Legislative Assembly. The Jervis Bay Territory is in the Commonwealth Electoral Division of Fenner, Jervis Bay Territory residents are not represented at the local or State government level but have access to the decision-making process through community organisations. Having 65.7 km2 of land and 8.9 km2 marine reserve, Jervis Bay is a natural harbour 16 km north-south and 10 km east-west, opening to the east onto the Pacific Ocean. The bay is situated about 198 km south of the city of Sydney, the nearest city is Nowra, about 40 km on the Shoalhaven River to the north. The majority of Jervis Bay embayment is part of Jervis Bay Marine Park, the park itself encompasses approximately 90% of the territory of Jervis Bay and covers the overlap between Australias northern and southern climatic zones. Ancient sand dunes overlay the bedrock formations formed from upheaval of the surrounding marine environment 280–225 million years ago
39.
People smuggling
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The practice of people smuggling has seen a rise over the past few decades and today now accounts for a significant portion of irregular immigration in countries around the world. In 2015, the civil war in Syria has led to massive displacement. This has also led to unprecedented movements - and deaths - across the Mediterranean, according to UNHCR statistics, there have been almost one million arrivals by sea in Europe in 2015, and more than 2900 dead or missing migrants. According to the IOM Missing Migrants Project, there have more than 3800 deaths during migration around the world in 2015. Unlike human trafficking, people smuggling is characterized by the consent between customer and smuggler - a contractual agreement that typically terminates upon arrival in the destination location, Smuggling operations are complex, working within networks of many individual players. As smuggling operations and its underlying infrastructure becomes increasingly intricate, so do the surrounding the matter of people smuggling. Many individuals who consent to being smuggled are escaping poverty and hardship, seeking opportunities and better conditions abroad, or escaping natural disaster, conflict, while many who are smuggled are poor and uneducated, there are also others who belong to the educated middle class. As such, perhaps the only generalization that can be made about smuggled individuals is that they are all on a quest for a better life, People smuggling operations range from small to large-scale actors operating in a transnational market. Small-scale smugglers generally arrange all aspects of the operations themselves. However, more commonly, smugglers engage and do business within a larger smuggling network where there is a division of work among the actors involved, in the past, smuggling rings tended to be more obscure, amateurish, and limited. As people smuggling has continued to grow, however, smuggling rings are far more extensive, the complexity of the smuggling network is dependent upon the route to be taken and the nature of the journey. For routes that are well-known and tested, smugglers may function more as family enterprises, the more complex the route, however, the more members of the smuggling network must be recruited. In general, the infrastructure of the smuggling business is nontraditional, with no clearly identifiable organization. The network of smugglers is diffused and decentralized, in fact, according to a Los Angeles-based smuggler, The division of labor is really clear and refined. Everyone involved is useful in his own way and does his own thing only, there is no leadership in any smuggling rings. Leadership will not emerge because the work involved is so specialized, given the current political priority around people smuggling, it is perhaps surprising that a concerted international focus on defining and responding to migrant smuggling only occurred in the 1990s. This focus followed sharp rises in irregular migration to the United States, a focus on those who facilitate irregular migration - rather than migrants themselves - was seen as a critical element of any response. The Migrant Smuggling Protocol does not provide a complete or self-contained legal regime
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Fraud
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In law, fraud is deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud itself can be a wrong, a criminal wrong or it may cause no loss of money, property or legal right. The purpose of fraud may be monetary gain or other benefits, a hoax is a distinct concept that involves deliberate deception without the intention of gain or of materially damaging or depriving a victim. In common law jurisdictions, as a wrong, fraud is a tort. Proving fraud in a court of law is said to be difficult. In cases of a fraudulently induced contract, fraud may serve as a defense in an action for breach of contract or specific performance of contract. Fraud may serve as a basis for a court to invoke its equitable jurisdiction, in common law jurisdictions, as a criminal offence, fraud takes many different forms, some general and some specific to particular categories of victims or misconduct. The elements of fraud as a crime similarly vary, section 380 of the Criminal Code provides the general definition for fraud in Canada,380. In addition to the penalties outlined above, the court can issue a prohibition order under s.380.2. It can also make an order under s.380.3. The Canadian courts have held that the offence consists of two elements, A prohibited act of deceit, falsehood or other fraudulent means. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that deprivation is satisfied on proof of detriment, prejudice or risk of prejudice, it is not essential that there be actual loss. Deprivation of confidential information, in the nature of a secret or copyrighted material that has commercial value, has also been held to fall within the scope of the offence. The BBC World Service reported in 2012 that the value lost through fraud in the UK was £66 billion a year. According to a review by the UK anti-fraud charity Fraud Advisory Panel business fraud accounted for £144bn, the FAP has been particularly critical of the support available from the police to victims of fraud in the UK outside of London. In July 2016 it was reported that fraudulent activity levels in the UK increased in the 10 years to 2016 from £52 billion to £193bn. This figure would be an estimate, since as the former commissioner of the City of London Police, Adrian Leppard, has said. Donald Toon, director of the NCAs economic crime command, stated in July 2016, Fraud affects one in ten people in the UK
